Rhetoric Grammar Packe t #1:
The Most Common Error:
Punctua tion
The Comma Splice
A comma splice, a type of run-on sentence, is two or more independent
clauses joined by a comma.
YOU CAN NEVER, EVER JOIN TWO INDEPENDENT
CLAUSES WITH JUST A COMMA.
Correcting Comma Splices
I was swimming very hard, the tide was against me.
Option 1: Create two separate sentences.
I was swimming very hard. The tide was against me.
Option 2: Separate the two independent clauses with a semicolon.
I was swimming very hard; the tide was against me.
Option 3: Add a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, for, nor,
yet) and a
comma.
I was swimming very hard, but the tide was against me.
Option 4: Change one independent clause into a dependent clause.
Although I was swimming very hard, the tide was against me.
Commas
Although there may seem to be many uses for the comma, there are
basically only two. Commas are used to separate items and to enclose
items.
Commas are used to prevent confusion and to keep items from running
into one another. The following are some specific rules for commas
that are used to separate items.
1. Use commas to separate items in a series.
Three or more similar items together form a series.
composed of words, phrases, or clauses.
A series can be
WORDS;
Blackberries, raspberries, and strawberries are all members
of the rose family. [nouns]
Anita will sing, dance, and tell jokes. [verbs]
We were tired, dirty, and wet. [adjectives]
PHRASES:
The cat could be in the closet, under the bed, or behind the
couch.
CLAUSES:
We don’t know when we are leaving, where we are going, or
what we should take.
*Exception: When conjunctions (such as ‘and’) connect all the items
in a series, no commas are needed.
We pushed and shoved and fought our way out of the toy
department.
*Exception: Some pairs of words, such as bacon and eggs, are thought
of as a single item. If one of these pairs of words appears in a
series, consider it one item.
For dinner you could have franks and beans, fish and chips, or
pork and sauerkraut.
Add commas where necessary:
1. Could you tell me when the library opens where it is and how I can
get there?
2. Alan Shepard John Glenn and Sally Ride are famous American
astronauts.
3. Two Adamses and two Harrisons and two Roosevelts have been
president.
4. How did you get your jacket shoes socks and jeans so muddy?
5. My cousin Shawn practices the tuba in the morning during the late
afternoon and at night.
2. Use a comma sometimes to separate two adjectives that
precede a noun and are not joined by a conjunction.
If a conjunction is missing between two adjectives that come before a
noun, a comma is sometimes used to take its place.
The rabbits disappeared into the tall, dry grass.
Here’s a test that can help you decide if a comma is needed between
two adjectives: if the sentence reads sensibly with and between the
adjectives, a comma is needed.
COMMA NEEDED:
reads well.]
Today was a damp, dismal day. [A damp and dismal day
COMMA NOT NEEDED: Today was a damp spring day.
day does not read well.]
[A damp and spring
Add commas where necessary:
1. Zip is the biggest strongest dog on the block.
2. My mother just bought a musical German clock.
3. We store tools in a sturdy wooden box.
4. Mr. Roberts is the tall dignified man in the blue suit.
5. Their quiet peaceful home was the never the same after the arrival
of the two frisky kittens.
3. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses if the
clauses are joined by a conjunction (such as and, nor, or,
but, so, for, yet).
A comma is usually used to separate the independent clauses in a
compound sentence.
Don’t tease the dog, or it may bite you.
I play the flute, and my sister plays the cello.
Exception:
A comma is not needed in a very short compound sentence.
Jenny left but I stayed.
Add commas where necessary:
1. The gorilla looks fierce but it is a rather gentle animal.
2. You wash and I’ll dry.
3. The squirrel ran up the drainpipe and darted across the road.
4. Drifting snow can stall an automobile and bury it in a very short
period of time.
5. Poison ivy is dangerous but it is easily recognized.
4. Use a comma after certain introductory elements (usually
when a pause in the sentence is required).
Some words, phrases, and clauses at the beginning of a sentence need
to be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
WORDS:
PHRASES:
No, I cannot attend the meeting.
After the earthquake in town, we all helped each other.
Hearing the noise outside, I rushed to the window.
In Room 47, students were studying.
DEPENDENT CLAUSES:
As Toby walked closer, the cat hissed at him.
Add commas where necessary:
1. Above a glider soared gracefully.
2. Yes that is a wonderful idea.
3. Deciding the trail was too steep the hikers turned back.
4. No announcement was made prior to the meeting.
5. Waving to Mary Sue got on the bus.
Some expressions interrupt the flow of a sentence. These expressions
generally add information that is not needed to understand the main
idea of the sentence. If one of these interrupters comes in the middle
of a sentence, a comma is placed before and after the expression to
set it off.
The movie, to tell the truth, was rather boring.
Sometimes an interrupting expression comes at the beginning or the end
of a sentence. When an interrupter appears in one of these places,
only one comma is needed to separate it from the rest of the sentence.
To tell the truth, the movie was rather boring.
The movie was rather boring, to tell the truth.
5.
Use commas to enclose nouns of direct address.
Names, titles, or words that are used to address someone are set off
by commas. These expressions are called nouns of direct address.
