(cerebral) cortex Abraham Maslow Aaron Beck Absolute threshold Abnormal Behavior Accommodation Abnormal psychology acetylcholine (ACh) 1a humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; selfactualization, transcendence wrinkled outer portion of brain; center for higher order brain functions such as thinking, planning, judgment; processes sensory information and directs movement The statistically determined minimum level of stimulation necessary to excite a perceptual system. pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression. According to Piaget, the process by which existing mental structures and behaviors are modified to adapt to new experiences Behavior characterized as atypical, socially unacceptable, distressing to the individual or others, maladaptive, and/or the result of distorted cognitions neurotransmitter that causes contraction of skeletal muscles; lack of Ach linked with Alzheimer's disease; The field of psychology concerned with the assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior. 1b achievement test adaptation ACTH (arenocorticotropic hormone) Adolescence action potential adrenal glands Actor-observer Effect afferent neuron 2a a trait or inherited characteristic that has increased in a population because it solved a problem of survival or reproduction test designed to determine a person's level of knowledge in a given subject area The period of extending from the onset of puberty to early adulthood released by adrenal glands; triggered by norepinephrine to prolong the response to stress (used in the sympathetic nervous system) endocrine glands located above the kidney and secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which prepare the body for "fight or flight" an electrical current sent down the axon of a neuron and is initiated by the rapid reversal of the polarization of the cell membrane nerve cell that sends messages to brain or spinal cord from other parts of the body; also called sensory neurons The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional causes but to attribute one's own behavior to situational causes. 2b Ageism Albert Bandura Aggression Albert Ellis agonist Alfred Adler Agoraphobia Alfred Binet 3a pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play Prejudice against the elderly and the resulting discrimination against them pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions Any behavior intended to harm another person or thing. neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: inferiority complex, organ inferiority; Studies: birth order influences personality chemical that mimics or facilitates the actions of a neurotransmitter pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French) anxiety disorder characterized by marked fear and avoidance of being alone in a place from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing 3b Algorithm amnesia all-or-none principle amygdala Altruism Anal Stage Alzheimer's Disease Androgynous 4a inability to remember information (typically, all events within a specific period), usually due to physiological trauma Procedure for solving a problem by implementing a set of rules over and over again until the solution is found. part of the limbic system; influences emotions such as aggression, fear, and self-protective behaviors the law that the neuron either fires at 100% or not at all Freud's second stage of personality development, from about age 2 to about age 3, during which children learn to control the immediate gratification they obtain through defecation and to become responsive to the demands of society. Having both stereotypically male and stereotypically female characteristics Behaviors that benefit other people and for which there is no discernable extrinsic reward, recognition, or appreciation. A chronic and progressive disorder of the brain that is the most common cause of degeneration dementia 4b Anna Freud antagonist Anna O. anterograde amnesia Anorexia Nervosa Antisocial personality disorder anorexia nervosa Anxiety 5a child psychoanalysis; chemical that opposes the emphasized importance actions of a of the ego and its constant neurotransmitter struggle loss of memory for events and experiences occurring from the time of an amnesia-causing event forward Austrian-Jewish woman (real name: Bertha Pappenheim) diagnosed with hysteria, treated by Josef Breuer for severe cough, paralysis of the extremities on the right side of her body, and disturbances of vision, hearing, and speech, as well as hallucinations and loss of consciousness. Her treatment is regarded as marking the beginning of psychoanalysis. Personality disorder characterized by egocentricity, and behavior that is irresponsible and that violates the rights of other people, a lack of guilt feelings, an inability to understand other people and a lack of fear of punishment. An eating disorder characterized by an obstinate and willful refusal to eat, a distorted body image, and an intense fear of being fat a generalized feeling of fear and apprehension that may be related to a particular situation or object and is often accompanied by increased physiological arousal. eating disorder most common in adolescent females characterized by weight less than 85% of normal, restricted eating, and unrealistic body image 5b aphasia aptitude test Appraisal Archetypes Approach-approach conflict Aristotle Approach-avoidance conflict Arousal 6a a test designed to predict a person's future performance inability to understand or use language In Jung's theory, the emotionally charged ideas and images that are rich in meaning and symbolism and exist within the collective unconscious. the evaluation of the significance of a situation or event as it relates to a person's well-being Ancient Greek philosopher. Wrote "Peri Psyches" ("About the Mind"). Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives Activation of the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the muscles and glands Conflict that results from having to choose an alternative that has both attractive and unappealing aspects 6b Assessment Attitudes Assimilation Attributions association areas audition Attachment authoritarian parenting 7a Patterns of feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas, or objects that are based on a person's past experiences, shape his or her future behavior, and are evaluative in nature. Process of evaluating individual differences among human beings by means of tests interviews, observations, and recordings of physiological. The process by which a person infers other people's motives or intensions by observing their behavior. According to Piaget, the process by which new ideas and experiences are absorbed and incorporated into existing mental structures and behaviors the sense of hearing areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather, they are involved in higher mental processes such as thinking, planning, and communicating style of parenting marked by emotional coldness, imposing rules and expecting obedience The strong emotional tie that a person feels toward special other persons in his or her life 7b authoritative parenting Avoidance-avoidance conflict autonomic nervous system axon aversive conditioning axon terminal Aversive counterconditioning B.F. Skinner 8a Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making a division of the peripheral a single long, fiber that nervous system that regulates carries outgoing messages involuntary functions; made up of sympathetic and to other neurons, parasympathetic nervous muscles, or glands systems terminal button, synaptic knob; the structure at the end of an excellent terminal branch; houses the synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitters learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or reinforcer behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons A counterconditioning technique in which an aversive or noxious stimulus is paired with a stimulus with the undesirable behavior. 8b Babinski reflex behavioral genetics Backward search behaviorism behavior Benjamin Whorf Behavior therapy binocular cues 9a study of hereditary influences and how it influences behavior and thinking Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched perspective that defines psychology as the study of behavior that is directly observable or through assessment instruments Heuristic procedure in which a problem solver works backward from the goal or end of a problem to the current position, in order to analyze the problem and reduce the steps needed to get from the current position to the goal. language; his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think an observable action depth cues that are based on two eyes A therapy that is based on the application of learning principles to human behavior and that focuses on changing overt behaviors rather than on understanding subjective feelings, unconscious processes, or motivations; also known as behavior modification. 9b Biofeedback Body Language Bipolar disorder Bonding blind spot bottom-up processing Blood-Brain Barrier brain 10a A process through which people receive information Communication of about the status of a physical information through body system and use this feedback positions and gestures. information to learn to control the activity of that system Special process of emotional attachment that may occur between parents and babies in the minutes and hours immediately after birth mood disorder originally know as manic-depressive disorder because it is characterized by behavior that vacillates between two extremes; mania and depression. information processing area on retina with no that begins at the sensory receptor cells (where optic receptors and works up to nerve leaves the eye) perception portion of the CNS above the spinal cord; consists of hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain A mechanism that prevents certain molecule from entering the brain but allows others to cross 10b brainstem Bulimia Nervosa Brainstorming bulimia nervosa Brightness Burnout Broca's area Bystander Effect 11a An eating disorder characterized by repeated episodes of binge eating (and a fear of not being able to stop eating) followed by purging top of the spinal column eating disorder Problem-solving technique characterized by pattern that involves considering 9of eating binges followed all possible solutions by purging (e.g., without making prior vomiting, laxatives, evaluative judgments. exercise) State of emotional and physical exhaustion, lowered productivity, and feelings of isolation, often caused by work-related pressures Unwillingness to help exhibited by witnesses to an event, which increase when there are more observers. The lightness or darkness of reflected light, determined in large part by the light's intensity. located in left frontal lobe; controls production of speech 11b Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Case study Carl Jung case study Carl Rogers Catatonic type of schizophrenia Carol Gilligan central nervous system 12a a descriptive study that includes an intensive study of one person and allows an intensive examination of a single case, usually chosen for its interesting or unique characteristics conscious experience of emotion and physiological arousal occur at the same time a highly detailed description of a single individual or a vent neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; dream studies/interpretation Type of schizophrenia characterized either by displays of excited or violent motor activity or by stupor. humanistic psychology; Contributions: founded clientcentered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, the brain and spinal cord moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse 12b cerebellum chromosome Charles Darwin chunks Charles Spearman Circadian Rhythms Child abuse Clark Hull 13a threadlike structure within the nucleus of cells that contain genes part of the brain that coordinates balance, movement, reflexes manageable and meaningful units of information organized in such a way that it can be easily encoded, stored, and retrieved biologist; developed theory of evolution; transmutation of species, natural selection, evolution by common descent; "The Origin of Species" catalogs his voyage on The Beagle Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night intelligence; found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability) motivation theory, drive reduction; maintained that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates physical, emotional, or sexual mistreatment of a child. 