The Gadsden Purchase (known as Venta de La Mesilla, or "Sale of La Mesilla", in
Mexico) is a region of present-day southern Arizona
and southwestern New Mexico
that was purchased by the United States in a treaty signed by President Franklin Pierce
on June 24, 1853, and ratified by the U.S. Senate on April 25, 1854. The purchase was
the last major territorial acquisition in the contiguous United States
Contiguous United States
The contiguous United States are the 48 U.S. states on the continent of North America
that are south of Canada, plus the District of Columbia.The term excludes the states of
Alaska and Hawaii, and all off-shore U.S. territories and possessions, such as Puerto
Rico.Together, the 48 contiguous states...
.
It is named for James Gadsden
James Gadsden
James Gadsden was an American diplomat, soldier and businessman and namesake of the
Gadsden Purchase, in which the United States purchased from Mexico the land that
became the southern portion of Arizona and New Mexico....
, the American ambassador to Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional
republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south
and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean
Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
at the time. The purchase included lands south of the Gila River
Gila River
The Gila River is a tributary of the Colorado River, 650 miles long, in the southwestern
states of New Mexico and Arizona.-Description:...
and west of the Rio Grande
Rio Grande
The Rio Grande is a river that forms part of the border between the United States and
Mexico. At long, it is the fourth-longest river system in the United States...
. The Gadsden Purchase was for the purpose of the US's construction of a
transcontinental railroad
along a deep southern route. It was also related to reconciliation of outstanding border
issues following the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American
War of 1846–48.
As the railroad age progressed, business-oriented Southerners saw that a railroad linking
the South with the Pacific Coast would expand trade opportunities. They thought the
topography of the southern portion of the Mexican Cession
Mexican Cession
The Mexican Cession of 1848 is a historical name in the United States for the region of
the present day southwestern United States that Mexico ceded to the U.S. in 1848,
excluding the areas east of the Rio Grande, which had been claimed by the Republic of
Texas, though the Texas Annexation...
was too mountainous to allow a direct route. Projected southern routes tended to run to
the north at their eastern ends, which would favor connections with northern railroads and
ultimately favor northern seaports. Southerners saw that to avoid the mountains, a route
with a southeastern terminus might need to swing south into what was then Mexican
territory.
The administration of US President Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce was the 14th President of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857,
an American politician and lawyer. To date, he is the only President from New
Hampshire....
, strongly influenced by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis
Jefferson Davis
Jefferson Finis Davis was an American military officer, statesman and leader of the
Confederacy during the American Civil War, serving as the President of the Confederate
States of America for its entire history, 1861 to 1865.A West Point graduate, Davis
fought in the Mexican-American War as a...
, saw an opportunity to acquire land for the railroad, as well as to acquire significant other
territory from northern Mexico. In the end, territory for the railroad was purchased for
$10 million ($ today), but Mexico balked at any large-scale sale of territory. In the United
States, the debate over the treaty became involved in the sectional dispute over slavery,
ending progress before the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War , also known as the War Between the States as well as several
other names, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave
states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States
of America, also known as "the...
in the planning or construction of a transcontinental railroad.
Southern commercial conventions
In January 1845 Asa Whitney
Asa Whitney
Asa Whitney was an American merchant and great railroad projector. Whitney lived in
New Rochelle, New York, just to the north of New York City where he worked as a
highly successful dry-goods merchant....
of New York state presented the US Congress with the first plan to construct a
transcontinental railroad. While Congress took no action on his proposal, a commercial
convention of 1845 in Memphis
Memphis, Tennessee
Memphis is a city in the southwest corner of the U.S. state of Tennessee, and the county
seat of Shelby County. The city is located on the 4th Chickasaw Bluff, south of the
confluence of the Wolf and Mississippi rivers....
took up the issue. Prominent attendees included John C. Calhoun
John C. Calhoun
John Caldwell Calhoun was the seventh Vice President of the United States and a leading
Southern politician from South Carolina during the first half of the 19th century...
, Clement C. Clay, Sr.
, John Bell
John Bell (Tennessee politician)
John Bell was a U.S. politician, attorney, and plantation owner. A wealthy slaveholder
from Tennessee, Bell served in the United States Congress in both the House of
Representatives and Senate. He began his career as a Democrat, he eventually fell out
with Andrew Jackson and became a Whig...
, William Gwin
William Gwin
William Gwin may refer to:* William M. Gwin , American medical doctor and
politician* William Gwin , officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil
War...
, and Edmund P. Gaines
Edmund P. Gaines
Edmund Pendleton Gaines was a United States army officer who served with distinction
during the War of 1812, the Seminole Wars and the Black Hawk War.-Early life:...
, but it was James Gadsden
James Gadsden
James Gadsden was an American diplomat, soldier and businessman and namesake of the
Gadsden Purchase, in which the United States purchased from Mexico the land that
became the southern portion of Arizona and New Mexico....
of South Carolina who was influential in the convention’s recommending a southern
route for the proposed railroad, beginning in Texas
Texas
Texas is the second-largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state in
the contiguous United States.The name, meaning "friends" or "allies" in Caddo, was
applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in
East Texas...
and ending in San Diego or Mazatlán
. Southerners hoped that such a route would ensure southern prosperity while opening the
“West to southern influence and settlement.―
Southern interest in railroads in general, and the Pacific railroad in particular, accelerated
after the settlement of the Mexican-American War in 1848. During that War,
topographical
Topography
Topography is the study of Earth's surface shape and features or those ofplanets, moons,
and asteroids...
officers William H. Emory
William H. Emory
William Hemsley Emory was an United States Army officer and surveyor of Texas.Early life and career:...
and James W. Abert
had conducted surveys that demonstrated the feasibility of a railroad's originating in El
Paso
El Paso
-Geography:* El Paso, Texas, a city in the United States on the border with
MexicoColombia:* El Paso, CesarUnited States:* El Paso, Arkansas* El Paso County,
Colorado* El Paso, Illinois* El Paso, Missouri, an early name for Exeter, Missouri...
or western Arkansas
Arkansas
Arkansas is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Its name is an
Algonquin name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares a border with six states, with its
eastern border largely defined by the Mississippi River. Its diverse geography ranges
from the mountainous regions of the...
and ending in San Diego. J. D. B. DeBow
James Dunwoody Brownson DeBow
James Dunwoody Brownson DeBow was an American publisher and statistician, best
known for his influential magazine DeBow's Review, who also served as head of the
U.S...