Kathy, may I borrow your camera?
Your essay, Scott, was excellent.
Have you had dinner, Sarah?
Add commas where necessary:
1. What’s for dinner tonight Mom?
2. Ladies and gentlemen please be seated.
3. I’ll give you the list Tim at Saturday’s meeting.
4. Joan did I leave my books at your house?
5. In ten minutes class you should put your books on my desk.
6.
Use commas to enclose parenthetical expressions.
A parenthetical expression provides additional information or related
ideas. It is related only loosely to the rest of the sentence. The
word or words that make up a parenthetical expression could be removed
without changing the meaning of the sentence.
By the way, did you buy a newspaper?
The movie, in my opinion, was very realistic.
We’ll attend the meeting, I guess.
According to this article, only thirty percent of Americans
exercise regularly.
Nashville, not Knoxville, is the capital of Tennessee.
Add commas where necessary:
1. A fly’s taste buds surprisingly enough are located in its feet.
2. Ostriches for instance have wings but cannot fly.
3. Jefferson was the third president not the second.
4. Nina like her two brothers is good in math.
7. Use commas to enclose most appositive phrases.
An appositive is a phrase that identifies or explains a noun or
pronoun in the sentence.
The old firehouse, a town landmark, is being restored.
Aerobics, a type of exercise, is fun to do.
Hanna received a wonderful present, a down vest.
EXCEPTION: Commas are not used if an appositive identifies a person
or thing by telling which one or ones. Usually these appositives are
names and have no modifiers.
My sister Barbara will travel to Ohio with me.
The book Oliver Twist was written by Charles Dickens.
We students want more time on the computers.
Add commas where necessary:
1. Antarctica a large mass of land wasn’t really explored until the
twentieth century.
2. The name Caroline means “strong.”
3. Zachary Taylor the twelfth president never voted in his life.
4. The novelist Rudyard Kipling wrote Kim.
5. I just bought a new thesaurus a most useful reference book.
8.
Use commas to set off nonessential phrases and clauses.
A phrase or a clause is nonessential if it provides extra, unnecessary
information. If the phrase or clause were dropped, the main idea of
the sentence would not be changed.
NONESSENTIAL: Three inches is the annual rainfall in Yuma,
Arizona, which is in the southwestern part of the state.
Three inches is the annual rainfall in Yuma, Arizona.
If a phrase or clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no
commas are used. Essential phrases and clauses usually identify a
person or thing and answer the question Which one?
Never place a
comma before a phrase beginning with that.
ESSENTIAL:
We enjoyed the film playing at the Plaza Theater.
ESSENTIAL:
sister.
ESSENTIAL:
torn down.
The runner who crossed the finish line second is my
The house that has stood for years on the corner will be
Add commas where necessary:
1. Home-grown vegetables that are not properly canned can cause
botulism.
2. We saw two bear cubs hiding in a hollow tree.
3. Curling which resembles bowling is played on ice.
4.
Ogunquit which is on the ocean is a resort town in southern Maine
Unnecessary Commas
1. Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction
that joins only two words, phrases, or dependent clauses.
Isak Dinesen married a Danish baron and subsequently moved to
Africa.
(subsequently moved to Africa is not an independent clause;
therefore, no comma is needed.)
I asked for advice first from my classmates and then from
Professor Bakerman.
(then from Prof. Bakerman is not an indep. clause; therefore, no
comma is needed.)
2. Do not use a comma before the first or after the last
item in a series.
Carla began attending exercise classes to build her stamina, to
lose weight, and to tone her muscles.
Time, U.S. News & World Report, and Newsweek are the most popular
weekly magazines in America.
3. Do not use a comma between an adjective or adverb and
the word it modifies.
An especially talented pianist opened the recital.
4. Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements in
sentences.
Barbra Streisand’s song “Evergreen” won an Oscar in 1977.
(No commas because song title is necessary for sentence clarity).
5.
Do not use a comma before an expression in parentheses.
When a comma is necessary with a parenthetical expression, it should
follow the closing parenthesis.
In hopes of graduating early, Brian took six English classes
(English 307, 320, 337, 339, 412, and 445), but he could not
manage the reading.
6. Do not use a comma before either an indirect or a direct
quotation introduced by that.
Marcos
Marcos
Wasn’t
across
said that he will someday return to the Philippines.
said, “I will someday return to the Philippines.”
it Churchill who said that “an iron curtain has descended
the Continent”?
7. Do not place a comma after either a question mark or an
exclamation point in a direct quotation.
Question marks and exclamation points replace the commas that are
frequently required with direct quotations.
“Will we never recover from the wounds created by the Vietnam
War?” asked Representative Martin.
Remove unnecessary commas from the following sentences.
1. Sandy Koufax was named Most Valuable Player of the World Series in
1963, and in 1965.
2. Two American cities, (Chicago, and New York City) each employ more
than ten thousand police officers.
3. The geriatrician said, the symptoms suggest that Uncle Rupert
probably has Alzheimer’s disease.
4. Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport, is the busiest airport in
the United States.