13b Classical Conditioning Cognitive Dissonance Client-centered therapy Cognitive Psychology clinical psychologist cognitive psychology cochlea Cognitive theories 14a A state of mental discomfort arising from a discrepancy between two or more of a person's beliefs or between a person's beliefs and overt behavior. Conditioning process in which an originally neutral stimulus, by repeated pairing with a stimulus that normally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or even identical response; aka Pavlovian conditioning The study if the overlapping fields of perception, learning, memory, and thought, with a special emphasis on how people attend to, acquire, transform, store, and retrieve knowledge. An insight therapy, developed be Carl Rogers, that seeks to help people evaluate the world and themselves from their own perspective by providing them with a nondirective environment and unconditional positive regard; also known as person-centered therapy. perspective that focuses on the mental processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and thinking psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior In the study of motivation, an explanation of behavior that asserts that people actively and regularly determine their own goals and the means of achieving them through thought. snail-shaped fluid-filled tube in the inner ear involved in transduction 14b cognitive-appraisal theory of emotion Color Blindness cohort effect computerized axial tomography (CT scan) Collective Unconscious Concept Collective Unconscious Concordance rate 15a The inability to perceive different hues. our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in creates a computerized image using x-rays passed through the brain observed group differences based on the era when people were born and grew up, exposing them to particular experiences that may affect the results of cross-sectional studies Mental category used to classify an event or object according to some distinguishing property or feature. In Jung's theory, a shared storehouse of primitive ideas and images that reside in the unconscious and are inherited from one's ancestors. The degree to which a condition or traits shared two or more individuals or groups Jung's theory of a shared storehouse of primitive ideas and images that are inherited ideas and images, called archetypes, are emotionally charged and rich in meaning and symbolism 15b Concrete operational stage cones Conditioned Response Conflict Conditioned Stimulus Conformity Conditioning confounding variable 16a photoreceptors that detect color and fine detail in bright-light conditions; not present in peripheral vision Piaget's thrid stage of cognitive development (lasting from approximately age 6 or 7 to age 11 or 12), during which the child develops the ability to understand constant factors in the environment, rules, and higher-order symbolic systems The emotional state or condition that arises when a person must choose between two or more competing motives, behaviors, or impulses Response elicited by a conditioned stimulus People's tendency to change attitudes or behaviors so that they are consistent with those of other people or with social norms. Neutral stimulus that, through repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to elicit a conditioned response anything that causes a difference between the IV and the DV other than the independent variable Systematic procedure through which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned 16b Consciousness control group Consciousness conventional level of moral development Conservation Convergent thinking consolidation convolutions 17a subjects and not exposed to a changing variable in an experiment The general state of being aware of and responsive to events in the environment, as well as one's own mental processes Freud's level of mental life that consists of those morality based on fitting experiences that we are in to the norms of society aware of at any given time. In problem solving, the process of narrowing down choices and alternatives to arrive at a suitable answer. Ability to recognize that objects can e transformed in some way, visually or phycially, yet still be the same in number, weight, substance, or volume the folds in the cerebral cortex that increase the surface area of the brain the process of changing a short-term memory to a long-term one 17b Coping correlational research cornea counseling psychologist corpus callosum Counterconditioning correlation coefficient Creativity 18a establish the relationship between two variables Process by which a person takes some action to manage, master, tolerate, or reduce environmental or internal demands that cause or might cause stress and that tax the individual's inner resources psychologist who treats people with adjustment problems transparent covering of the eye Process of reconditioning in which a person is taught a new, more adaptive response to a familiar stimulus. large band of white neural fibers that connects to to brain hemispheres and carries messages between them; myelinated; involved in intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness; does it reach full maturity until 20s A feature of thought and problem solving that includes the tendency to generate or recognize ideas considered to be high-quality, original, novel, and appropriate. a number that expresses the degree and direction of the relationship between 2 variables, ranging from -1 to +1 18b Critical Period Daniel Goleman Cross-sectional Studies Dark adaptation Cross-sectional study Darley & Latane crystallized intelligence David McClelland 19a emotional intelligence The time in to development of an organism when it is especially sensitive to certain environmental influences; outside of that period the same influences will have far less effect The increase in sensitivity to light that occurs when the illumination level changes from high to low, causing chemicals in the rods and cones to regenerate and return to their inactive state. A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ social psychology; bystander apathy, diffusion of responsibility A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ on an important dimension achievement motivation; developed scoring system for TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation learned knowledge and skills such as vocabulary, which tends to increase with age 19b David Rosenhan decay David Weschler Decentration Debriefing Decision making debriefing declarative memory 20a loss of information from memory as a result of disuse and the passage of time did study in which healthy patients were admitted to psychiatric hospitals and diagnoses with schizophrenia; showed that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, the label, even when behavior indicates otherwise, is hard to overcome in a mental health setting Process of changing from a totally self-oriented point of view to one tha recognizes other people's feelings, ideas, and viewpoints established an intelligence test especially for adults (WAIS); also WISC and WPPSI Assessing and choosing among alternatives. Informing participants about the true nature of a experiment after its completion. memory for specific information a procedure to inform participants about the true nature of an experiment after its completion 20b Defense Mechanism demand characteristics Deindividuation Dementia Delusions dendrites Demand characteristics Denial 21a clues participants discover about the purpose of a study that suggest how they should respond An unconscious way of reducing anxiety by distorting perceptions of reality. Impairment of mental functioning and global cognitive abilities in otherwise alert individuals, causing memory loss and related symptoms and typically having a progressive nature The process by which individuals lose their selfawareness and distinctive personality in the context of a group, which may lead them to engage in antinormative behavior. branching extensions of neuron that receives messages from neighboring neurons False beliefs that are inconsistent with reality but are held in spite of evidence that disproves them. Defense mechanism by which people refuse to accept reality. Elements of an experimental situation that might cause a participant to perceive the situation in a certain way or become aware of the purpose of the study and thus bias the participant to behave in a certain way, and in so doing, distort results. 21b Dependence descriptive statistics dependent variable Descriptive Studies depressants (AKA sedative-hypnotics) developmental psychologist Depressive disorders Developmental Psychology 22a general set of procedures used to summarize, condense, and describe sets of data The situation that occurs when the drug becomes part of the body's functioning and produces withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued A type of research method that allows researchers to measure variables so that they can develop a description of a situation or phenomenon the variable in a controlled experiment that is expected to change due to the manipulation of the independent variable studies psychological development across the lifespan Any of a class of drugs that relax and calm a user and, in higher doses, induce sleep; also known as a depressant The study of the lifelong, often agerelated, processes of change in the physical, cognitive, moral, emotional, and social domains of functioning; such changes are rooted in biological mechanisms that are genetically controlled, as well as in social interactions general category of mood disorders in which people show extreme and persistent sadness, despair, and loss of interest in life's usual activities. 