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CHEMICAL
LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION
LECTURE 1
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CHEMICAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION ~ 1st LEVEL
CHEMICALS & CELLS
Cells are the smallest unit of life ~ “building blocks”
Human Body has billions of cells ~ 100’s of different types
MANY types of Chemical Reactions takes place in cells
Metabolic Processes . . . Growth . . . Repair
Inorganic Compounds ~ NO C & H ~ very small
Involved in Function Only . . . NOT Structure
NaCl
H2O
Acids
Bases
Salts
Organic Compounds ~ BOTH C & H ~ most very large
Involved in BOTH Structure & Function
Carbohydrates
Lipids ~ Fats
Proteins
Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)
High Energy Bonds (ATP)
Chemistry ~ deals with the structure of “Matter”
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COMPOSITION OF MATTER
Anything that has mass & occupies space
All matter ~ Gas … Liquids … Solids ~ composed of “atoms”
ATOMS ~ Smallest stable unit of matter
ELEMENTS ~ 26 in body
(110+ Known)
Made of atoms ~ CANNOT be further broken down into
simpler substances ~ very stable
Four elements ~ 95% of body weight
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Thirteen elements ~ > 99% of body weight . . .
Other 13 ~ < 1% of body weight
MOLECULES
Two or more atoms held together by chemical bond
EG: O2
N2
COMPOUNDS
Two or more molecules composed of different elements
EG:
H2O
CO2
Molecule & Compound ~Terms used synonymously
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atoms ~ composed of “sub-atomic particles”
“Sub-atomic particles” determine “bonding” traits
Protons ~ p+
Positive charged (+)
Center or nucleus of atom
Neutrons ~ n0
Non-charged ~ neutral
Center or nucleus of atom
Similar in size & mass to protons
Electrons ~ eMuch lighter than protons ~ little mass
Negatively charged (-)
Outside nucleus in ~ Electron orbit shell
Negative charged electrons attracted to positive
charged protons
Electrical Force - - - - - > Bonding
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ENERGY LEVELS ~ determine stability
Determines “reactivity” of elements ~ “bonding”
Energy Level = Electron Shells = Orbits
1st Energy Level ~ inner most shell
Only 2 electrons orbiting ~ except for H+
Lowest energy level
2nd or Higher Energy Level
Usually contains 8 electrons per shell
“Outermost” Shell or last Energy Level ~ determines stability
Full outer shell ~ MOST stable shell ~ “Inert Elements”
NON-REACTIVE ~ have FULL outermost shells
INCOMPLETE or unfilled outer shell ~ REACTIVE Elements
If ONLY 1 electron in outer shell ~ MOST UNSTABLE
MOST REACTIVE
H+
Na+
K+
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CHEMICAL BONDING OF MOLECULES
Chemical Bonds
Gain, lose, share electrons ~ to fill outer shell
Valence
Number of electrons an atom wants to gain or lose
to fill outer shell
EG:
H ~ has 1 electron in outer shell to give up
Valence = +1 (gives up a minus charge)
O ~ has 6 electrons in outer shell
Wants to gain 2 electrons
Valence = - 2 (takes on 2 minus charges)
Ion ~ any atom or molecule carrying a charge
+ or -
Either loses or gains electrons
+
Cation ~ loses electrons
Na+
Positive Charged
-
Anion ~ gains electrons
Negative Charged
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Cl-
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TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
1. Covalent Bond ~ strong bond
Non-polar ~ strongest bond
#1
Polar ~ strong bond
#2
2. Ionic Bond ~ weak bond
#3
3. Hydrogen Bond ~ weakest bond
#4
-------------------------------------------Ionic Bond
+
-
Attraction between cation & anion
Electrons DONATED between atoms ~ NOT SHARED
“WEAK BONDS” ~ easily dissolves & broken
EG:
NaCl = Salt
Na+ + ClIon
Ion
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
Ionic
Bond
NaCl
Salt
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Covalent Bond
“Strong” bond between atoms
NO gaining or NO losing electrons ~ NOT DONATED
Two atoms SHARE electrons = “SHARING”
Electrons SHARED between atoms ~ NOT DONATED
Sharing equally (non-polar) or unequally (polar)
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
Share electrons EQUALLY ~ balanced compound
“STRONEST” Chemical Bond
