Model
Affiliation
Background
Basic Features
and Key
Components
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
Matrix of Acute Crisis Interventions Models
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN); National
Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (NCPTSD); Funded
by SAMHSA.
American Red Cross
References to PFA approaches extend over 50 years in
disaster mental health and crisis response literature, with the
first reference as early as the 1950s. On October 29–
November 1, 2001 the U.S. Departments of Health and
Human Services, Defense, Veterans Affairs, and Justice and
the American Red Cross convened a meeting titled EvidencedBased Early Psychological Intervention for Victims/Survivors
of Mass Violence: A Workshop to Reach Consensus on Best
Practices. PFA was identified as a key aspect of early
psychological intervention.1
The American Red Cross was one of the
early collaborators on the PFA model.
The organization developed its version
for lay responders to support survivors
and workers in all disaster relief settings.
It is available to partner response
organizations on a case-by-case basis at
one of the 600 Red Cross chapters across
the country.
Subsequently, SAMHSA supported the development of PFA
to replace interventions not supported by the literature, such as
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing. To kick off this initiative,
SAMHSA supported an expert review panel meeting held
March 31–April 1, 2005. NCTSN and NCPTSD released the
SAMHSA-funded Psychological First Aid Field Operations
Guide, First Edition after Hurricane Katrina, and since then a
SAMHSA-funded second edition has been released by
NCTSN and NCPTSD. 2,3 PFA has since been extensively
used in response to large- and small-scale disasters, nationally
and internationally. The model is also consistent with Federal
Emergency Management Agency-funded and SAMHSAadministered Crisis Counseling Assistance and Training
Program interventions.
“PFA is an evidence-informed modular approach to assist
children, adolescents, adults, and families in the immediate
aftermath of disaster or terrorism.” 5 This model is consistent
with the five essential elements of disaster behavioral health
and trauma acute and mid-term intervention principles.6 The
model reduces initial distress and fosters short- and long-term
adaptive functioning and coping. 7,8
PFA intervention strategies address eight core actions: 9
● Contact and engagement
● Safety and comfort
● Stabilization
● Information gathering: current needs and concerns
Created 1/14/2011 (Revised 2/11/2011)
The American Red Cross defines PFA as
follows: “The practice of recognizing and
responding to people who need help
because they are feeling stress, resulting
from the disaster situations within which
they find themselves.” 11
PFA intervention strategies address 12
actions:
● Making a connection
● Helping people be safe
● Being kind, calm, and
compassionate
Mental Health First Aid USA
(MHFA)
National Council for Community Behavioral
Healthcare, Maryland Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene, Missouri Department of
Mental Health
Mental Health First Aid was developed in 2001
by Anthony Jorm, a mental health literacy
professor, and Betty Kitchener, a nurse
specializing in health education. The program is
centered at the ORYGEN Research Centere at
the University of Melbourne in, Australia. The
National Council for Community Behavioral
Healthcare, the Maryland State Department of
Health and Mental Hygiene, and the Missouri
Department of Mental Health worked with the
program’s founders to bring Mental Health First
Aid to the U.S. Currently, Mental Health First
Aid has been replicated in 14 countries,
including England, Scotland, Finland, Canada,
Cambodia, Hong Kong, Ireland, Wales, and
Singapore.4
MHFA training helps a layperson assist
someone experiencing a mental health crisis,
such as contemplating suicide, with the goal to
help support an individual until appropriate
professional help arrives. People who practice
MHFA learn a five-step strategy that includes
assessing risk, respectfully listening to and
supporting the individual in crisis, and
identifying appropriate professional help and
other supports. Participants are also introduced
to risk factors and warning signs for mental
health or substance use problems, and they
engage in experiential activities that build
Model
Affiliation
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
Matrix of Acute Crisis Interventions Models
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN); National
Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (NCPTSD); Funded
by SAMHSA.
●
●
●
●
American Red Cross
●
●
●
●
●
●
Practical assistance
Connection with social supports
Information on coping
Linkage with collaborative services
The eight core actions above must meet the following
standards: 10
● Consistent with research evidence on risk and
resilience following trauma
● Applicable and practical in field settings
● Appropriate for developmental levels across the life
span
● Culturally informed and delivered in a flexible
manner
●
●
●
Meeting people’s basic needs
Listening
Giving realistic assurance
Encouraging good coping
Helping people connect
Giving accurate and timely
information
Making a referral to a disaster
mental health worker
Ending the conversation
Taking care of yourself
One key difference between the American
Red Cross PFA model and other PFA
models is the American Red Cross use of
the proprietary Psychological Simple
Triage and Rapid Treatment (PsySTART)
system. According to the American Red
Cross, PsySTART is evidence-informed
and facilitates behavioral health triage by
all disaster behavioral health responders.