, the editor of DeBow's Review
DeBow's Review
DeBow's Review was a widely circulated magazine of "agricultural, commercial, and
industrial progress and resource" in the American South during the upper middle of the
19th century, from 1846 until 1884. It bore the name of its first editor, James Dunwoody
Brownson DeBow DeBow's Review was a...
, and Gadsden both publicized within the South the benefits of building this railroad.
Gadsden had become the president of the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company
South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company
Chartered in 1827, the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company ran scheduled
steam service over its line from Charleston, SC to Hamburg, SC beginning in 1833. At
that time it was the longest railroad in the world. It was also known as the Charleston and
Hamburg Railroad although it is unclear...
in 1839; about a decade later, the company had laid of track extending west from
Charleston
Charleston
Charleston often refers to:*Charleston, South Carolina, a historic city in South
Carolina*Charleston, West Virginia, the state capital of West VirginiaCharleston may
also refer to:- Geography :In Australia:* Charleston, South Australia...
, and it was $3 million dollars ($ today) in debt. Gadsden wanted to connect all Southern
railroads into one sectional network. He was concerned that the increasing railroad
construction in the North was shifting trade in lumber, farm goods, and manufacturing
goods from the traditional north-south route based on the Ohio
Ohio River
The Ohio River is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River. It is
approximately 1,310 miles long and is located in the Eastern United States....
and Mississippi
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. About long, the river
originates at Lake Itasca, Minnesota and flows slowly southwards in sweeping meanders,
terminating 95 river miles below New Orleans, Louisiana where it begins to flow to the
Gulf of Mexico. Along with its...
rivers to an east-west axis that would bypass the South. He also saw Charleston, his
home town, losing its prominence as a seaport. In addition, many Southern business
interests feared that a northern transcontinental route would cut the South off from trade
with the Orient
Orient
The Orient is a term which means "the East". It is a traditional designation for anything
belonging to the Eastern world or the Far East. In English it is a metonym describing
Eastern Asia...
. Other Southerners argued for diversification from a plantation economy to keep the
South independent from northern bankers.
In October 1849 a convention to discuss railroads was held in Memphis, in response to a
separate convention called in St. Louis earlier in the fall, which had discussed a northern
route. The Memphis convention overwhelmingly advocated the construction of a route
beginning there, to connect with an El Paso
El Paso
-Geography:* El Paso, Texas, a city in the United States on the border with
MexicoColombia:* El Paso, CesarUnited States:* El Paso, Arkansas* El Paso County,
Colorado* El Paso, Illinois* El Paso, Missouri, an early name for Exeter, Missouri...
to San Diego line. Disagreement arose only over the issue of financing. The convention
president, Matthew Fontaine Maury
of Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern
United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of
Presidents" because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The geography and
climate of the state are shaped by the Blue...
, preferred strict private financing, while John Bell and others thought that Federal land
grants to railroad developers would be necessary.
James Gadsden and California
Gadsden had supported nullification
Nullification Crisis
The Nullification Crisis was a sectional crisis during the presidency of Andrew Jackson
created by South Carolina's 1832 Ordinance of Nullification. This ordinance declared, by
the power of the State itself, that the federal Tariff of 1828 and the federal Tariff of 1832
were unconstitutional and...
in 1831. In 1850 he advocated secession by South Carolina when California
California
California is the most populous state in the United States, and the third largest by land
area, after Alaska and Texas; it is also the second most populous sub-national entity in
the Americas, behind only São Paulo, Brazil...
was admitted to the Union as a free state. Gadsden considered slavery “a social
blessing” and abolitionists “the greatest curse of the nation.”
When the secession proposal failed, Gadsden, working with his cousin Isaac Edward
Holmes
Isaac E. Holmes
Isaac Edward Holmes was a U.S. Representative from South Carolina.Born in
Charleston, South Carolina, Holmes attended the common schools, received private
tuition, and was graduated from Yale College in 1815.He studied law....
, a lawyer in San Francisco since 1851, and the California state senator Thomas Jefferson
Green
Thomas Jefferson Green
Thomas Jefferson Green was an American politician who served in the legislatures of
three different U.S. states and also of Texas, which was not yet a state....
, attempted to divide California in two. They proposed that the southern half would allow
slavery. Gadsden planned to establish a slaveholding colony there based on rice, cotton,
and sugar. He would use slave labor to build a railroad and highway, originating in either
San Antonio or on the Red River
Red River (Mississippi watershed)
The Red River, or sometimes The Red River of the South, is a major tributary of the
Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers located in the United States of America. The river
gains its name from the red-bed country of its watershed. It is one of several rivers with
that name. The Red River is the...
, that would transport people to the California gold fields. Toward this end, on December
31, 1851, Gadsden asked Green to secure from the California state legislature a large land
grant located between the 34th and 36th parallels; it would eventually serve as the
dividing line for the two California states.
A few months after this, Gadsden and 1,200 potential settlers from South Carolina and
Florida
Florida
The state of Florida is located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering
Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the north. It was the 27th state admitted to the
United States...
submitted a petition to the California legislature for permanent citizenship and
permission to establish a rural district that would be farmed by "not less than Two
Thousand of their African Domestics". The petition stimulated some debate, but it finally
died in committee.