MOST structures in human body ~ very stable
Polar Covalent Bond ~
Eg:
H2O
DO NOT share electrons EQUALLY ~ unbalanced
Causes partial positive or partial negative charge
“Less stable” than non-polar covalent bonds
O- is slightly negative ~ partial negative side
H+ is slightly positive ~ partial positive side
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Hydrogen Bond
Bond between “partial positive” charge of H+ of one
molecule and “partial negative” charge of O- of another
molecule
“VERY WEAK” Bond
More of an attraction than a bond
CANNOT create molecules ~ not strong enough
Create “surface tension” or membrane barriers
EG:
bug walking on water
EG:
tears collect dust
Provides for slow evaporation of water
Very Important Physiologically
Allow Proteins & DNA to Fold into shapes
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BODY CHEMICAL REACTIONS = Metabolism
Chemical bonds are formed, broken, re-arranged
Metabolism ~ essential for life
For cells to grow, move, repair, produce, secrete, &
maintain homeostasis
Provides ENERGY for cell processes
Anabolic Metabolism ~ build up
Catabolic Metabolism ~ break down
ENERGY ~ required for metabolism
Potential Energy ~ stored energy ~ “Dam”
Body Fat ~ potential energy
Glycogen ~ potential energy
Kinetic Energy ~ motion energy ~ movement
Kinetic Energy
<- - - - - > Potential Energy
“Heat” is RELEASED
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“Heat” is REQUIRED
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TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN BODY
Synthesis ~ Combination
Make larger molecules from smaller
A + B - - - - - > AB
Na+ + Cl-
= NaCl
“Anabolic” ~ building up
EG:
Synthesis of new proteins from AA
Endergonic ~ requires energy ~ “glue”
------------------------------------Decomposition Reaction ~ Degradation
Breaking down into smaller parts
AB - - - - - > A + B
“Catabolic” ~ breaking down
EG:
Fats, sugars, proteins broken down to
smaller substances for utilization
Exergonic ~ releases energy as
“heat”
Hydrolysis ~ Decomposition
adding water - - - - - - > catabolism of molecules
A-B-C-D-E + H2O - - - - > A-B-C-H + D-E-OH
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Exchange Reaction ~ Displacement
Synthesis & Decomposition together
New bonds made . . . old bonds broken
AB + CD - - - - - > AD + CB
EG: Glucose + ATP - - - - -> Glucose Phosphate + ADP
(3P)
(1P)
(2P)
------------------------------------Oxidation-Reduction Reaction ~ very common
Combination of decomposition & exchange reactions
Breaking down (reduction) complex compound by adding
oxygen (oxidation)
Important in OBTAINING energy from food molecules
C6H12O6 + 6O2 - - - - -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Glucose
Oxygen
Carbon
Dioxide
Water ENERGY
Exergonic Reactions ~ more common in body
Generate heat ~ to maintain body temperature
Usually Catabolic Reactions ~ breakdown
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CHEMICAL REACTION REVERSIBILITY
MOST biological reactions freely reversible
To maintain homeostasis
A+B
↔
AB
Synthesis
←
→
Decomposition
A+B
------>
Catabolic
<- - - - - - -
AB
Anabolic
Produces Heat
Requires Heat
Releases Energy
Requires Energy ~ glue
Exergonic
Endergonic
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BIOCHEMISTRY
Composition & Reactions of living matter
Only 26 elements form thousands of Compounds in body
alphabet - - - - - - >
words
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS ~ No C No H
No Carbon & No Hydrogen ~ in primary structure
CO2
Carbon dioxide ~ by-product of cell metabolism
O2
Oxygen
~ gas required for metabolism
H2O
Water
~ 70% of body weight
Also:
NaCl . . . Acids . . . Bases . . . Salts
----------------------------------------------------
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ~ BOTH C & H
Both Carbon & Hydrogen atoms in primary structure
Carbohydrates
Lipids ~ Fats
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
ATP (High Energy Bonds)
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INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
WATER ~ H2O
MOST abundant & important inorganic compound
65 % to 70% of body weight
Can do without food but not water
Unique Properties of Water: Read Detail in Text
Due to “hydrogen bonding” between water molecules
1.