Mental Health First Aid USA
(MHFA)
National Council for Community Behavioral
Healthcare, Maryland Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene, Missouri Department of
Mental Health
understanding of the impact of illness on
individuals and families. They also learn about
treatment and self-help strategies.14
The following are suggested as the MHFA
action plan: 15
●
●
●
●
●
Assess for risk, suicide, or harm
Listen non-judgmentally
Give reassurance and information
Encourage appropriate professional
help
Encourage self-help and other support
strategies
12,13
EvidenceInformed for
Use With
Survivors of
Disaster or
Terrorism?
The model is evidence-informed for survivors of disaster or
terrorism. The model “is supported by mental health and other
disaster response workers as the ‘acute intervention of choice’
when responding to the psychosocial needs of children, adults,
and families affected by disaster or terrorism.” 16
“Because many of the components have been guided by
research, there is consensus among experts that these
components provide effective ways to help survivors manage
post-disaster distress and adversities, and to identify those
who may require additional services.” 17
One study examined the perceptions of providers who utilized
PFA in response to a disaster. Study participants included 50
individuals who utilized PFA in their response to Hurricane
Gustav or Ike. Findings indicated that participation in PFA
Created 1/14/2011 (Revised 2/11/2011)
According to the American Red Cross,
American Red Cross PFA actions are
evidence-informed for use with survivors
of disaster or terrorism.19
The model is not evidence-informed specifically
for use with survivors of disaster or terrorism.
Five published studies in Australia indicate the
program saves lives, improves the mental health
of the individual administering care and the one
receiving it, expands knowledge of mental
illnesses and treatments, increases the services
provided, and reduces overall stigma by
improving mental health literacy. The University
of Maryland, through SAMHSA funding, will be
assessing the fidelity of the U.S. implementation
to the original model. 20
National Registry of Evidenced-based Programs
and Practices application is pending.
Model
Affiliation
When Can This
Be Used?
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
Matrix of Acute Crisis Interventions Models
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN); National
Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (NCPTSD); Funded
by SAMHSA.
training was perceived to increase confidence in working with
adults and children. PFA was not seen as harmful to survivors
and was perceived as an appropriate intervention for
responding in the aftermath of hurricanes. 18
This model is designed to be used in the acute aftermath (e.g.,
the first few days or weeks) of a disaster or terrorism incident.
The time of use will be longer for disasters with considerable
community resource loss.21
Target Audience Audiences include children, adolescents, parents/caregivers,
for Intervention families, and adults exposed to disaster, terrorism, or mass
violence. PFA interventions can also be provided to special
populations such as first responders and disaster relief
workers. 25,26
Translations are available in Spanish, Simplified Chinese,
Italian, Mandarin, and Japanese. Adaptations also exist for
community religious professionals, the Medical Reserve
Corps, school personnel, and staff at nursing homes and
homeless shelters for youth and families. 27,28
Appropriate
Locations for
Use
Clinical vs.
Nonclinical;
Professional vs.
PFA can be provided in diverse settings including “general
population shelters, special needs shelters, field hospitals and
medical triage areas, acute care facilities (e.g., emergency
departments), staging areas or respite centers for first
responders or other relief workers, emergency operations
centers, crisis hotlines or phone banks, feeding locations,
disaster assistance service centers, family reception and
assistance centers, homes, businesses, and other community
settings (schools, homeless shelters).” 31
Nonclinical. This is a non-diagnostic, public health, outreachoriented approach which does not presume the presence of
mental illness.
For use by lay responders, paraprofessionals, and
professionals. 33
Created 1/14/2011 (Revised 2/11/2011)
American Red Cross
Mental Health First Aid USA
(MHFA)
National Council for Community Behavioral
Healthcare, Maryland Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene, Missouri Department of
Mental Health
Intended for use across all phases of
disaster. 22,23
Designed for disaster survivors receiving
services by American Red Cross
workers.29 However, the disaster relief
settings (e.g., shelters, outreach teams,
etc.) are applicable across disaster
response organizations, and the exercise
scenarios can be adapted to non-Red
Cross settings.
Designed to be used at any point a person needs
to provide help to someone who may be in a
mental health crisis. (This is not specific to
disaster or terrorism events.) 24This program is
primarily a prevention and early-intervention
program.