Stephen Douglas and land grants
The Compromise of 1850
Compromise of 1850
The Compromise of 1850 was an intricate package of five bills, passed on September 4,
1850, defusing a four year confrontation between the slave states of the South and the
free states of the North that arose from expectation of territorial expansion of the United
States with the Texas Annexation ...
, which created the Utah Territory
Utah Territory
The Territory of Utah was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that
existed from September 9, 1850, until January 4, 1896, when the final extent of the
territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Utah....
and the New Mexico Territory
, would facilitate a southern route to the West Coast
West Coast of the United States
The West Coast or Pacific Coast are terms for the westernmost coastal states of the
United States bordering the Pacific Ocean. The term most often refers to the states of
California, Oregon and Washington...
since all territory for the railroad was now organized and would allow for Federal land
grants as a financing measure. Competing northern or central routes championed,
respectively, by Stephen Douglas of Illinois and Thomas Hart Benton
Thomas Hart Benton (senator)
Thomas Hart Benton , nicknamed "Old Bullion", was a U.S. Senator from Missouri and a
staunch advocate of westward expansion of the United States. He served in the Senate
from 1821 to 1851, becoming the first member of that body to serve five terms...
of Missouri would still need to go through unorganized territories. A precedent for using
federal land grants had been established when Millard Fillmore
Millard Fillmore
Millard Fillmore was the 13th President of the United States, serving from 1850 until
1853, and the last member of the Whig Party to hold that office. He was the second Vice
President to assume the presidency upon the death of a sitting president, succeeding
Zachary Taylor, who died of what is...
signed a bill promoted by Douglas that allowed a Mobile
to Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in both Illinois and the Midwest, and the third most populous
city in the United States, with over 2.8 million living within the city limits. Its
metropolitan area, commonly named "Chicagoland", is the 26th most populous in the
world, home to an estimated 9.7 million...
railroad to be financed by "federal land grants for the specific purpose of railroad
construction." To satisfy Southern opposition to the general principle of Federally
supported internal improvements, the land grants would first be transferred to the
appropriate state or territorial government, which would oversee the final transfer to
private developers.
By 1850, however, the majority of the South was not interested in exploiting its
advantages in developing a transcontinental railroad or railroads in general. Businessmen
like Gadsden, who advocated economic diversification, were in the minority. The
Southern economy was based on cotton exports, and then-current transportation networks
met the plantation system's needs. There was little home market for an intra-South trade.
In the short term, the best use for capital was to invest it in more slaves and land rather
than in taxing it to support canals, railroads, roads, or in dredging rivers. Historian Jere
W. Roberson wrote:
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War, but there were
issues affecting both sides that still needed to be resolved: possession of the Mesilla
Valley
Mesilla Valley
The Mesilla Valley is a geographic feature of Southern New Mexico and far West Texas.
It was formed by repeated heavy spring floods of the Rio Grande.The fertile Mesilla
Valley extends from about Hatch, New Mexico to the west side of El Paso, Texas...
, protection for Mexico from Indian raids, and the right of transit in the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec
Isthmus of Tehuantepec
The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is an isthmus in Mexico. It represents the shortest distance
between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, and prior to the opening of the
Panama Canal was a major shipping route known simply as the Tehuantepec Route...
.
Mesilla Valley
The treaty provided for a joint commission, made up of a surveyor and commissioner
from each country, to determine the final boundary between the United States and
Mexico. The treaty specified that the Rio Grande Boundary would veer west eight miles
(13 km) north of El Paso. The treaty was based on the attached 1847 copy of a twentyfive-year-old map. Surveys revealed that El Paso was further south and further west than
the map showed. Mexico favored the map, but the United States put faith in the results of
the survey. The disputed territory involved a few thousand square miles and about 3,000
residents; more significantly, it included the Mesilla Valley
Mesilla Valley
The Mesilla Valley is a geographic feature of Southern New Mexico and far West Texas.
It was formed by repeated heavy spring floods of the Rio Grande.The fertile Mesilla
Valley extends from about Hatch, New Mexico to the west side of El Paso, Texas...
. Bordering the Rio Grande, the valley consisted of flat desert land measuring about ,
north to south, by , east to west. This valley was essential for the construction of a
transcontinental railroad using a southern route.
John Bartlett
John Russell Bartlett
John Russell Bartlett , American historical and linguistic student, was born in Providence,
Rhode Island, on the 23rd of October 1805...
of Rhode Island
Rhode Island
The State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, more commonly referred to as
Rhode Island , is a state in the New England region of the United States. It is the smallest
U.S. state by area...
, the United States negotiator, agreed to allow Mexico to retain the Mesilla Valley
(setting the boundary at 32° 22′ N, north of the American claim 31° 52′ and at
the easternmost part, also north of the Mexican-claimed boundary at 32° 15′) in
exchange for a boundary not turning north until 110° W in order to include the Santa
Rita Mountains
Santa Rita Mountains
The Santa Rita Mountains, located about 65 km southeast of Tucson, Arizona, extend
42 km from north to south, then trending southeast. They merge again southeastwards
into the Patagonia Mountains, trending northwest by southeast...
, which were believed to have rich copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile
metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather soft and
malleable, and a freshly exposed surface has a pinkish or peachy color...
deposits, and some silver
Silver
Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number
47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of
any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...
and gold
which had not yet been mined. Southerners opposed this alternative because of its
implication for the railroad, but it was supported by President Fillmore. Southerners in
Congress prevented any action on the approval of this separate border treaty and
eliminated further funding for surveying of the disputed borderland. Bartlett was replaced
with Robert Blair Campbell
Robert B. Campbell
Robert Blair Campbell was a U.S. Representative from South Carolina, brother of John
Campbell of South Carolina.Born in Marlboro County, South Carolina, Campbell was
educated by a private tutor....