High Heat Capacity ~ cools body
2.
Lubricant ~ in body fluids and cavities
3.
Reactive ~ Hydrolysis & dehydration
4.
Cushioning ~ for internal organs
5.
Solubility ~ universal solvent
Many compounds dissolve in H2O
Blood, Saliva, Urine, etc.
6.
Dissociates molecules into ions ~ Ionization
Molecules easily separated in H2O into ions
Ions readily available for other reactions
Ionization Process
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Ionization Process
Ionic compounds disassociate ~ breakdown in water
Polar water molecule breaks ionic bonds  free ions
Result:
Mixture of cations (+) & anions (-)
surrounded by water molecules
“Hydration Spheres”
Hydration Spheres
Mixture of cations (+) & anions (-)
Surrounded by water molecules
Aqueous solution conducts electric current
Cations (+)
move toward negative
Anions (-)
move toward positive
Important in:
Membrane Transport
Muscle Contraction
Nerve Function
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HYDROPHOBIC COMPOUNDS ~ repell
DO NOT react or dissolve in water
Many non-polar covalent bonds
Hydration spheres WILL NOT form
EG:
Fats & Oils
HYDROPHILIC COMPOUNDS ~ attraction
React favorably with water ~ due to polar covalent bonds
Form Hydration Spheres
EG:
Glucose & ELECTROLYTES
What is an ELECTROLYTE? . . . Why ingest them?
Gatoraide
Crystal Lite
Poweraide
Orange Juice
Sodium Bicarbonate
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ELECTROLYTES ~ very important
Consist of biologically important ions
Present in MOST body fluids
Dissociate in body fluids in to Ions
Cations + & AnionsConduct an electric current in solution
Normal concentrations in body fluids are critical
for normal body function
Kidneys ~ maintain balance of electrolytes
IV Fluids in Therapy maintain electrolyte balance
Key Body Ions
Key Body Electrolytes
Sodium
NaCl,
NaHCO3
Potassium
KCl
Chloride
NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2
Calcium
CaCl2
Bicarbonate
NaHCO3
WHAT IS THE MOST BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
ION IN THE BODY & WHY IS IT?
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CHEMICAL
LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION
LECTURE 2
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HYDROGEN IONS ~ MOST important in body
Hydrogen atoms easily loses its one electron
Result:
Hydrogen Ion
H+
Hydrogen Ions ~ extremely reactive in solution
Water molecule is easily dissociated ~ broken down
Due to polar nature of bonds
H 2O
H+ +
<- - - - - - - >
Water
Molecule
Hydrogen
Ion
OHHydroxide
Ion
Hydrogen Ion ~ MUST be precisely regulated in body
Too much or too little H+ in wrong place is bad !!!