The core program is tailored for response to the
general adult population experiencing a mental
health crisis.
The program is designed to be used in responses
provided and work performed by primary care
professionals, employers and business leaders,
faith communities, school personnel, and
educators, State police and corrections officers,
nursing home staff, mental health authorities,
State policymakers, volunteers, young people,
families, and the general public.30
Designed specifically for use by all
American Red Cross personnel wherever
they are responding. 32
Designed for use in general community, family,
and organizational settings.
Nonclinical. This is a non-diagnostic,
public health, outreach-oriented approach
which does not presume the presence of
mental illness.
Clinical. Although this model is primarily for
paraprofessionals, the focus is on education on
the diagnostic signs of serious mental illness and
intervention so that appropriate referrals can be
made for clinical treatment or other supports. 35
For use by lay responders,
Model
Affiliation
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
Matrix of Acute Crisis Interventions Models
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN); National
Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (NCPTSD); Funded
by SAMHSA.
American Red Cross
paraprofessionals, and professionals. 34
Paraprofessional
Mental Health First Aid USA
(MHFA)
National Council for Community Behavioral
Healthcare, Maryland Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene, Missouri Department of
Mental Health
Primarily for use by paraprofessionals. It is
designed for the general public. The model does
not teach diagnosis or treatment strategies, but
rather triage and peer assistance.
Who
Administers
This
Intervention?
Disaster response workers who provide early assistance to
disaster/trauma survivors can provide PFA. The model is
appropriate for a “variety of response units including first
responder teams, incident command systems, primary and
emergency health care, school crisis response teams, faithbased organizations, Community Emergency Response
Teams, Medical Reserve Corps, the Citizens Corps, and other
disaster relief organizations.” 36
American Red Cross lay providers,
paraprofessionals, and licensed American
Red Cross mental health professionals.37
MHFA has trained and certified instructors from
community mental health and addictions
treatment organizations, State departments of
health, universities, hospitals, federally qualified
health centers, faith-based organizations, police
and criminal justice, developmental disability
centers, mental health authorities, other mental
health advocacy organizations including Mental
Health America and National Alliance on
Mental Illness affiliates, and independent
trainers. These instructors, in turn, deliver the
course to their colleagues, individuals affiliated
with other community organizations, or the
general public. 38
Training
(Including Cost,
Audience, and
Location)
The following PFA training and educational resources are
available. All resources are free, can be provided for both
paraprofessionals and professionals, and include both inperson and online training.
Training is free and is offered by select
American Red Cross chapters. The three
American Red Cross PFA training
courses include the following: 39
● Psychological First Aid:
Helping Others in Times of
Stress
● Coping with Deployments:
Psychological First Aid for
Military Families
● Coping in Today's World:
Psychological First Aid and
Resilience for Families, Friends,
and Neighbors (currently
available only as a pilot in the
Gulf region and in the San
Diego, CA and San Bruno, CA
The MHFA program runs 12 hours and is
offered in a variety of formats. Most often, it
is conducted as one 2-day seminar, two 1-day
events spaced over a short period of time, or as
four 3-hour sessions. MHFA courses are being
scheduled across the country, and currently
available courses can be found by visiting
http://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/current_cou
rses.php. Training fees vary depending on
location and number of meals provided (some
courses are free; others charge up to $170). 40
●
Psychological First Aid Online
http://learn.nctsn.org/course/category.php?id=11.
This NCTSN 6-hour interactive course provides
training on all PFA core actions as well as video
demonstrations and tips from trauma experts and
survivors. It is designed for novices and for those
experienced in disaster response. In addition to
SAMHSA, this course was also funded by NCPTSD
and National Association of County and City Health
Officials (NACCHO). The funding from NACCHO
was provided through the Cooperative Agreement
No. MRCSG061001 awarded by the HHS Office of
Created 1/14/2011 (Revised 2/11/2011)
Model
Affiliation
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
Matrix of Acute Crisis Interventions Models
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN); National
Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (NCPTSD); Funded
by SAMHSA.
the Surgeon General, Office of the Civilian Volunteer
Medical Reserve Corps.
●
Trainings offered through NCTSN.
●
Psychological First Aid Field Operations Guide,
Second Edition
http://www.nctsnet.org/nccts/nav.do?pid=typ_terr_re
sources_pfa and
http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/manuals/psychfirst-aid.asp.
This comprehensive guide provides an overview of
the use of PFA, as well as detailed information on the
eight core actions; sample PFA responses with
children, youths and adults; and handouts for PFA
providers and disaster/terrorism survivors. This guide
has been translated into Spanish, Italian, Mandarin,
Simplified Chinese, and Japanese.