22b Deviation IQ Disorganized type of schizophrenia Dichromats Displacement difference threshold Dissociative amnesia Discrimination Dissociative disorders 23a type of schizophrenia characterized by severely disturbed thought processes, frequent incoherence, disorganized behavior, and inappropriate affect. A standard IQ test score whose mean and standard deviation remain constant for all ages Defense mechanism by which people divert sexual or aggressive feelings for one person onto another person. People who can distinguish only two of the three basic colors. Dissociative disorder characterized by the sudden and extensive inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature. minimum difference between any two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time psychological disorders characterized by a sudden but temporary alteration in consciousness, identity, sensorimotor behavior, or memory Behavior targeted at individuals or groups and intended to hold them apart and treat them differently. 23b Dissociative identity disorder dopamine Divergent thinking Double bind DNA double-blind procedure dominant genes Double-blind techniques 24a neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia dissociative disorder characterized by the existence within an individual of two or more distinct personalities, each of which is dominant at different times and directs the individual's behavior at those times; commonly known as multiple personality disorder. a situation in which an individual is given two different and inconsistent messages. In problem solving, the process of widening the range of possibilities and expanding the options for solutions. technique in which neither the persons involved for those conducting the experiment know in what group to participate is involved deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic formation in a double-helix; can replicate or reproduce itself; made of genes A research technique in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know who is in the control and experimental groups. member of a gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait 24b Dream Drug Dream analysis dualism Drive eclectic Drive theory (aka, drivereduction theory) educational psychologist 25a Any chemical substance that, in small amounts, alters biological or cognitive processes or both seeing mind and body as two different things that interact A state of consciousness that occurs during sleep, usually accompanied by vivid visual, tactile, or auditory imagery. Psychoanalytic technique in which a patient's dreams are described in detail and interpreted so as to provide insight into the individual's unconscious motivations. use of techniques and ideas from a variety of approaches an internal aroused condition that directs an organism to satisfy a physiological need focuses on how effective teaching and learning take place an explanation of behavior that assumes that an organism is motivated to act because of a need to attain, reestablish, or maintain some goal that helps with survival 25b Edward Bradford Titchener Ego Edward Thorndike Egocentrism EEG (electroencephalogram) Ekman & Friesen efferent neuron Elaboration Likelihood Model 26a In Freud's theory, the part of personality that seeks to satisfy instinctual needs in accordance with reality. Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology. Inability to perceive a situation or event except in relation to oneself; also know as self-centeredness behaviorism; Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence Universal Emotions (based upon facial expressions); Study Basics: Constants across culture in the face and emotion shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp Theory suggesting that there are two routes to attitude change: the central route, which focuses on thoughtful consideration of an argument for change, and the peripheral route, which focuses on less careful, more emotional, and even superficial evaluation. nerve cell that send messages from brain and spinal cord to other parts of body; also called motor neurons 26b elaborative rehearsal Elizabeth Kübler-Ross Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) Elizabeth Loftus Electroencephalogram (EEG) Embryo Electromagnetic Radiation Emotion 27a developmental psychology; wrote "On Death and Dying": 5 stages the terminally ill go through when facing death (1. denial, 2. anger, 3. bargaining, 4. depression, 5. acceptance) rehearsal involving repletion and analysis, in which a stimulus may be associated with (linked to) other information and further processed cognition and memory; studied repressed memories and false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions and illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony A treatment for severe mental illness in which an electric current is briefly applied to the head in order to produce a generalized seizure. The prenatal organism from the 5th through the 49th day after conception Graphical record of brainwave activity obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp and forehead A subjective response, usually accompanied by a physiological change, which is interpreted n a particular way by the individual and often leads to a change in behavior The entire spectrum of waves initiated by the movement of charged particles. 27b emotional intelligence endocrine glands empiricism endocrine system encoding endorphins encoding specificity principle engineering psychologist 28a the bodies "slow" chemical communication by secreting hormones directly into the bloodstream the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which regulate body and behavioral processes the view that knowledge should be acquired through observation and often an experiment chemical similar to opiates that relieves pain; may induce feelings of pleasure organizing sensory information so it can be processed by the nervous system does research on how people function best with machines retrieval cues that match original information work better 28b epinephrine Ernst Weber episodic memory ESP Equity Theory ethics Erik Erikson ethnocentrism 29a perception; identified just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster the controversial claim that sensation can occur apart from sensory input memory of specific personal events and situations (episodes) tagged with information about time rules of proper and acceptable conduct that investigators use to guide psychological research Social psychological theory that states that people attempt to maintain stable, consistent interpersonal relationships in which the ratio of member's contributions is balanced. tendency to believe that one's own group is the standard, the reference point by which other people and groups should be judged neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?" 29b evolutionary psychology excitatory neurotransmitter Ex Post Facto Design Excitement phase ex post facto study Expectancy Theories ex post facto study experiment 30a chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to fire perspective that seeks to explain and predict behaviors by analyzing how the human brain developed over time, how it functions, and how input from the environment affects human behaviors the first phase of the sexual response cycle during which there are increases in heart rate blood pressure and respiration A type of design that contrasts groups of people who differ on some variable of interest to the researcher. Explanations of behavior that focus on people's expectations about reaching a goal and their need for achievement as energizing factors a type of design that contrasts groups of people who differ on some variable of interest to the researcher a procedure in which a researcher systematically manipulates and observes elements of a situation in order to test a hypothesis and make a cause-and-effect statement describes differences between groups of participants that differ naturally on a variable such as race or gender 30b Experimental design Extinction (classical conditioning) experimental group Extinction (operant conditioning) experimenter bias Extrinsic motivation explicit memory Factor analysis 31a The procedure of withholding the unconditioned stimulus and presenting the conditioned stimulus alone, which gradually reduces the probability of the conditioned response A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship The process by which the probability of an organism's emitting a response is reduced when reinforcement no longer follows the response in an experiment, the group of participants to whom a treatment is given Motivation supplied by rewards that come from the external environment expectation of the person conducting an experiment which may be affect the outcome Statistical procedure designed to discover the independent elements (factors) in any set of data conscious memory that a person is aware of 31b family studies Fixation Family therapy Fixed-interval Schedule fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Fixed-ratio Schedule Fetus flashbulb memories 32a An excessive attachment to some person or object that was appropriate only at an earlier stage of development studies of hereditability on the assumption that if a gene influences a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait in distant relative A type of therapy in which two A reinforcement schedule in which or more people who are a reinforcer (reward) is delivered committed to one another's after a specified interval of time, provided that the required response well-being are treated at once, in and effort to change the occurs at least once in the interval ways the interact. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer(reward) is delivered after a specified number of responses has occurred group of abnormalities that occur in the babies of mothers who drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event that is vivid and remembered with confidence The prenatal organism from the 8th week after conception until birth 32b fluid intelligence Formal operational stage forebrain fovea forebrain Francis Galton forensic psychologist fraternal twins 33a Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development (beginning at about age 12), during which the individual can think hypothetically, can consider future possibilites, and can use deductive logic cognitive abilities requiring speed or rapid learning that tends to diminish with age top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, small area of retina where and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional image is focused regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; compared identical & fraternal twins, hereditary differences in intellectual ability largest, most complicated, and most advanced of the three divisions of the brain; comprises the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, and cortex twins from two separate fertilized eggs (zygotes); share half of the same genes applies psychological concepts to legal issues 33b Free association frontal lobes frequency Fulfillment frequency distribution Functional fixedness frequency polygon functional MRI (fMRI) 34a control emotional behaviors, make decisions, carry out plans; speech (Broca's area); controls movement of muscles In Roger's theory of personality, an inborn tendency directing people toward actualizing their essential nature and thus attaining their potential. Psychoanalytic technique in which a person is asked to report to the therapist his or her thoughts and feelings as they occur, regardless of how trivial, illogical, or objectionable their content may appear. number of wavelengths that pass a point in a given amount of time; determines hue of light and the pitch of a sound a chart or array of scores, Inability to see that an usually arranged from object can have a function highest to lowest, showing other than its stated or the number of instances usual one. for each score shows brain activity at higher reolution than PET scan when changes in oxygen concentration in neurons alters its magnetic qualities graph of a frequency distribution that shows the number of instances of obtained scores, usually with the data points connect by straight lines 34b functionalism Gazzaniga or Sperry Fundamental Attribution Error Gender GABA (gammaaminobutyric acid) Gender Identity gate control theory Gender Schema Theory 35a neuroscience/biopsychology; studied split brain patients school of psychological thought that was concerned with how and why the conscious mind works A socially and culturally constructed set of distinctions between masculine and feminine sets of behaviors that is promoted and expected by society The tendency to attribute other people's behavior to dispositional (internal) causes rather than situational (external) causes. A person's sense of being male or female neurotransmitter that inhibits firing of neurons; linked with Huntington's disease The theory that children and adolescents use gender as an organizing theme to classify and interpret their perceptions about the world and themselves pain is only experienced in the pain messages can pass through a gate in the spinal cord on their route to the brain 35b Gender stereotype genetics gene Genital Stage Generalized anxiety disorder genotype genetic mapping Gestalt psychology 36a study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next A fixed, overly simple, sometimes incorrect idea about traits, attitudes, and behaviors of males or females Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence). a DNA segment on a chromosome that controls transmission of traits an individual's genetic make-up An anxiety disorder characterized by persistent anxiety occurring on more days than not for at least 6 months, sometimes with increased activity of the autonomic nervous system, apprehension, excessive muscle tension, and difficulty in concentrating school of psychological thought that argued that behavior cannot be studied in parts but must be viewed a s whole dividing the chromosomes into smaller fragments that can be characterized and ordered so that the fragments reflect their respective locations on specific chromosomes 36b Gibson & Walk graded potential glial cells Grammar gonads Grasping reflex Gordon Allport Group 37a shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire The linguistic description of how a language functions, especially the rules and patterns used for generating appropriate and comprehensible sentences. developmental psychology; "visual cliff" studies with infants supportive cells of nervous system that guide growth of new neurons; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes waste Reflex that causes a newborn to grasp vigorously any object reproductive glands-male, touching the palm or fingers testes; female, ovaries or placed in the hand Two or more individuals who are working with a common purpose or have some common goals, characteristics, or interests. trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary 37b Group Polarization habituation Group therapy hallucinogens (AKA psychedelic drugs) Groupthink Halo effect gustation Hans Eysenck 38a decreased responsiveness with repeated presentation of the same stimulus Shifts or exaggeration in group members' attitudes or behavior as a result of group discussion. Consciousness-altering drugs that affect moods, thoughts, memory, judgment, and perception and that are consumed for the purpose of producing those results Psychotherapeutic process in which several people meet as a group with a therapist to receive psychological help. The tendency for one characteristic of an individual to influence a tester's evaluation of other characteristics personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion The tendency of people in a group to seek concurrence with one another when reaching a decision, rather than effectively evaluating options. sense of taste 38b Harry Harlow Henry Murray Harry Stack Sullivan Heritability health psychologist heritability Health psychology Herman von Helmholtz 39a personality assessment; created the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) with Christina Morgan, stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach and evaluate their own performances development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort The genetically determined proportion of a trait's variation among individuals in a population interpersonal psychoanalysis; groundwork for enmeshed relationships, developed the Self-System, a configuration of personality traits the proportion of variation among individuals that is due to genetic causes focuses on psychological factors in illness Theorist who both aided in the development of the trichromatic theory of color perception and Place theory of pitch perception. Subfield concerned with the use of psychological ideas and principles to enhance health, prevent illness, diagnose and treat disease, and improve rehabilitation 39b Hermann Ebbinghaus Higher-order Conditioning Hermann Ebbinghaus hindbrain Hermann Rorschach hindbrain Heuristics hippocampus 40a Process by which a neutral stimulus takes on conditioned properties through pairing with a conditioned stimulus memory; studied memorization of meaningless words the most primitive of the three functional divisions of the brain, consisting of the pons, medulla, reticular formation, and cerebellum the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well division which includes the cerebellum, Pons, and medulla; responsible for involuntary processes: blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test which consists of 10 standardized inkblots where the subject tells a story, the observer then derives aspects of the personality from the subject's commentary part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories Sets of strategies, rather than strict rules, that act as guidelines for discovery-oriented problem solving. 40b Hobson & McCarley Howard Gardner Holmes & Rahe Hue Homeostasis human genomes hormone humanistic psychology 41a devised theory of multiple intelligences: logicalmathematic, spatial, bodilykinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic sleep/dreams/consciousness; pioneers of Activation-Synthesis Theory of dreams; sleep studies that indicate the brain creates dream states, not information processing or Freudian interpretations The psychological property of light referred to as color, determined by the wavelengths of reflected light. stress and coping; used "social readjustment scale" to measure stress 30,000 genes needed to build a human Maintenance of a constant state of inner stability or balance perspective that emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the idea that humans have free will chemical that carries messages that travel through the bloodstream to help regulate bodily functions 41b Humanistic theory hypothesis Hyperopic Id hypnosis Ideal Self hypothalamus identical twins 42a a tentative statement or idea expressing a causal relationship between two events or variables that is to be evaluated in a research study An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and selfworth In Freud's theory, the source of a person's instinctual energy, which works mainly on the pleasure principle. Able to see objects at a distance clearly but having trouble seeing things up close; farsighted In Roger's theory of personality, the self a person would ideally like to be. state with deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility twins from a single fertilized egg (zygote) with the same genetic makeup; also called monozygotic (MZ) twins area of the brain that is part of the limbic system and regulates behaviors such as, eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, motivation; also body temperature 42b imagery independent variable Imaginary Audience industrial/organizational psychologist implicit memory inferential statistics Impression Formation informed consent 43a the variable in a controlled experiment that the experimenter directly and purposefully manipulates to see how the other variables under study will be affected the creation or re-creation of a mental picture of a sensory or perceptual experience applies psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity and the quality of work life A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they see themselves as always "on stage" with an audience watching procedures used to draw conclusions about larger populations from small samples of data memory a person is not aware of possessing the agreement of participants to take part in an experiment and their acknowledgement that they understand the nature of their participation in the research, and have been fully informed about the general nature of the research, its goals, and methods The process by which a person uses behavior and appearance of others to form attitudes about them. 43b inhibitory neurotransmitter insulin Insight therapy Intelligence Insomnia interference instinct interneurons 44a hormone backpacks in the regulation of blood sugar by acting in the utilization of carbohydrates; released by pancreas; too muchhypoglycemia, too littlediabetes chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing The overall capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment Any therapy that attempts to discover relationships between unconscious motivations and current abnormal behavior. the suppression of one bit Problems in going to sleep of information by another or maintaining sleep nerve cell that transmits messages between sensory and motor neurons inherited, automatic species-specific behaviors 44b Interpersonal Attraction introspection Interpretation ions Intimacy iris Intrinsic motivation Ivan Pavlov 45a a person's description and analysis of what he or she is thinking and feeling or what he or she has just thought about The tendency of one person to evaluate another person (or a symbol or image of another person) in a positive way. electrically charged particles found both inside and outside a neuron; negative ions are found inside the cell membrane in a polarized neuron In Freud's theory, the