Measured in terms of pH (not Ph)
pH
~ amount of Hydrogen Ion released in solution
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HYDROGEN IONS IN BODY FLUIDS
pH
~ amount of Hydrogen Ion (H+) in solution
Measure of ~ ACID-BASE
CONCENTRATION
More H+ - - - - - > more acidic
More OH- - - - - - > more basic ~ alkaline
Uses pH scale
~ logrithmic scale 1…10…100…1000…10000…
pH scale runs ~
pH 7 =
0-14
“neutral” solution
number of OH- = number of H+
Pure water has pH = 7
pH < 7 ~ “acidic” = more H+ = more acid
pH > 7 ~ “basic” = more OH- = more base
pH of blood = 7.35 – 7.45 (range) ~ slight alkaline
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ACIDS & BASES
Body contains Acid & Base Compounds
Too much H+ ion = Acidosis ~ blood pH
< 7.35
Too much OH- ion = Alkalosis ~ blood pH
> 7.45
ACIDS
Releases H+ into solution after dissociation ~ lowers pH
H+ concentration determines acidity
Strong Acid ~ dissociates completely in H2O
Reaction in one direction
HCL - - - - - - - - >
Hydrochloric
Acid
H+
Hydrogen
Ion
EG:
HCL in stomach for digestion
EG:
Muriatic Acid
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+
Cl
(no OH-)
Chloride
Ion
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BASE
Removes H+ from solution ~ increases pH
Compound that removes hydrogen ions from solution
OH-
determines alkalinity
Strong Base ~ dissociates completely in H2O
Reaction in one direction
Na+
NaOH - - - - - - - - ->
Sodium Hydroxide
Base
OH- (no H+)
+
Sodium
Ion
Hydroxide
Ion
DranoTM ~ household lye
EG:
-------------------------------------------------------
SALTS
From combining an Acid & Base
Acids & Bases neutralize each other
HCl
+ NaOH - - - - - ->
Acid
Base
NaCl
+ H 2O
Salt
Exchange Reaction
AB + CD - - - - > CB + AD
Dehydration Reaction ~ Removes water
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Water
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BUFFERS ~ Weak Acids & Weak Bases
Reaction maintains equilibruim ~ “buffers”
Reaction goes in both directions
BUFFERS CONTROL pH ~ Neutralize & stabilize pH
Maintain body fluid pH within normal limits
pH Always between 7.35 and 7.45
Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate Buffering System
Important buffer of blood ~ keeps pH in normal range
H2CO3
H+
<---->
Carbonic Acid
Weak Acid
+
Hydrogen
ion
HCO3Bicarbonate
ion
Rise in plasma pH (too much OH-) - - - - -> reaction goes to right
Too much alkaline
Drop in plasma pH (too much H+) - - - - - > reaction goes to left
Too much acid
Common Buffer to Neutralize Stomach Acid
Tums:
Ca2CO3
+
HCL
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- - - - - - ->
HCO3 + Ca2Cl
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ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ~ Unique to living systems
Contain BOTH ~
CARBON & HYDROGEN atoms in structure
Also MAY contain:
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Phosphorus and other elements
Long chains of carbon atoms ~ linked by covalent bonds
“Very stable” & Fairly Large
Functional Groups ~ Determine Organic Compound Properties
Organic Compounds
Functional Group
Carbohydrates
OH
Hydroxyl Group
Lipids
CH3
Methyl Group
Proteins
NH2
COOH
Amino Group
Carboxylic Acid
Nucleic Acids
PO4
Phosphate
High Energy
Compounds (ATP)
PO4
Phosphate
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CARBOHYDRATES ~ CHO
Contains:
C, H, O
Ratio of 1:2:1 ~ C:H2:O
OH- Hydroxyl Group ~ functional group
Sugars . . . Starches . . . Cellulose . . . Glycogen
Polar & Hydrophilic ~ MOST react with H2O . . . some do not
Function of Carbohydrates
1-3% of body weight
Source of Energy ~ metabolic processes
Structure for other molecules ~ integrity & support
EG:
DNA ~ deoxyribose
EG:
Cell Membranes & Cytoskeleton
Monosaccharides ~ simple sugars ~ Glucose, Fructose
Disaccharides ~ more complex ~ Sucrose (table sugar)
Polysaccharides ~ very complex ~ Glycogen, Starch,
Cellulose
. . . Read About the Detail of each in text . . .