, a pro-railroad politician from Alabama
Alabama
Alabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States of America. It is
bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico
to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks
second in the size of its...
. Mexico asserted that the commissioners' determinations were valid and prepared to send
in troops to enforce the unratified agreement.
Indian raids
Article XI of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo contained a guarantee that the United
States would protect Mexicans by preventing cross-border raids by Native American
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North,
Central, and South America, their descendants, and many ethnic groups who identify
with those peoples...
tribes. At the time the treaty was ratified, Secretary of State James Buchanan
James Buchanan
James Buchanan, Jr. was the 15th President of the United States from 1857–1861 and
the last to be born in the 18th century...
had believed that the United States had both the commitment and resources to enforce
this promise. Historian Richard Kluger
Richard Kluger
Richard Kluger worked as a journalist before becoming an accomplished Pulitzer Prizewinning author and book publisher.-Journalism:Kluger began his career as a journalist,
working for the Wall Street Journal, the New York Post, and the New York Herald
Tribune .-Publishing:Kluger left journalism to...
, however, described the difficulties of the task:
In the five years after approval of the Treaty, the United States spent $12 million ($
today) in this area, and General Winfield Scott
Winfield Scott
Winfield Scott was a United States Army general, and unsuccessful presidential
candidate of the Whig Party in 1852....
estimated that five times that amount would be necessary to police the border. Mexican
officials, frustrated with the failure of the United States to effectively enforce its
guarantee, demanded reparations for the losses inflicted on Mexican citizens by the raids.
The United States argued that the Treaty did not require any compensation nor did it
require any greater effort to protect Mexicans than was expended in protecting its own
citizens. During the Fillmore administration, Mexico claimed damages of $40 million ($
today) but offered to allow the U. S. to buy out Article XI for $12 million ($ today).
Fillmore had proposed a settlement that was $10 million less ($ today).
Isthmus of Tehuantepec
During negotiations of the treaty, Americans had failed to secure the right of transit
across the -wide Isthmus of Tehuantepec
Isthmus of Tehuantepec
The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is an isthmus in Mexico. It represents the shortest distance
between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, and prior to the opening of the
Panama Canal was a major shipping route known simply as the Tehuantepec Route...
. The idea of building a railroad here had been considered for a long time. In 1842
Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua MarÃa Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón , often
known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna, was a Mexican political leader, general
and President who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and
government. Santa Anna first fought against the independence...
sold the rights to build a railroad or canal across the isthmus. The deal included land
grants -wide along the right-of-way for future colonization and development. In 1847 a
British bank bought the rights, raising US fears of British colonization in the hemisphere,
in violation of the precepts of the Monroe Doctrine
Monroe Doctrine
The Monroe Doctrine is a United States policy that was introduced on December 2, 1823,
which stated that further efforts by European countries to colonize land or interfere with
states in the Americas would be viewed by the United States of America as acts of
aggression requiring US intervention...
. United States interest in the right-of-way was increased by the 1848 discovery of gold
California Gold Rush
The California Gold Rush began on January 24, 1848, when gold was discovered by
James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill, in Coloma, California. News of the discovery brought
some 300,000 people rushing to California from the rest of the United States and
abroad...
in California.
The Memphis commercial convention of 1849 recommended that the United States
pursue the trans-isthmus route, since it appeared unlikely that a transcontinental railroad
would be built anytime soon. Interests in Louisiana were especially adamant about this
option, as they believed that any transcontinental railroad would divert commercial traffic
away from the Mississippi and New Orleans, and they at least wanted to secure a
southern route. Also showing interest was Peter A. Hargous of New York who ran an
import-export business between New York and Vera Cruz. Hargous purchased the rights
to the route for $25,000 ($ today), but realized that the grant had little value unless it was
supported by the Mexican and American governments.
In Mexico, topographical officer George W. Hughes
George Wurtz Hughes
George Wurtz Hughes was a U.S. Representative from the 6th Congressional district of
Maryland.Born in Elmira, New York, Hughes received a liberal schooling. He graduated
from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1827, and became a civil
engineer in New York City...
reported to Secretary of State John M. Clayton
that a railroad across the isthmus was a “feasible and practical― idea. Clayton then
instructed Robert P. Letcher
, the minister to Mexico, to negotiate a treaty to protect Hargous’ rights. The United
States’ proposal gave Mexicans a 20% discount on shipping, guaranteed Mexican
rights in the zone, allowed the United States to send in military if necessary, and gave the
United States most-favored-nation status for Mexican cargo fees.
The treaty was never finalized. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was a treaty between the United States and the United
Kingdom, negotiated in 1850 by John M. Clayton and Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer , in
consequence of the situation created by the project of an inter oceanic canal across
Nicaragua, each signatory being jealous of the...
between the United States and Great Britain, which guaranteed the neutrality of any such
canal, was finalized in April 1850. The Mexican negotiators, hurt by this agreement
which eliminated their ability to play the U. S. and Britain against each other, accepted
the treaty. They eliminated the right of the United States to unilaterally intervene
militarily. The United States Senate approved the treaty in early 1851, but the Mexican
Congress refused to accept the treaty.
In the meantime, Hargous proceeded as if the treaty would be approved eventually. Judah
P. Benjamin
and a committee of New Orleans businessmen joined with Hargous and secured a charter
from the Louisiana legislature to create the Tehuantepec Railroad Company. The new
company sold stock and sent survey teams to Mexico. Hargous started to acquire land
even after the Mexican legislature rejected the treaty, a move that led to the Mexicans
canceling Hargous’ contract to use the right of way. Hargous put his losses at $5
million ($ today) and asked the United States government to intervene. President
Fillmore refused to do so.