technique of providing a context, meaning, or cause for a specific idea, feeling, or set of behaviors; the process of tying a set of behaviors to its unconscious determinant. colored part of the eye that regulates size of pupil A state of being or feeling in which each person in a relationship is willing to selfdisclose and to express important feelings and information to the other person. discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell Motivation that leads to behaviors engaged in for no apparent reward except the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity itself 45b James-Lange theory of emotion John Locke Jean Piaget Judith Langlois John B Watson just noticeable difference (JND) John Garcia Karen Horney 46a 17th century English philosopher. Wrote that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, people are born without innate ideas. We are completely shaped by our environment . conscious experience of emnotion results from one's awareness of physiological arousal developmental psychology;: social development & processing, effects of appearance on behavior, origin of social stereotypes, sex/love/intimacy, facial expression cognitive psychology; created a 4stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation) experience of the difference threshold behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety" Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance. 46b Karl Wernicke Kurt Lewin Kenneth Clark Langer & Rodin kinesthesis Language Konrad Lorenz Latency Stage 47a social psychology; German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities "Wernicke's area"; discovered area of left temporal lobe that involved language understanding: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense Social Psychology; Helping behavior, personal responsibility; studied the effects of enhanced personal responsibility and helping behavior social psychology; research evidence of internalized racism caused by stigmatization; doll experiments-black children chose white dolls A system of symbols, usually body sense that provides words, that convey meaning information about the and a set of rules for position and movement of combining symbols to individual parts of the generate an infinite number of body messages. Freud's fourth stage of personality development, from about age 7 until puberty, during which sexual urges are inactive. ethology (animal behavior); studied imprinting and critical periods in geese 47b Latent Content Learned Helplessness Latent Learning Learned helplessness Law of Effect Learning Lawrence Kohlberg lens 48a The behavior of giving up or not responding to punishment, exhibited by people or animals exposed to negative consequences or punishment over which they have no control The deeper meaning of a dream, usually involving symbolism hidden meaning, and repressed or obscured ideas and wishes the behavior of giving up or not responding, exhibited by people and animals exposed to negative consequences or punishment over which they feel they have no control. Learning that occurs in the absence of direct reinforcement and that is not necessarily demonstrated through observable behavior Relatively permanent change in an organism that occurs as a result of experiences in the environment behaviors followed by pleasant consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are weakened (Thorndike) structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus light rays onto the retina moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why? 48b Leon Festinger Libido Lev Vygotsky Light levels-of-processing approach limbic system Lewis Terman Linguistics 49a In Freud's theory, the instinctual (and sexual) life force that, working on the pleasure principle and seeking immediate gratification, energizes the id. social cognition, cognitive dissonance; Study Basics: Studied and demonstrated cognitive dissonance The small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research a donut ring-shaped of loosely connected structures located in the forebrain between the central core and cerebral hemispheres; consists of: septum, cingulate gyrus, endowments, hypothalamus, and to campus, and amygdala; associated with emotions and memories The study of language, including speech sounds, meaning, and grammar. brain encodes information in different ways or on different levels; deeper processing leads to deeper memory revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life 49b Little Albert long-term potentiation Lloyd and Margaret Peterson Longitudinal Study Logic Longitudinal Study long-term memory Lucid Dream 50a the biochemical processes that make it easier for the neuron to respond again when it has been stimulated subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear A research method that focuses on a specific group of individuals at different ages to examine changes that have occurred over time did work on short-term memory A research approach that The system of principles follows a group of people of reasoning used to reach over time to determine valid conclusions or make change or stability in inferences. behavior. Dream in which the dreamer is aware of dreaming while it is happening storage mechanism that keeps a relatively permanent record of memory 50b magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Manifest Content Mainstreaming Martin Seligman maintenance rehearsal Mary Ainsworth Major depressive disorder Mary Cover-Jones 51a The overt story line, characters, and setting of a dream-the obvious, clearly discernible events of the dream learning; Positive Psychology; learned helplessness theory of depression; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment behaviorism/learning; pioneer in systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned creates a computerized image using a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves Practice of placing children with special needs in regular classroom settings, with the support of professionals who provide special education services repetitive review of information with little or no interpretation Depressive disorder characterized by loss of interest in almost all of life's usual activities; a sad, hopeless, or discourage mood, sleep disturbance; loss of appetite; loss of energy; and feelings of unworthiness and guilt. 51b Masters & Johnson median mean Mediation Means-ends analysis medulla (also medulla oblongata) measure of central tendency memory 52a the measure of central tendency that is the data point with 50% of the scores above it and 50% below it motivation; human sexual response—studied how both men and women respond to and in relation to sexual behavior The use of a variety of techniques including concentration, restriction of incoming stimuli, and deep relaxation to produce a state of consciousness characterized by a sense of detachment. the arithmetic average of a set of scores part of the brain which controls living functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature Heuristic procedure in which the problem solver compares the current situation with the desired goal to determine the most efficient way to get from one to the other. the ability to recall past events, images, ideas, or previously learned information or skills; the storage system that allows a person to retain and retrieve previously learned information a descriptive statistic that tells which result or score best represents an entire set of scores 52b memory span midbrain menarche midbrain menopause mode Metal retardation Model: 53a the second level of the three organizational structures of the brain that receives signals from other parts of the brain or spinal cord and either relays the information to other parts of the brain or causes the body to act immediately; involved in movement the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe the number of items a person can reproduce from short-term memory, usually consisting of one or two chunks first menstrual period the most frequently occurring score in a set of data the cessation of the ability to reproduce an analogy or a perspective that uses a structure from one field to help scientists describe data in another field Below-average intellectual functioning, as measured on an IQ test, accompanied by substantial limitations in functioning that originate before age 8 53b monism Morality Monochromats Moro reflex monocular cues Morpheme moral development motivated forgetting 54a A system of learned attitudes about social practices, instituations, and individual behavior used to evaluate situations and behavior as right or wrong, good or bad seeing mind and body as different aspects of the same thing Reflex in which a newborn strectches out the arms and legs and cries in response to a loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment People who cannot perceive any color, usually because their retinas lack cones. A basic unit of meaning in a language. depth cues that are based on one eye occurs when frightening, traumatic events are forgotten because people want to forget them growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically 54b Motivation motor projection areas Motive mutation motive myelin sheath motor neurons Myopic 55a primary motor cortex; areas of the three boat cortex for response messages from the brain to the muscles and glands any internal condition, although usually an internal one, that initates, activates, or maintains an organism's goal directed behavior unexpected changes in the gene replication process that are not always evident in phenotype and create unusual and sometimes harmful characteristics of body or behavior a specific (usually internal) condition, usually involving some form of arousal, which directs an organism's behavior toward a goal. a white, fatty covering of the axon which speeds transmission of message a need or want that causes someone to act Able to see clearly things efferent neurons; neurons that are close but having that carry messages from trouble seeing objects at a spinal cord/brain to distance; nearsighted. muscles and glands 55b natural selection nature-nurture controversy Naturalistic observation Need naturalistic observation Need for achievement nature Negative Reinforcement 56a deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior the principle that those characteristics and behaviors that help organisms adapt, be fit, and survive will be passed on to successive generations, because flexible, fit individuals have a greater chance of reproduction State of physiological imbalance usually accompanied by arousal A descriptive research method in which researchers study behavior in its natural context. A social need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success observing and recording behavior naturally without trying to manipulate and control the situation Removal of a stimulus after a particular response to increase the likelihood that the response will recur a person's inherited traits, determined by genetics 56b nerve neurogenesis nervous system neuron neural impulse neuropsychologist neural plasticity neuroscience 57a