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Not Covered in Lecture . . . Read About the Detail of each in text . .
.
MONOSACCHARIDES ~ simple sugars
Arranged into rings or straight chain
Glucose: most important fuel in body
C6H12O6
DISACCHARIDES ~ more complex
Double sugar ~ formed by joining two monosaccharides
Dehydration Synthesis ~ remove water - - - - - - - ->
Add water by Hydrolysis <- - - - - - EG:
Glucose + Fructose < - - - - ->
Mono
Mono
Sucrose + H2O
Disaccharide
Must be digested to monosaccharide components via
hydrolysis before they can pass through cell membranes
POLYSACCHARIDES ~ most complex
Many saccharides linked together ~ many chains
Many “dehydration synthesis” steps to form ~ remove H2O
Many “hydrolysis” steps to break down ~ add H2O
Storage molecules ~ future energy needs & structure
EG:
Glycogen
Starch
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Cellulose
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LIPIDS
10%+ of body weight
Very Large Compounds
Non-polar & Hydrophobic ~ very . . .
very . . . stable
Water insoluble
Include:
Fats ~ solid state
Oils ~ liquid state
Waxes ~ hard solid state
Contain:
C & H ~ 1:2 ratio
CH3
Methyl Group
Insoluble in H2O ~ special transport mechanisms needed
to carry lipids through blood ~ CARRIERS
Function of Lipids
STRUCTURAL component of many cells ~ cell membranes
Protection ~ Insulation ~ Padding (BODY FAT)
Lipid deposits (fat) provide ENERGY RESERVES  ATP
12-18% of body weight ~ adult MALES
18-24% of body weight ~ adult FEMALES . . . WHY?
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Important Classes of Lipids
FATTY ACIDS
Stored ENERGY source
Saturated Fats ~ bad for diet ~ animal fats
Single covalent bonds ~ stable
Easier to break down to energy & store as fat ~ DANGER
Unsaturated Fats
Double covalent bonds ~ more stable
Poly Unsaturated Fats~ Best to injest
Many double covalent bonds ~ very stable
Poorly Absorbed
TRI-GLYCERIDES ~ “Neutral Fats” ~ feel & see
Contain ~ Three fatty acids plus glycerol
Fat Deposits ~ insulation & protection
Energy Source ~ fat stores
Harmful in blood vessels
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STEROID LIPIDS ~ MANY types & functions
Cholesterol
Cell membrane structure & integrity
Bile salts ~ digestion of lipids & DIETARY FATS
Hormones
Sex ~ estrogen, progesterone, testosterone
Aldosterone ~ regulate mineral balance ~ Na+ retention
Anti-inflammatory ~ corticosteroids ~ cortisone
Metabolic Hormones ~ cell metabolism
Important Structural Lipids
Maintain cell membrane integrity & structure
CHOLESTEROL ~ MOST important steroid lipid
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Fatty Acids + Phosphate Group PO3
GLYCOLIPIDS
Fatty Acids + Carbohydrate
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PROTEINS
MOST abundant organic compounds in body
More than 2 million proteins ~ 20
- 40% of body weight
Very Large Molecules
Polar & Hydrophillic ~ reactive in the body & water
Contain:
NH2
Amino Group (nitrogen)
COOH
Carboxylic Acid Group
Functions of Proteins
1.
Structural Support ~ for cells, tissue & organs
2.
Movement ~ muscles are proteins
3.
Transport ~ insoluble lipids, gases, hormones &
minerals (Fe) in blood ~ are CARRIERS
“Protein Bound” ~ carrier proteins
4.
Buffering ~ maintain pH ~ Amino Acids are buffers
5.
Metabolism ~ enzymes & catalysts for reactions
6.
Hormones ~ MANY ~ insulin, thyroid hormone, growth
7.
Body Defense ~ antibodies, hair, clotting
8.