Mexico sold the canal franchise, without the land grants, to A. G. Sloo and Associates in
New York for $600,000 ($ today). In March 1853 Sloo contracted with a British
company to build a railroad and sought an exclusive contract from the new Franklin
Pierce
Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce was the 14th President of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857,
an American politician and lawyer. To date, he is the only President from New
Hampshire....
Administration to deliver mail from New York to San Francisco. However, Sloo soon
defaulted on bank loans and the contract was sold back to Hargous.
Pierce administration
The Pierce administration, which took office in March 1853, had a strong pro-southern,
pro-expansion mindset. Louisiana Senator Pierre Soulé
Pierre Soulé
Pierre Soulé was a U.S. politician and diplomat from Louisiana during the mid-19th
century. He is best known for his role in writing the Ostend Manifesto, which was written
in 1854 as part of an attempt to annex Cuba to the United States...
was sent to Spain to negotiate the annexation of Cuba. Expansionists John Y. Mason of
Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern
United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of
Presidents" because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The geography and
climate of the state are shaped by the Blue...
and Solon Borland of Arkansas
Arkansas
Arkansas is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Its name is an
Algonquin name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares a border with six states, with its
eastern border largely defined by the Mississippi River. Its diverse geography ranges
from the mountainous regions of the...
were appointed as ministers, respectively, to France
France
France , officially the French Republic , is a state in Western Europe with several of its
overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and
Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English
Channel and the North Sea,...
and Nicaragua
. Pierce's Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis
Jefferson Davis
Jefferson Finis Davis was an American military officer, statesman and leader of the
Confederacy during the American Civil War, serving as the President of the Confederate
States of America for its entire history, 1861 to 1865.A West Point graduate, Davis
fought in the Mexican-American War as a...
, was already on record as favoring a southern route for a transcontinental railroad, so
southern rail enthusiasts had every reason to be encouraged.
The South as a whole, however, remained divided. In January 1853 Senator Thomas
Jefferson Rusk
Thomas Jefferson Rusk
Thomas Jefferson Rusk was an early political and military leader of the Republic of
Texas, serving as its first Secretary of War as well as a general at the Battle of San
Jacinto. He was later a U.S. politician and served as a Senator from Texas from 1846
until his suicide...
of Texas introduced a bill to create two railroads, one with a northern route and one with
a southern route starting below Memphis on the Mississippi River. Under the Rusk
legislation, the President would be authorized to select the specific termini and routes as
well as the contractors who would build the railroads. Some southerners, however,
worried that northern and central interests would leap ahead in construction, opposed any
direct aid to private developers on constitutional grounds. Other southerners preferred the
isthmian proposals. An amendment was added to the Rusk bill to prohibit direct aid, but
southerners still split their vote in Congress and the proposal failed.
This rejection led to legislative demands, sponsored by William Gwin of California and
Salmon P. Chase
Salmon P. Chase
Salmon Portland Chase was an American politician and jurist who served as U.S. Senator
from Ohio and the 23rd Governor of Ohio; as U.S. Treasury Secretary under President
Abraham Lincoln; and as Chief Justice of the United States.Chase articulated the "Slave
Power conspiracy" thesis well before...
of Ohio
Ohio
Ohio is a Midwestern state in the United States. The 34th largest state by area in the
U.S.,it is the 7th-most populous with nearly 11.5 million residents....
and supported by the railroad interests, for new surveys for possible routes. Gwin
expected that a southern route would be approved — both Davis and Robert J. Walker
Robert J. Walker
Robert John Walker was an American economist and statesman.- Early life and education
:Born in Northumberland, Pennsylvania, the son of a judge, he graduated in 1819 at the
top of his class at the University of Pennsylvania where he was a member of the
Philomathean Society, and was admitted to the...
, former secretary of the treasury, supported it. Both were stockholders in a Vicksburg
Vicksburg
Vicksburg is the name of some places in the United States of America:*Vicksburg,
Florida*Vicksburg, Indiana*Vicksburg, Michigan*Vicksburg, Mississippi**The
Vicksburg Campaign, an American Civil War campaign...
-based railroad that planned to build a link to Texas to join up with the southern route.
Davis argued that the southern route would have an important military application in the
likely event of future troubles with Mexico.
Gadsden and Santa Anna
On March 21, 1853, a treaty initiated in the Fillmore administration, that would provide
joint Mexican and United States protection for the Sloo grant was signed in Mexico. At
the same time that this treaty was received in Washington, Pierce learned that New
Mexico Territorial Governor William C. Lane
William Carr Lane
William Carr Lane was a doctor and the first Mayor of St. Louis, Missouri, serving from
1823 to 1829 and 1837 to 1840...
had issued a proclamation claiming the Mesilla Valley as part of New Mexico, leading to
protests from Mexico. Pierce was also aware of efforts by France, through its consul in
San Francisco, to acquire the Mexican state of Sonora
Sonora
Sonora is a state in northwestern Mexico with an area of , making it around the size of
Syria. It is surrounded by the states of Baja California and the Sea of Cortez to the west,
Chihuahua to the east, Sinaloa to the south, and the US states of Arizona and New
Mexico to the north.The capital is...
.