production of new brain cells; November 1988: cancer patients proved that new neurons grew until the end of life bundles of axons individual cells that are the smallest unit of the nervous system; it has three functions: receive information, process it, send to rest of body the structures and organs that facilitate electrical and chemical communication in the body and allow all behavior and mental processes to take place concerned with the relationship between brain/nervous system and behavior action potential; the firing of a nerve cell; the entire process of the electrical charge (message/impulse) traveling through inner on; can be as fast as 400 fps (with myelin) or 3 fps (no myelin) study of the brain and nervous system; overlaps with psychobiology Ability of the brain to change their experience, both structurally and chemically 57b neurotransmitters Nonverbal Communication Noam Chomsky norepinephrine Non-rapid Eye Movement Sleep Normal curve nonconscious normal distribution 58a The communication of information by cues or actions that include gestures, tone of voice, vocal inflections, and facial expressions. noradrenaline; chemical which is excitatory, similar to adrenaline, and affects arousal and memory; raises blood pressure by causing blood vessels to become constricted, but also carried by bloodstream to the anterior pituitary which relaxes ACTH thus prolonging stress response A bell-shaped graphic representation of data showing what percentage of the population falls under each part of the curve approximate distribution of scores expected when a sample is taken from a large population, drawn as a frequency polygon that often takes the form of a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve chemical messengers released by terminal buttons into the synapse language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language Four distinct stages of sleep during which no rapid eye movements occur. the level of consciousness devoted to processes completely unavailable to conscious awareness (e.g., fingernails growing) 58b Norms Observational Learning Theory nurture observer bias Obedience Obsessive-compulsive disorder Object permanence occipital lobes 59a Theory that suggests that organisms learn new responses by observing the behavior of a model and then imitating it; aka. Social learning theory The scores and corresponding percentile ranks of a large and representative sample of individuals from the population for which a test was designed expectations of an observer which may distort an authentic observation a person's experiences in the environment Anxiety disorder characterized by persistent and uncontrollable thoughts and irrational beliefs that cause the performance of compulsive rituals that interfere with daily life. Compliance with the orders of another person or group of people. primary area for processing visual information The realization of infants that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight 59b Oedipus Complex opiates (AKA narcotics) olfaction Opponent-process theory Operant Conditioning opponent-process theory of emotion operational definition Optic chiasm 60a Drugs derived from the opium poppy, including opium, morphine, and heroin Feelings of rivalry with the parent of the same sex and sexual desire for the parent of the other sex, occurring during the phallic stage and ultimately resolved through identification with the parent of the same sex. Visual theory, proposed by Herring, that color is coded by stimulation of three types of paired receptors; each pair of receptors is assumed to operate in an antagonist way so that stimulation by a given wavelength produces excitation (increased firing) in one receptor of the pair and also inhibits the other receptor. sense of smell following a strong emotion, an opposing emotion counters the first emotion, lessening the experience of that emotion; on repeated occasions, the opposing emotion becomes stronger Conditioning in which an increase or decrease in the probability that a behavior will recur is affected by the delivery of reinforcement or punishment as a consequence of the behavior; Point at which half of the optic nerve fibers from each eye cross over and connect to the other side of the brain. a definition of a variable in terms of the set of methods or procedures used to measure or study that variable 60b optic nerve pancreas Oral Stage Panic Attack Orgasm phase parallel processing Overjustification effect Paranoid type of schizophrenia 61a organ lying between the stomach and small intestine; regulates blood sugar by secreting to regulating hormones insulin and glucagon carries impulses from the eye to the brain Anxiety disorders characterized as acute anxiety, accompanied by sharp increases in autonomic nervous system arousal, that is not triggered by a specific event. Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center. simultaneously analyzing different elements of sensory information, such as color, brightness, shape, etc. the third phase of the sexual response cycle, during which autonomic nervous system activity reaches its peak and muscle contractions occur in spasms throughout the body, but especially in the genital area type of schizophrenia characterized by hallucinations and delusions of persecution or grandeur (or both), and sometimes irrational jealousy. Decrease in likelihood that an intrinsically motivated task, after having been extrinsically rewarded, will be performed when the reward is no longer given. 61b parasympathetic nervous system participant parathormone Paul Ekman parathyroid Percentile score parietal lobes percentile score 62a an individual who takes part in an experiment and whose behavior is observed as part of the data collection process a branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; it calms the body after sympathetic stimulation hormone that controls imbalances levels of calcium emotion; found that facial and phosphate in the blood expressions are universal and tissue fluid; influences levels of excitability; secreted by parathyroids for glands embedded in the A score indicating what thyroid; secretes percentage of the test parathormone; controls population would obtain a announces level of calcium and phosphate (which lower score influence levels of excitability) the percentage of scores at or below a certain score processes sensory information including touch, temperature, and pain from other body parts 62b Perception Personality disorders peripheral nervous system Phallic Stage Personal Fable phenotype Personality Phillip Zimbardo 63a psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and longstanding maladaptive behaviors that typically cause stress and/or social or occupational problems. Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals. the expression of genes social psychology; Stanford Prison Study; college students were randomly assigned to roles of prisoners or guards in a study that looked at who social situations influence behavior; showed that peoples' behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play Process by which an organism selects and interprets sensory input so that it acquires meaning. division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; includes all sensory and motor neurons; divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they believe they are so special and unique that other people cannot understand them and risky behaviors will not harm them A pattern of relatively permanent traits, dispositions, or characteristics that give some consistency to people's behavior. 63b Phineas Gage Phonology Phineas Gage Photoreceptors Phobic disorders photoreceptors Phoneme pineal gland 64a The study of the patterns and distributions of speech sounds in a language and the tacit rules for their pronunciation. Vermont railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that changed his personality and behavior; his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning The light-sensitive cells in the retina- the rods and cones. railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function light sensitive cells (rods and cones) that convert light to electrochemical impulses Anxiety disorders characterized by excessive and irrational fear of, and consequent attempted avoidance of, specific objects or situations. endocrine gland that produces melatonin that helps regulate sleep/wake cycle A basic or minimum unit of sound in a language. 64b pitch placebo effect pituitary gland Placenta placebo Plateau phase Placebo effect polarization 65a response to the belief that the IV will have an effect, rather than the IV's actual effect, which can be a confounding variable the highness or lowness of a sound A mass of tissue that is attached to the wall f the uterus and connected to the developing fetus by the umbilical cord; it supplies nutrients and eliminates waste products endocrine gland that produces a large amount of hormones; it regulates growth and helps control other endocrine glands; located on underside of brain; sometimes called the "master gland" the second phase of the sexual response cycle, during which physical arousal continues to increase as the partners bodies prepare for orgasm typically a pill that is used as a control in the experiment; a sugar pill when the neuron is at rest; condition of neuron when the inside of the neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside of Enron; is necessary to generate the neuron signal in release of this polarization A nonspecific improvement that occurs as a result of a person's expectations of change rather than as a direct result of any specific therapeutic treatment. 65b polygenic inheritance Positive Reinforcement pons positron emission tomography (PET scan) population postconventional level of moral development positive psychology Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 66a Presentation of a stimulus after a particular response in order to increase the likelihood that the response will recur process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for most important traits shows brain activity when radioactively tagged glucose rushes to active neurons part of the brain involved in sleep/wake cycles; also connects cerebellum and medulla to the cerebral cortex morality based on one's own individual moral principles (i.e., conscience) all of the individuals in the group to which a study applies Psychological disorder that may become evident after a person has undergone extreme stress caused by some type of disaster; common symptoms include vivid, intrusive recollections or reexperiences of the traumatic event and occasional lapses of normal consciousness in emerging Theo psychology that focuses on positive experiences; includes subjective well-being, selfdetermination, the relationship between positive emotions and physical health, and the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to boorish 66b Preconscious Premack principle preconscious prenatal development preconventional level of moral development Preoperational stage Prejudice Prevalence 67a commonly occurring behavior can reinforce a less frequent behavior Freud's level of the mind that contains those experiences that are not currently conscious but may become so with varying degrees of difficulty. period of development from conception until birth level of consciousness that is outside awareness but contains feelings and memories that can easily be brought into conscious awareness Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (lasting from about age 2 to age 6 or 7), during which the child begins to represent the world symbolically the percentage of a population displaying a disorder during any specified period. morality based on consequences to self Negative evaluation of an entire group of people, typically based on unfavorable (and often wrong) stereotypes about groups. 