Amanda Ball and Ruth Burrows
IB History Outline
Question 6
Assess the following statement: Allied diplomacy in the Middle East 1915-1918 created a
situation in which no nation was happy.
Introduction: Living in a country where there is order in the political, social, and
economic structure, it is difficult to imagine living in a state of confusion and unrest.
However, the Middle East is an area that is saturated with chaos, rebellion, and
dissatisfaction. Diplomacy between 1915 and 1918 created this situation because it
caused discontent among the people living in the Middle East.
Thesis: The manipulative and contradictory nature of allied diplomacy in the Middle East
from 1915-1918, created misunderstandings that resulted in the dissatisfaction of most
non-allied nations involved.
I.
Hussein-McMahon Correspondence
a. Hussein wanted a pledge of British financial and political support against
his Arab rivals and the Ottomans.
i. Britain wanted to have an Arab revolt because they wanted to have
an influence in the Hejaz.
b. McMahon assured independence and land as a way to gain majority
support of the Arabs in the revolt.
c. McMahon tells Hussein that Britain will “guarantee the Holy Places
against all external aggression,” but never actually promises the allocation
of Jerusalem, Mecca, or Medina to the Arabs (McMahon letter, October
24, 1915).
d. "The districts of Mersin and Alexandretta, and portions of Syria lying to
the west of the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama, and Aleppo, cannot be
said to be purely Arab, and should be excluded from the limits demanded"
(McMahon letter, October 24, 1915).
i. By not explicitly excluding Jerusalem and Gaza, McMahon
indicates that this area is purely Arab and therefore included in the
land for the Arabs.
e. Ambiguous terms left a lot to be desired.
i. McMahon says that Britain “will assist [the Arabs] to establish
what may appear to be the most suitable forms of government in
those various territories” that the Arabs may receive (McMahon
letter, October 24, 1915).
f. McMahon made it clear that the Arabs will only “seek the advice and
guidance of Great Britain,” preventing any other major nations from
staking claim in the Arab cause, effectively safe guarding British control
(McMahon letter, October 24, 1915).
II.
Sykes-Picot Agreement (May 1916)
a. British held secret discussions with their allies about dividing the Ottoman
Empire into spheres of influence between Britain and France.
i. The Sykes-Picot agreement came out of these discussions.
b. Sykes and Picot divided the Levant and Iraq areas into sections in which
they would utilize direct or indirect influence.
c. The territory west of the Jordan River, including Jerusalem, would be
under international administration.
i. Semi-independent Arab states would be established in areas of
indirect French or British control.
d. The British indicated that the Arabs would receive the towns of Homs,
Hama, Damascus, and Aleppo in exchange for cooperating with the Allies.
e. The discussions between the British and French did not refer to the
previous Hussein-McMahon explicitly.
f. Sykes-Picot Agreement contained some terms that contradicted those of
the Hussein-McMahon correspondence.
i. McMahon explicitly stated that the towns of Homs, Hama,
Damascus, and Aleppo were to be excluded from any land that the
Arabs would receive, while the Sykes-Picot agreement stated that
these towns would be granted to the Arabs, under French rule.
III.
The Balfour Declaration (November 2, 1917)
a. During the course of World War I, Britain and France recognize the Jewish
population’s influence in (the United States and) Russia’s presence in the
war.
b. British officials decided to extend a “gesture of goodwill” to persuade
Jewish population (especially those involved in the revolution) to support
allied powers (Cleveland 237).
c. Balfour uses ambiguous phrasing to state that Britain supports the
“establishment in Palestine of a national home for Jewish people” (Balfour
Declaration).
ii.Although Balfour specifies the use of Palestine for this purpose, no
one has agreed at this point what Palestine actually is; the phrase
“in Palestine” also suggests that this “national home” will not take
up all of Palestine, whatever that may be.
d. Balfour says that the British government “will use their best endeavors” to
help create this national home.
i. This language doesn’t specify how or to what extent Britain
will reach the goal.
e. Balfour states that the “civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish
communities in Palestine” should be protected and not jeopardized as a
result of the creation of this Jewish home.
IV.
V.
i. This phrase notably does not include political or economic
rights of the non-Jewish communities in Palestine.
System and Organizational Levels of Analysis of Allied Diplomacy 19151918
a. Neo-Realism says that because anarchy dominates international relations,
states will pursue power to protect themselves.
i. This is illustrated by Britain’s diplomatic actions (see above).
b. The Balance of Power Theory says that when states are equal in abilities,
they are less likely to go to war.
i. Due to the imbalance of power that existed before and during
World War I, Britain’s diplomatic actions perpetuated political and
civil unrest in the Middle East.
c. The Organizational Level says that institutions will bargain with each
other to create a foreign policy that is a compromise between competing
organizations.
i. Britain’s negotiations regarding the Middle East consisted of
compromises that contradicted one another, thus creating
confusion and discontent within the nations involved.
National Responses to Allied Diplomacy in the Middle East
a. The Jewish nation, especially Zionists, were upset by the terms of both the
Hussein-McMahon Correspondence and the Sykes-Picot Agreement.
Eventually, the Balfour Declaration satisfied their desire for land in the
Middle East, but the ambiguity of the declaration lacked specifics
regarding the national home in Palestine.
b. The Arabs were upset by the negotiations of Britain regarding the Balfour
Declaration and the Sykes-Picot Agreement. They also felt cheated by
McMahon’s vague promises that put them at the mercy of the British.
c. The Ottoman Empire and Germany were upset because they missed the
opportunity to regain control in the Middle East.
d. France and Russia received land in the various negotiations and therefore
were only wary of the amount of control that Britain had retained in the
Middle East.
e. Britain was pleased as a result of the various negotiations; by utilizing
negotiations to appeal to opposing groups (the Arabs and the Jews),
Britain was able to control negotiations of land and power in the Middle
East. This is evidence of the manipulative nature of Allied Diplomacy,
specifically fueled by the British government, during World War I.
Conclusion: Allied diplomacy was not calibrated and therefore was very contradictory
which generated many misunderstandings. The false promises to the Middle Easterners
naturally created dissatisfaction. The Arabs, Jews, and Ottomans were all affected by the
allied diplomacy, because the allies created policies that were in their best interest.
Clearly this would cause the people on the receiving end of these policies to not be
satisfied with them. The Hussein-McMahon correspondence, Sykes-Picot Agreement,
and Balfour Declaration all resulted in discontent between nations involved because of
the contradictory nature of the agreements and the failure to achieve a compromise.