Genetic Traits ~ Body Characteristics are proteins
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STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
Macromolecules ~ very large molecules
Composed of long chain of Amino Acids (AA)
Polypeptides ~ long chains of > 50 Amino Acids (AA)
Most proteins > 1000 AA to 100,000 AA or more
Peptide Bonds ~ Links Amino Acids into chains
Formed by removing H2O between amino acids ~ dehydrate
Broken by adding H2O to peptide bond ~ hydrolysis
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -
AMINO ACIDS ~ Protein Building Blocks
20 “essential” Amino Acids in body ~ MUST INGEST
Every AA has:
Amino Group ~ NH2
Carboxylic Acid Group ~ COOH
“Amino Acid Sequence” ~ arrangement/order of AA
AA sequence determines protein characteristics
A single AA removal can change shape of protein
Drastically alters behavior
# of AA’s has NO influence on characteristics
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TYPES OF PROTEINS
“Shape & Structure” ~ determines biological function
1. Fibrous Protein
Tough, durable, insoluble ~ very stable
Structural Support Proteins
Collagen ~ tendons, ligaments, cartilage
Keratin ~ skin, hair, nails
Elastin ~ skin, muscle
Sheets or elongated strands ~ “linear Secondary Structure”
2. Globular Protein
Compact & spherical ~ “Tertiary Quaternary Structure”
Folded into GLOBS ~ Globular
Easily denatured ~ broken down ~ NOT stable
Many Functions
Hormones
Carrier’s
Antibodies
Body Chemicals
Enzymes
Hemoglobin
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GLYCO-PROTEINS
Combinations of proteins & carbohydrates
Very large molecules
Functions:
Enzymes
Antibodies
Hormones
Protein components
(cell membranes)
Secretions (mucous)
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HIGH ENERGY COMPOUNDS ~ ATP . . . ADP . . . AMP
Vital cell functions ~ require ENERGY
Cells store energy as ~ High
Energy Compounds ~ ATP
“potential energy” ~ ENERGY WAITING TO BE USED
ALL High Energy Compounds Composed of:
Organic Substance (C&H)
Adenine
Carbohydrate (sugar) Base
Ribose
Phosphate Group(s)
PO4
(one or more)
AMP ~ Adenosine Monophosphate - 1 Phosphate (least energy)
ADP ~ Adenosine Diphosphate - 2 Phosphates
ATP ~ Adensoine Triphosphate - 3 Phosphates (MOST energy)
Phosphorylation: process of adding phosphates
Process of making high energy compounds in cells
Organic Substrate + Sugar + Phosphate
Adenine
+
Ribose +
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PO4-
=
AMP
High
Energy
Compound
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CELLULAR ENERGY
ATP ~ stored as potential energy
Most important ~ Highest Energy Compound
Cells make ATP by Glycolysis & Phosphorylation
ADP + Phosphate <- - - - - - -> ATP + H2O
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
To the Right - - - - > ATP is produced for storage
To the Left <- - - - -
Energy is released for cell usage
ATP (ENERGY) is needed to perform cellular work
Transport Work ~ “Active Transport”
ATP provides energy to transport solutes across
impermeable cell membranes against the normal flow
Mechanical Work
ATP provides energy for muscle contraction
Chemical Work
ATP provides energy for chemicals to combine
& form new molecules (products) ~ anabolic
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NUCLEIC ACIDS ~ DNA & RNA
Large organic molecules
Polar and Hydrophilic ~ reactive
Functions of Nucleic Acids
1.
Store & process molecular information in cells
2.
Regulate all aspects of cellular metabolism
3.
Determine inherited characteristics ~ Genetic Traits
4.
Stores information needed to build body proteins
“Genetic Code” ~ for protein synthesis
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
“Genetic Blueprint” for proteins ~ in nucleus ONLY
Contains Our “Genetic Code”
RNA
Ribonucleic Acid
Carries DNA instructions for protein
synthesis from nucleus into cytoplasm
DNA & RNA to be covered in Cellular Section
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