67b primacy effect Problem Solving Primary Punisher procedural memory Primary Reinforcer Projection proactive interference Projective Tests 68a The behavior of individuals when confronted with a situation or task that requires insight or determination of some unknown elements. the more accurate recall of items presented at the beginning of a series memory for skills, including perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills required to complete tasks Any stimulus or event that is naturally painful or unpleasant to an organism Defense mechanism by which people attribute their own undesirable traits to others. Reinforcer that has survival value for an organism; this value does not have to be learned Devices or instruments used to assess personality, in which examinees are shown a standard set of ambiguous stimuli and asked to respond to the stimuli in their own way. previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new information 68b Prosocial Behavior Psychoactive Drug Prototype Psychoanalysis pseudoscience psychoanalyst psychiatrist psychoanalytic 69a A drug that alters behavior, thought, or perception by altering biochemical reactions in the nervous system, thereby affecting consciousness Behavior that benefits someone else or society but that generally offers no obvious benefit to the person performing it and may even involve some personal risk or sacrifice. A lengthy insight therapy that was developed by Freud and aims at uncovering conflicts and unconscious impulses through special techniques, including free association, dream analysis, and transference. An abstraction, an idealized pattern of an object or idea that is stored in memory and used to decide whether similar objects or ideas are members of the same class of items. one who uses psychoanalysis to treat psychological problems an unscientific system which pretends to discover psychological information that his means are unscientific or deliberately fraudulent perspective developed by freud, which assumes that psychological problems are the result of anxiety resulting from unresolved conflicts and forces of which a person might be unaware a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders 69b psychobiology psychology Psychodynamically psychometrician Psycholinguistics Psychoneuroimmunology psychologist Psychophysics 70a the scientific study of behavior and mental processes study that focuses on biological foundations of behavior and mental processes; overlaps with neuroscience focuses on methods of acquiring and analyzing data Therapies that use approaches or techniques derived from Freud, but that reject or modify some elements of Freud's theory. An interdisciplinary area of study that includes behavioral, neurological, and immune factors and their relationship to the development of disease The study of how language is acquired, perceived, understood, and produced. Subfield of psychology that focuses on the relationship between physical stimuli and people's conscious experiences of them. professional who studies behavior and uses behavioral principles in scientific research or in applied settings 70b Psychosurgery Punishment Psychotherapy pupil Psychotic random sample Puberty range 71a Process of presenting an undesirable or noxious stimulus, or removing a desirable stimulus, to decrease the probability that a preceding response will recur Brain surgery used in the past to alleviate symptoms of serious mental disorders. small opeing in iris that is smaller in bright light and larger in darkness The treatment of emotional or behavior problems through psychological techniques. selection of a part of the population without reason; participation is by chance suffering from a gross impairment in reality testing that interferes with the ability to meet the ordinary demands of life. the spread between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution The period during which the reproductive system matures; it begins with an increase in the production of sex hormones, which signals the end of childhood 71b Rape Raw score Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Raymond Cattell Rational-emotive therapy Reactance Rationalization Reaction Formation 72a A test score that has not been transformed or converted in any way Forcible sexual assault on an unwilling partner. intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence; personality testing: 16 Personality Factors (16PF personality test) Stage of sleep characterized by high-frequency, low-amplitude brain-wave activity, rapid and systematic eye movements, more vivid dreams, and postural muscle paralysis The negative response evoked when there is an inconsistency between a person's self-image as being free to choose and the person's realization that someone is trying to force him or her to choose a particular occurrence. A cognitive behavior therapy that emphasizes the importance of logical, rational thought processes. Defense mechanism by which people behave in a way opposite to what their true but anxiety-provoking feelings would dictate. Defense mechanism by which people reinterpret undesirable feelings or behaviors in terms that make them appear acceptable. 72b Reasoning recessive gene recency effect Reflex Receptive fields refractory period receptor site Regression 73a member of the gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with the same gene The purposeful process by which a person generates logical and coherent ideas, evaluates situations, and reaches conclusions. Automatic behavior that occurs involuntarily in response to a stimulus and without prior learning and usually shows little variability from instance to instance the more accurate recall of items presented at the end of a series after firing when a neuron Areas of the retina that, will not fire again no when stimulated, produce matter how strong the a change in the firing of incoming message may be cells in the visual system. A return to a prior stage after a person has progressed through the various stages of development; caused by anxiety. a location on a receptor neurons which is like a key to a lock (with a specific nerve transmitter); allows for orderly pathways 73b rehearsal REM (rapid eye movement) sleep Reinforcer René Descartes relative refractory period replication Reliability Representative sample 74a sleep stage when the eyes move about, during which vivid dreams occur; brain very active but skeletal muscles paralyzed process of repeatedly verbalizing, thinking about, or otherwise acting on or transforming information in order to keep that information active in memory 17t century French philosopher. Famously known for writing "cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). Wrote about concept of dualism. Any event that increases the probability of a recurrence of the response that preceded it the repetition of an experiment to test the validity of its conclusion a period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarize state and will only fire again if the incoming message open parentheses impulse) is stronger than usual; returning to arresting state A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings 74b Representative sample Resilience representative sample Resistance Repression Resolution Phase Residual type of schizophrenia response bias 75a The extent to which people are flexible and respond adaptively to external or internal demands A sample of individuals who match the population with whom they are being compared with regard to key variables such as socioeconomic status and age In psychoanalysis, an unwillingness to cooperate, which a patient signals by showing a reluctance to provide the therapist with information or to help the therapist understand or interpret a situation. selection of a part of the population which mirrors the current demographics the fourth phase of the sexual response cycle, following orgasm, during which the body returns to its resting, or normal state Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious. preconceived notions of a person answering [a survey] which may alter the experiments purpose a schizophrenic disorder in which the person exhibits inappropriate affect, illogical thinking, and/or eccentric behavior but seems generally in touch with reality. 75b resting potential retroactive interference reticular formation (RF) (RES) retrograde amnesia retina Robert Rosenthal retrieval Robert Sternberg 76a newly learned information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information when a neuron is in polarization; more negative ions are inside the neuron cell membrane with a positive ions on the outside, causing a small electrical charge; release of this charge generates a neuron's impulse (signal/message) loss of memory of events and experiences that preceded an amnesiacausing event netlike system of neurons that weaves through limbic system and plays an important role in attention, arousal, and alert functions; arouses and alerts higher parts of the brain; anesthetics work by temporary shutting off RF system social psychology; focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effecteffect of teacher's expectations on students light-sensitive surface on back of eye containing rods and cones intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative) process by which stored information is recovered from memory 76b Robert Yerkes Rosenhan Robert Zajonc Rosenthal & Jacobson rods Saccades Rooting reflex sample 77a Psychopathology and Social Psychology; effects of labeling; Rosenhan and colleagues checked selves into mental hospitals with symptoms of hearing voices say "empty, dull and thud." Diagnosed with schizophrenia. After entered, acted normally. Never "cleared" of diagnosis. Roles and labels in treating people differently. intelligence, comparative; Yerkes-Dodson law: level of arousal as related to performance Intelligence and learning, selffulfilling prophecy; Study Basics: Researchers misled teachers into believing that certain students had higher IQs. Teachers changed own behaviors and effectively raised the IQ of the randomly chosen students motivation; believes that we invent explanations to label feelings Rapid voluntary movements of the eyes. photoreceptors that detect black, white, and gray, and movement; used for vision in dim light a group of participants who are assumed to be representative of the population about which