●
Other resources
http://www.nctsnet.org/nccts/nav.do?pid=typ_terr_re
sources_pfa.
These resources include Psychological First Aid for
Community Religious Professionals, which was
developed NCTSN, NCPTSD, HealthCare
Chaplaincy, and Fuller Theological Seminary;
Psychological First Aid for Youth Experiencing
Homelessness, which was developed by NCTSN and
Hollywood Homeless Youth Partnership;
Psychological First Aid for Families Experiencing
Homelessness, which was developed by NCTSN and
Ambit Network; PFA for Medical Reserve Corps;
and PFA for Schools.
●
PFA videos are available on YouTube.com based on
training delivered by the Colorado Division of
Behavioral Health.
●
SAMHSA Chimera Cast video series Fundamentals
of Disaster Planning and Response
Created 1/14/2011 (Revised 2/11/2011)
American Red Cross
Mental Health First Aid USA
(MHFA)
National Council for Community Behavioral
Healthcare, Maryland Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene, Missouri Department of
Mental Health
communities)
Model
Affiliation
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
Matrix of Acute Crisis Interventions Models
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN); National
Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (NCPTSD); Funded
by SAMHSA.
●
Responding to Crisis in the Aftermath of Disasters
DVD series
http://learn.nctsn.org.
This series, developed by NCTSN and NCPTSD,
contains 16 educational vignettes to teach
professionals and paraprofessionals intervention
strategies with children and adults after a terrorist
event or disaster. The topics include problem-solving,
cognitive restructuring, psychoeducation, traumatic
grief, traumatic reminders, classroom intervention,
parenting, assessment, and anxiety management.
●
NCTSN developed a PFA Learning Community to
promote adoption by a variety of organizations and
agencies that participate in disaster response and to
increase sustainability of PFA practices within these
organizations. For more information regarding PFA
learning communities, contact the NCTSN.
Created 1/14/2011 (Revised 2/11/2011)
American Red Cross
Mental Health First Aid USA
(MHFA)
National Council for Community Behavioral
Healthcare, Maryland Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene, Missouri Department of
Mental Health
Matrix of Acute Crisis Interventions Models
1
National Institute of Mental Health. (2002). Mental health and mass violence: Evidence-based early psychological intervention for victims/survivors of mass violence (NIMH
Publication No. 02-5138). Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health.
2
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD).
(2006). Psychological first aid: field operations guide (2nd ed.). Available on http://www.nctsn.org and http://www.ncptsd.va.gov.
3
Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/dialogue/Dialogue_Vol6_Issue2.pdf.
4
Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/cs/faqs.
5
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD).
(2006). Psychological first aid: field operations guide (2nd ed.). Available on http://www.nctsn.org and http://www.ncptsd.va.gov.
6
Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P. J., Bell, C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M., Friedman, M. J., et al. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention:
Empirical evidence. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 70(4), 283–315.
7
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD).
(2006). Psychological first aid: field operations guide (2nd ed.). Available on http://www.nctsn.org and http://www.ncptsd.va.gov.
8
Uhernik, J. A., & Husson, M. A. (2009). Psychological first aid: An evidence informed approach for acute disaster behavioral health response. In G. R. Walz, J. C. Bleuer, & R.
K. Yep (Eds.), Compelling counseling interventions: VISTAS 2009 (pp. 271–280). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
9
Allen, B., Brymer, M. J., Steinberg, A. M., Vernberg, E. M., Jacobs, A, Speier A, & Pynoos, R. S. (2010). Perceptions of use of psychological first aid among providers
responding to Hurricanes Gustav and Ike. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 509–513.
10
Allen, B., Brymer, M. J., Steinberg, A. M., Vernberg, E. M., Jacobs, A, Speier A, & Pynoos, R. S. (2010). Perceptions of use of psychological first aid among providers
responding to Hurricanes Gustav and Ike. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 509–513.
11
American Red Cross. (2006, July). Psychological first aid: Helping others in times of stress. PowerPoint presentation.
12
American Red Cross. (2006, July). Psychological first aid: Helping others in times of stress. PowerPoint presentation.
13
Hughes, L. (2009). Psychological first aid (PFA): Models, applications, and training. Presented at the SAMHSA All-Hazards Disaster Behavioral Health: Optimizing
Psychological Resiliency in Difficult Economic Times conference, Bethesda, MD.