Pierce recalled Lane in May and replaced him with David Meriwether
David Meriwether (senator)
David Meriwether was a United States Senator from Kentucky and Governor of New
Mexico Territory.Born in Louisa County, Virginia, Meriwether moved with his parents to
Jefferson County, Kentucky, in 1803. He attended the common schools and engaged in
fur trading in 1818 near what is now Council...
of Kentucky. Meriwether was given orders to stay out of the Mesilla Valley until
negotiations with Mexico could be completed. With the encouragement of Davis, Pierce
also appointed James Gadsden to negotiate with Mexico over the acquisition of additional
territory. Secretary of State William L. Marcy
William L. Marcy
William Learned Marcy was an American statesman, who served as U.S. Senator and the
11th Governor of New York, and as the U.S. Secretary of War and U.S. Secretary of
State.-Early life:...
gave Gadsden clear instructions: he was to secure the Mesilla Valley for the purposes of
building a railroad through it, convince Mexico that the US had done its best regarding
the Indian raids, and elicit Mexican cooperation in efforts by US citizens to build a canal
or railroad across the Tenhuantepec isthmus. Supporting the Sloo interests was not part of
the instructions.
The Mexican government was going through political and financial turmoil. In the
process, Santa Anna
Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua MarÃa Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón , often
known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna, was a Mexican political leader, general
and President who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and
government. Santa Anna first fought against the independence...
had been returned to power about the same time that Pierce was inaugurated. Santa Anna
was willing to deal because he needed money to rebuild the Mexican Army
Mexican Army
The Mexican Army is the combined land and air branch and largest of the Mexican
Military services; it also is known as the National Defense Army. It is famous for having
been the first army to adopt and use an automatic rifle, , in 1899, and the first to issue
automatic weapons as standard issue...
for defense against the United States, but he initially rejected the extension of the border
further south to the Sierra Madre Mountains
Sierra Madre Occidental
The Sierra Madre Occidental is a mountain range in western Mexico. The range extends
from just south of the Sonora–Arizona border southeast through eastern Sonora,
western Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, Nayarit, Jalisco, Aguascalientes to
Guanajuato, where it joins with the Sierra Madre...
. He initially insisted on reparations for the damages caused by American Indian raids,
but agreed to let an international tribunal resolve this. Gadsden realized that Santa Anna
needed money and passed this information along to Secretary Marcy.
Marcy and Pierce responded with new instructions. Gadsden was authorized to purchase
any of six parcels of land with a price fixed for each. The price would include the
settlement of all Indian damages and relieve the United States from any further obligation
to protect Mexicans. $50 million ($ today) would have bought the Baja Peninsula and a
large portion of its northwestern Mexican states while $15 million ($ today) bought the of
desert necessary for the railroad plans.
Santa Anna was put off by "Gadsden’s antagonistic manner." Gadsden had advised
Santa Anna that "the spirit of the age" would soon lead the northern states to secede so he
might as well sell them now. The Mexican President was upset by William Walker
William Walker (soldier)
William Walker was an American physician, lawyer, journalist and adventurer, who
organized several private military expeditions into Latin America, with the intention of
establishing English-speaking colonies under his personal control, an enterprise then
known as "filibustering." Walker became...
's attempt to capture the Baja with 50 troops and annex Sonora
Sonora
Sonora is a state in northwestern Mexico with an area of , making it around the size of
Syria. It is surrounded by the states of Baja California and the Sea of Cortez to the west,
Chihuahua to the east, Sinaloa to the south, and the US states of Arizona and New
Mexico to the north.The capital is...
. Gadsden disavowed any government backing of Walker, who was expelled by the US
and placed on trial as a criminal. Santa Anna was not convinced that the US did not plan
further aggression against Mexican territory. Santa Anna needed to get as much money
for as little territory as possible. When Great Britain rejected Mexican requests to assist
in the negotiations, Santa Anna opted for the $15 million package.
Ratification
Pierce and his cabinet began debating the treaty in January 1854. Although disappointed
in the amount of territory secured and some of the terms, after considering the matter for
a month, they submitted it to the Senate on February 10.
Gadsden suggested the North would block the treaty in order to deny the South a railroad.
The treaty reached the Senate as it was focused on the debate over the Kansas-Nebraska
Act
. On April 17, after much debate, the Senate voted 27 to 18 in favor of the treaty, falling
three votes short of the necessary two-thirds required for treaty approval. After this
defeat, Secretary Davis and southern senators pressed Pierce to add more provisions to
the treaty:




protection for the Sloo grant;
requiring Mexico “to protect with its whole power the prosecution,
preservation, and security of the work [the canal]―;
allowing the United States to act unilaterally “when it may feel sanctioned and
warranted by the public or international law―; and
reducing territory to be acquired by and dropping the price from $15 million ($) to
$10 million ($).
This version of the treaty was successfully passed by a vote of 33 to 12. The reduction in
territory was an accommodation of northern senators who opposed the acquisition of
additional slave territory. In the final vote, northerners split 12 to 12. Gadsden took the
revised treaty back to Santa Anna, who accepted the changes.
While the land was available for construction of a southern railroad, the issue had
become too strongly associated with the sectional debate over slavery to receive federal
funding. Roberson wrote:
The effect was such that railroad development, which accelerated in the North, stagnated
in the South.
Post-ratification controversy
As originally envisioned, the purchase would have encompassed a much larger region,
extending far enough south to include most of the current Mexican states of Coahuila
Coahuila
Coahuila, formally Coahuila de Zaragoza , is one of Mexico's 31 component states. It is
located in the north of the country.Coahuila borders the Mexican states of Nuevo León
to the east, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosà to the south, and Durango and Chihuahua to
the west. To the north, Coahuila...
, Chihuahua, Sonora
Sonora
Sonora is a state in northwestern Mexico with an area of , making it around the size of
Syria. It is surrounded by the states of Baja California and the Sea of Cortez to the west,
Chihuahua to the east, Sinaloa to the south, and the US states of Arizona and New
Mexico to the north.The capital is...
, Nuevo León
, and Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas is one of the 31 states of Mexico and is located in the central-northeastern
part of the Mexican federation. It borders the U.S. state of Texas to the north, the Gulf of
Mexico to the east, Veracruz to the south, San Luis Potosà to the southwest, and Nuevo
León to the west.The name...