5. Since early 1982, the copper penny has been gradually replaced, by a
copper-plated zinc coin.
6. California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio, each
distributes over $1.5 million annually in unemployment benefits.
Semicolons
1. Use a semicolon to join closely related independent
clauses that are not connected by a coordinating conjunction
(and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet).
CORRECT:
Ken's favorite sport is tennis, but mine is hockey.
CORRECT:
Ken's favorite sport is tennis; mine is hockey.
CORRECT:
A mosquito bite is not a bite; it is a puncture.
INCORRECT:
painful.
A mosquito bite is not a bite; mosquito bites can be
2. When 2 independent clauses are joined by transitional
words such as however, nevertheless, for instance,
furthermore, etc., put a semicolon before the transitional
word and put a comma after it.
The weather was perfect; nevertheless, I stayed indoors and
studied.
The camping trip was fun; for instance, we swam each day in the
lake.
3. Use a semicolon to separate three or more items in a
series when one or more of the items contain internal
commas.
In their essays, students commented on The Fire Next Time, an
essay-novel by James Baldwin; Soul on Ice, a polemic by Eldrige
Cleaver; and Anger and Beyond, a collection of critical essays
edited by Herbert Hill.
1. Panama hats are not made in Panama most are made in Ecuador.
2. Over 60,000 deaths a year result from high blood pressure
nevertheless, most are avoidable.
3. The American jay is bright blue however, its Canadian cousin is
gray.
4. Lee was elected president furthermore, she was elected by a
unanimous vote.
5. Irrigation is used on many farms in fertile areas moreover, it is
an absolute necessity in desert areas.
6. The first baseball catcher's mask was worn in 1875 the first chest
protector was used in 1885.
7. The Kennedys, nevertheless, were able to join us for dessert.
8. The Democratic party considered Dallas, Texas, Chicago, Illinois,
Atlanta, Georgia, Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles, California for
its national convention.
Colons
1. Use a colon before a list of items.
All volunteers will need the following: a notebook, a pen, and a
comfortable pair of walking shoes.
There are four methods of catching fish: hooking, netting,
spearing, and trapping.
2.
Never use a colon directly after a verb.
Incorrect: My three favorite subjects are: math, science, and
Spanish.
Correct: My three favorite subjects are math, science, and
Spanish.
3.
Never use a colon after a preposition.
Incorrect:
King, Chang
Correct: I
Chang An’s,
I have worked at many restaurants, such as: Burger
An’s, and Legal Seafood.
have worked at many restaurants, such as Burger King,
and Legal Seafood.
4. Selectively use a colon between two independent clauses
when the second explains the first.
Except for differences in the subject matter, the rules of
grammar are like the laws of chemistry: they are generalizations
describing accepted principles of operation.
5. Use a colon to emphasize an appositive that comes at the
end of a sentence.
Marlow and Shakespeare introduced the dramatic use of blank
verse: unrhymed iambic pentameter.
6.
Use a colon in place of a comma to introduce or
emphasize a long quotation.
Churchill concluded an eloquent speech with this visionary
statement: “Out of the depths of sorrow and sacrifice will be
born again the glory of mankind.”
Add semicolons, colons, and commas to the following sentences as
needed.
1. Cargo planes carry almost anything white mice toupees and even small
private planes.
2. Infertility counselor Roselle Shubin made this epigrammatic comment
on parenthood, “There is more to being a mother than giving birth,
and more to being a father than impregnating a woman.”
3. The movie however was much too long.
4. I didn’t win the marathon nevertheless running in it was a good
experience.
5. While you’re at the drugstore please buy aspirin toothpaste and
cotton balls.
6. Termites are not related to ants they are part of the cockroach
family.
7. The forecast predicted rain however the sun shone all day.
8. For the hike you should bring the following a snack a canteen of
water and suntan lotion.
9. The ocean floor is divided into three main regions continental shelf
slope and abyss.
10. I’ve been very busy taking care of two rabbits one cat three dogs
and a turtle.
11.
I have relatives in Kentucky Utah and Arizona.
Dashes
A dash (made in typing with two hyphens with no space between or
before or after them) serves a number of purposes in punctuating
sentences. But it should be used with restraint because if overused
the dash can become distracting and will lose its impact.
1. Use dashes to set off appositives that contain commas in
midsentence.
Five states – Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, and
Wisconsin – share borders with Illinois.
2. Use a dash to set off a series that introduces or ends a
sentence.
Beaumont, Fletcher, Jonson, Kyd, Marlow, and Webster – these
dramatists were respected contemporaries of Shakespeare.
3. Use dashes to set off interpretations, evaluations, or
interruptions.
This answer – if we can call it an answer – is completely
meaningless.
This answer is completely meaningless – if we can call it an
answer.
Using dashes, revise these sentences.
1. In 1755, roughly 4,000 Acadians settlers in Nova Scotia, Canada,
were forcibly relocated to Louisiana.
2. Mali, Niger, and Nigeria these are the countries through which the
river Niger flows.
3. Sagamore Hill, Theodore Roosevelt’s home at Oyster Bay, New York,
became a national memorial in 1962.