14
Retrieved from http://www.bertnash.org/services/MentalHealthFirstAid.html.
15
Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/cs/first_aid_strategies.
16
Allen, B., Brymer, M. J., Steinberg, A. M., Vernberg, E. M., Jacobs, A, Speier A, & Pynoos, R. S. (2010). Perceptions of use of psychological first aid among providers
responding to Hurricanes Gustav and Ike. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 509–513.
17
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD).
(2006). Psychological first aid: field operations guide (2nd ed.). Available on http://www.nctsn.org and http://www.ncptsd.va.gov.
18
Allen, B., Brymer, M. J., Steinberg, A. M., Vernberg, E. M., Jacobs, A, Speier A, & Pynoos, R. S. (2010). Perceptions of use of psychological first aid among providers
responding to Hurricanes Gustav and Ike. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 509–513.
Created 1/14/2011 (Revised 2/11/2011)
Matrix of Acute Crisis Interventions Models
19
Hughes, L. (2009). Psychological first aid (PFA): Models, applications, and training. Presented at the SAMHSA All-Hazards Disaster Behavioral Health: Optimizing
Psychological Resiliency in Difficult Economic Times conference, Bethesda, MD.
20
Retrieved from http://www.co.merced.ca.us/documents/Mental%20Health/MHSA%20Innovation/Community%20Input/HH_Innovative_Strategy_Suggestions_Final.pdf.
21
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD).
(2006). Psychological first aid: field operations guide (2nd ed.). Available on http://www.nctsn.org and http://www.ncptsd.va.gov.
22
American Red Cross. (2006, July). Psychological first aid: Helping others in times of stress. PowerPoint presentation.
23
Hughes, L. (2009). Psychological first aid (PFA): Models, applications, and training. Presented at the SAMHSA All-Hazards Disaster Behavioral Health: Optimizing
Psychological Resiliency in Difficult Economic Times conference, Bethesda, MD.
24
Retrieved from http://www.nami.org/Content/Microsites184/NAMI_Virginia/Home172/Resources194/PsychiatricCrisisBrochureNAMI.pdf.
25
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD).
(2006). Psychological first aid: field operations guide (2nd ed.). Available on http://www.nctsn.org and http://www.ncptsd.va.gov.
26
Uhernik, J. A., & Husson, M. A. (2009). Psychological first aid: An evidence informed approach for acute disaster behavioral health response. In G. R. Walz, J. C. Bleuer, & R.
K. Yep (Eds.), Compelling counseling interventions: VISTAS 2009 (pp. 271–280). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
27
Retrieved from http://www.nctsnet.org/nccts/nav.do?pid=typ_terr_resources_pfa.
28
Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/dialogue/Dialogue_Vol6_Issue2.pdf.
29
American Red Cross. (2006, July). Psychological first aid: Helping others in times of stress. PowerPoint presentation.
30
Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org.
31
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD).
(2006). Psychological first aid: field operations guide (2nd ed.). Available on http://www.nctsn.org and http://www.ncptsd.va.gov.
32
Hughes, L. (2009). Psychological first aid (PFA): Models, applications, and training. Presented at the SAMHSA All-Hazards Disaster Behavioral Health: Optimizing
Psychological Resiliency in Difficult Economic Times conference, Bethesda, MD.
33
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD).
(2006). Psychological first aid: field operations guide (2nd ed.). Available on http://www.nctsn.org and http://www.ncptsd.va.gov.
34
Hughes, L. (2009). Psychological first aid (PFA): Models, applications, and training. Presented at the SAMHSA All-Hazards Disaster Behavioral Health: Optimizing
Psychological Resiliency in Difficult Economic Times conference, Bethesda, MD.
35
Retrieved from http://www.nami.org/Content/Microsites184/NAMI_Virginia/Home172/Resources194/PsychiatricCrisisBrochureNAMI.pdf.
36
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD).
(2006). Psychological first aid: field operations guide (2nd ed.). Available on http://www.nctsn.org and http://www.ncptsd.va.gov.
37
Hughes, L. (2009). Psychological first aid (PFA): Models, applications, and training. Presented at the SAMHSA All-Hazards Disaster Behavioral Health: Optimizing
Psychological Resiliency in Difficult Economic Times conference, Bethesda, MD.
38
Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/cs/become_an_instructor.
39
M. Schreiber, personal communication, January 13, 2011.
Created 1/14/2011 (Revised 2/11/2011)
Matrix of Acute Crisis Interventions Models
40
Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/cs/faqs.
Created 1/14/2011 (Revised 2/11/2011)