, as well as all of the Baja California peninsula
Baja California Peninsula
The Baja California peninsula is a peninsula in western Mexico. It extends some 1250 km
from Mexicali, Baja California, in the north to Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur, in
the south, separating the Pacific Ocean from the Gulf of California...
. The Mexican people opposed such boundaries, as did anti-slavery
History of slavery in the United States
Slavery in the United States was a form of unfree labor which existed as a legal
institution on American soil before the founding of the United States in 1776, and
remained a legal feature of American society until the passage of the Thirteenth
Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865...
U.S. Senators, who saw the purchase as acquisition of more slave territory. Even the sale
of a relatively small strip of land angered the Mexican people, who saw Santa Anna's
actions as a betrayal of their country. They watched in dismay as he squandered the funds
generated by the Purchase. Contemporary Mexican historians continue to view the deal
negatively and believe that it has defined the American-Mexican relationship in a
deleterious way.
The purchased lands were initially appended to the existing New Mexico Territory
New Mexico Territory
thumb|right|240px|Proposed boundaries for State of New Mexico, 1850The Territory of
New Mexico was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed
from September 9, 1850, until January 6, 1912, when the final extent of the territory was
admitted to the Union as the State of...
. To help control the new land, the U.S. Army established Fort Buchanan on Sonoita
Creek
Sonoita Creek
Sonoita Creek is a stream in Santa Cruz County, Arizona. It originates near and takes its
name from the abandoned Pima mission in the high valley near Sonoita...
in present-day southern Arizona on November 17, 1856. The difficulty of governing the
new areas from the territorial capital at Santa Fe, NM led to efforts as early as 1856 to
organize a new territory out of the southern portion. Many of the early settlers in the
region were, however, pro-slavery and sympathetic to the South
Southern United States
The Southern United States—commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie,
Down South, or simply the South—constitutes a large distinctive region in the
southeastern and south-central United States...
, resulting in an impasse in Congress
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the
United States of America, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The
Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
as to how best to reorganize the territory.
The shifting of the course of the Rio Grande
Rio Grande
The Rio Grande is a river that forms part of the border between the United States and
Mexico. At long, it is the fourth-longest river system in the United States...
would cause a later dispute over the boundary between Purchase lands and those of the
state of Texas, known as the Country Club Dispute
Country Club Dispute
The Country Club Area is a suburb of El Paso, Texas. It was the object of a lengthy
border dispute between Texas and New Mexico.-Origins:As part of the Compromise of
1850, Texas gave up its claim to portions of present-day New Mexico, Colorado,
Wyoming, Kansas and Oklahoma in exchange for...
.
The Division into Two American States
In 1861, during the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War , also known as the War Between the States as well as several
other names, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave
states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States
of America, also known as "the...
, the Confederate States of America
Confederate States of America
The Confederate States of America was an unrecognized state set up from 1861 to 1865
by eleven southern slave states of the United States of America that had declared their
secession from the U.S...
formed the Confederate Territory of Arizona
, including in the new territory mainly areas acquired by the Gadsden Purchase. In 1863,
using a north-to-south dividing line, the Union created its own Arizona Territory
Arizona Territory
The Territory of Arizona was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that
existed from February 24, 1863 until February 14, 1912, when it was admitted to the
Union as the 48th state....
out of the western half of the New Mexico Territory. The new American Arizona
Territory also included most of the lands acquired in the Gadsden Purchase. This territory
would be admitted into the Union as the State of Arizona
Arizona
Arizona is a state of the United States of America located in the southwestern region of
the United States. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
on February 14, 1912, the last area of the Lower 48 States
Contiguous United States
The contiguous United States are the 48 U.S. states on the continent of North America
that are south of Canada, plus the District of Columbia.The term excludes the states of
Alaska and Hawaii, and all off-shore U.S. territories and possessions, such as Puerto
Rico.Together, the 48 contiguous states...
to receive statehood.
Eventual railroad development
The Southern Pacific Railroad
Southern Pacific Railroad
The Southern Pacific Transportation Company , earlier Southern Pacific Railroad and
Southern Pacific Company , and usually simply called the Southern Pacific, was an
American railroad....
from Los Angeles
Los Õngeles
Los Õngeles is the capital of the province of BiobÃo, in the municipality of the same
name, in Region VIII , in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and
BiobÃo rivers. The population is 123,445 inhabitants...
reached Yuma, Arizona
Yuma, Arizona
Yuma is a city in and the county seat of Yuma County, Arizona, United States. It is
located in the southwestern corner of the state, and the population of the city was 77,515
at the 2000 census, with a 2008 Census Bureau estimated population of 90,041....
, in 1877, Tucson in March 1880, El Paso
El Paso
-Geography:* El Paso, Texas, a city in the United States on the border with
MexicoColombia:* El Paso, CesarUnited States:* El Paso, Arkansas* El Paso County,
Colorado* El Paso, Illinois* El Paso, Missouri, an early name for Exeter, Missouri...
in May 1881, and this completed the second transcontinental railroad
Transcontinental railroad
A transcontinental railroad is a railroad network of trackage that crosses a continental
land mass, with termini at different oceans or continental borders. Such networks can be
via the tracks of either a single railroad, or over those owned or controlled by multiple
railway companies along a...
in December 1881. The portion in Arizona was originally largely in the Gadsden
Purchase but the western part was later rerouted north of the Gila River to serve the city
of Phoenix. The portion in New Mexico runs largely through the territory that had been
disputed between Mexico and the United States after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
had gone into effect, and before time of the Gadsden Purchase. The Santa Fe Railroad
Company
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway , often abbreviated as Santa Fe, was one of
the larger railroads in the United States. The company was first chartered in February
1859...
also completed a railroad across Northern Arizona, via Prescott, Winslow, Flagstaff, and
Kingman in August of 1883.
The remainder of the Gila Valley pre-Purchase border area was traversed by the Arizona
Eastern Railway
by 1899 and the Copper Basin Railway
Copper Basin Railway
|}The Copper Basin Railway is an Arizona shortline railroad that operates from a
connection with the Union Pacific Railroad at Magma to Winkelman, Arizona, . The
CBRY also has a branch line that runs from Ray Junction to Ray, Arizona. CBRY also
interchanges with the San Manuel Arizona Railroad ...
by 1904. Excluded was a section in the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation
San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation
The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, in southeastern Arizona, United States, was
established in 1871, and is home to a conglomeration of Apache tribes relocated there
from traditional Apache homelands in Arizona and New Mexico. The 2000 census
reported the reservation population at 9,385...
, from today's San Carlos Lake
San Carlos Lake
San Carlos Lake was formed by the construction of the Coolidge Dam and is rimmed by
of shoreline. The lake is located within the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, and is
thus subject to tribal regulations. A permit is required for all activities along the lake.San
Carlos Lake is seldom full...
to Winkelman at the mouth of the San Pedro River
San Pedro River (Arizona)
San Pedro River is a northward-flowing stream originating about ten miles south of
Sierra Vista, Arizona near Cananea, Sonora, Mexico. It is one of only two rivers which
flow north from Mexico into the United States. The river flows 140 miles north through
Cochise County, Pima County and Pinal...
, including the Needle's Eye Wilderness
.
The section of U.S. Highway 60
U.S. Route 60 in Arizona
U.S. Route 60 is an east–west United States highway within Arizona. The highway runs
for from a junction with Interstate 10 near Quartzsite to the New Mexico State Line near
Springerville...
about to the northwest, between Superior
Superior, Arizona
Superior is a town in Pinal County, Arizona, United States. According to 2006 Census
Bureau estimates, the population of the town is 3,158....
and Miami
Miami, Arizona
Miami is a town in Gila County, Arizona, United States. Miami is a classic Western
copper boomtown, though the copper mines are largely dormant now...
via Top-of-the-World, takes an alternate route (17.4 road miles) between the Magma
Arizona Railroad
Magma Arizona Railroad
|}The Magma Arizona Railroad was built by the Magma Copper Company and operated
from 1915 - 1997.The railroad was originally built as a gauge line and was converted to
standard gauge in 1923...
and the Arizona Eastern Railway
railheads on each side of this gap. This highway is well north of the Gadsden Purchase.
Given the elevations of those three places, at least a 3% grade would have been required.
Population
The suburb Sunland Park (pop. 13,309 in 2000), of El Paso, Tex. in Doña Ana County,
NM, is the largest community of New Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase. Lordsburg,
NM (pop. 3,379 in 2000), the county seat of Hidalgo County, was in the disputed area
before the Gadsden Purchase, and Deming, NM, the county seat of Luna County, NM,
was north of both the Mexican and American land claims before the Gadsden Purchase,
though the proposed Bartlett-Conde compromise of 1851 would have left it in Mexico.
The boundaries of most counties in Arizona do not follow the northern boundary of the
Gadsden Purchase, but six counties in Arizona do have most of their populations within
the land of the Gadsden Purchase. Four of these also contain areas north of the Gadsden
Purchase, but these areas do have low population densities, with the exception of
northeastern Pinal County, AZ, including the towns of Apache Junction and Florence.
Maricopa County also extends south into the area of the Gadsden Purchase, but this area
is also thinly populated.
County
Cochise
Seat
Pop.
Bisbee
Bisbee
Bisbee may refer to:* Bisbee, Arizona* Bisbee, North
Dakota* Bisbee Blue, turquoise from Bisbee, Arizona.*
Bisbee Deportation, the illegal expulsion of 1,300 miners
from Bisbee, Arizona...
Graham
Pima
Pinal
Santa
Cruz
Yuma
Area
|
(mi²)
117,755
6,219
Safford
Tucson
Florence
33,489
843,746
179,727
4,641
9,189
5,374
Nogales
38,381
1,238
Yuma, Ariz. 160,026
Total 1,373,124
5,519
The northmost point of the Gadsden Purchase, and also along the American-Mexican
border during period of 1848 - 53 is at approximately in the town of Goodyear, Arizona
Goodyear, Arizona
Goodyear is a city in Maricopa County, Arizona, United States. According to 2006
Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city was 47,359...
, about 30 miles southwest of Phoenix.
See also


U.S.-Mexico border
Historic regions of the United States
Historic regions of the United States
This is a list of historic regions of the United States, defined as regions that were
legal entities in the past.-Colonial era :-The Thirteen Colonies:* Province of New
Hampshire* Province of Massachusetts Bay...

Republic of Sonora
Republic of Sonora
The Republic of Sonora was a federal republic with two states .-The Republic of
Sonora:On October 16, 1853 with 48 men, filibuster William Walker sailed out
from San Francisco on his first filibustering expedition: the conquest of the
Mexican territories of Baja California and the state of Occidente...
External links

US Geological Survey USGS Public Lands Survey Map including survey
township
(6 mile) lines




Map of proposed Arizona Territory. From explorations by A. B. Gray &
others, to accompany memoir by Lieut. Mowry U.S. Army, Delegate elect.
with some proposed railroad routes Medium-sized JPG Zoom navigator
National Park Service Map including route of the Southern Pacific railroad finally
built in the 1880s
US Department of State - Gadsden Purchase, 1853-1854, Office of the Historian
3-cent stamp showing small version of northeast boundary of Purchase - i.e.
claiming more territory for U.S. pre-Purchase
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licensed under the GFDL.