an inference is being made Reflex that causes a newborn to turn the head toward a light touch on lips or cheek 77b Saturation schema Schachter-Singer theory of emotion Schizophrenic disorders Schema school psychologist schema science 78a a conceptual framework that organizes information and allows a person to make sense of the world a group of psychological disorders characterized by a lack of reality testing and by deterioration of social and intellectual functioning and personality beginning before age 45 and lasting at least 6 months The depth and richness of a hue determined by determined by the homogeneity of the wavelengths contained in the reflected light; also known as purity. we determine our emotion based on our physiological arousal, then label that emotion according to our explanation for that arousal assesses and counsels students, consults with educators and parents, and performs behavioral intervention when necessary In Piaget's view, a specific mental structure; an organized way of interacting with the environment and experiencing it- a generalization a child makes based on comparable occurences of various actins, usally physical, motor actions way of getting knowledge about the world based on observation framework of basic ideas about people, objects and events based on past experience in long-term memory 78b scientific method selection studies Secondary Punisher selective attention Secondary Reinforcer Self Secondary Sex Characteristics Self-actualization 79a studies that estimate the hereditability of a trait by breeding animals with another animal that has the same trait in psychology, the techniques used to discover knowledge about human behavior and mental processes Any neutral stimulus that focused awareness of only initially has no intrinsic a limited amount of all negative value for an organism but acquires punishing you are capable of qualities when linked with a experiencing primary punisher Any neutral stimulus that In Roger's theory of personality, the initially has no intrinsic value perception an individual has of for an organism but that himself or herself and of his or her relationships to other people and to becomes rewarding when linked with a primary various aspects of life. reinforcer In humanistic theory, the final level of psychological development, in which one strives to realize one's uniquely human potential-to achieve everything one is capable of achieving The genetically determined physical features that differentiate the sexes but are not directly involved with reproduction 79b Self-actualization Self-fulfilling prophecy self-actualization self-fulfilling prophecy Self-efficacy Self-perception Theory Self-efficacy Self-serving Bias 80a The creation of a situation that unintentionally allows personal expectancies to influence participants The process of growth and the realization of individual potential; in the humanistic view, a final level of psychological development in which a person attempts to minimize ill health, be fully functioning, have a superior perception of reality, and feel a strong sense of self-acceptance. when a researcher's expectations unknowingly create a situation that affects the results the human need to fulfill one's potential Approach to attitude formation that assumes that people infer their attitudes and emotional states from their behavior. The belief that a person can successfully engage in and execute a specific behavior People's tendency to ascribe their positive behaviors to their own internal traits, but their failures and shortcomings to external, situational factors. A person's belief about whether he or she can successfully engage in and execute a specific behavior. 80b Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome Sensorimotor stage semantic memory sensory adaptation Semantics sensory memory Sensation sensory neurons 81a The first of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development (covering roughly the first 2 years of life), during which the child develops some motoer coordination skills and a memory for past events three-stage process which describes the body's reaction to stress: 1) alarm reaction, 2) resistance, 3) exahaustion temporary decrease in sensitivity to a stimulus that occurs when stimulation is unchanging memory of ideas, rules, words, and general concepts about the world performs initial encoding; provides brief storage; also called sensory register The analysis of the meaning of language, especially of individual words. afferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from sensory organs to the brain and spinal cords Process in which the sense organs' receptor cells are stimulated and relay initial information to higher brain centers for further processing. 81b serotonin shaping set point short-term storage Sex Signal Detection Theory Shaping significant difference 82a positively reinforcing closer and closer approximation of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior neurotransmitter that affects sleep, arousal, mood, appetite; lack of it is linked with depression holds information for preset natural body processing; fragile; also weight, determined by the called short term memory number of fat cells in the or working memory body Theory that holds that an observer's perception depends not only on the intensity of a stimulus but also on the observer's motivation, the criteria he or she sets for determining that a signal is present, and on the background noise. The biologically based categories of male and female in an experiment, a difference that is unlikely to have occurred because of chance alone and is inferred to be most likely due to the systematic manipulations of variables by the researcher Selective reinforcement of behaviors that gradually approach the desired response 82b Size constancy Social Facilitation Skinner Box Social Influence Social Categorization Social Interest Social Cognition Social Loafing 83a Change in behavior that occurs when people believe they are in the presence of other people. Ability of the visual perceptual system to recognize that an object remains constant in size regardless of its distance from the observer or the size of its image on the retina. The ways people alter the attitudes or behaviors of others, either directly or indirectly. Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response In Adler's theory, a feeling The process of dividing of openness with all the world into "in" groups humanity. and "out" groups. Decrease in effort and productivity that occurs when an individual works in a group instead of alone. The process of analyzing and interpreting events, other people, oneself, and the world in general. 83b Social Need Sociobiology Social phobia sociocultural psychology social psychologist Socrates Social Psychology Solomon Asch 84a A discipline based on the premise that even day-to-day behaviors are determined by the process of natural selection - that social behaviors that contribute to the survival of a species are passed on via the genes from one generation to the next. An aroused condition that directs people to behave in ways that allow them to feel good about themselves and others and to establish and maintain relationships perspective concerned with how cultural differences affect behavior Anxiety disorder characterized by fear of, and desire to avoid, situations in which the person might be exposed to scrutiny by others and might behave in an embarrassing or humiliating way. Ancient Greek philosopher. Promoted introspection by saying, "Know thyself." focuses on how the individual's behavior and mental processes are affected by interactions with other people conformity; showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect ; in a famous study in which participants were shown cards with lines of different lengths and were asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length The scientific study of how people think about, interact with, influence, and are influenced by the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of other people. 84b somatic nervous system split brain patients sound localization Spontaneous Recovery Specific phobia sports psychologist spinal cord standard deviation 85a people whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed division of peripheral nervous system; controls voluntary actions Recurrence of an extinguished conditioned response, usually following a rest period the process by which the location of sound is determined helps athletes improve their focus, increase motivation, and deal with anxiety and fear of failure Anxiety disorder characterized by irrational and persistent fear of a particular object or situation, along with a compelling desire to avoid it. a descriptive statistic that measures the variability of data from the mean of the sample portion of the CNS that carries messages to the PNS; connects brain to the rest of the body 85b Standard score Stanley Schachter Standardization state-dependent learning Stanford-Binet intelligence tests statistics Stanley Milgram Stereotypes 86a emotion; stated that in order to experience emotions, a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it A score that expresses an individual's position relative to the mean, based on the standard deviation Process of developing the tendency to recall uniform procedures for information learned while in a particular physiological state administering and scoring most accurately when one is in a test and for establishing that physiological state again norms branch of mathematics that deals with collecting, classifying, and analyzing data Fixed, overly simple and often erroneous ideas about traits, attitudes, and behaviors of groups of people; stereotypes assume that all members of a given group are alike. constructed by Lewis Terman, originally used ratio IQ (MA/CA x 100); now based on deviation from mean obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions 86b Stimulant strain studies Stimulus Discrimination Stress Stimulus Generalization Stressor storage structuralism 87a studies of hereditability it be a behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are genetically similar to one another A drug that increases alertness, reduces fatigue, and elevates mood A nonspecific, emotional response to real or imagined challenges or threats; a result of a cognitive appraisal by the individual Process by which an organism learns to respond only to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli An environmental stimulus that affects an organism in physically or psychologically injurious ways, usually producing anxiety, tension, and physiological arousal Process by which a conditioned response becomes associated with a stimulus that is similar but not identical to the original conditioned stimulus school of psychological thought that considered the structure and elements of conscious experience to be the proper subject matter of psychology the process of maintaining or keeping information readily available; the locations where information is held 87b Subgoal analysis Sucking reflex Sublimation Superego Subliminal perception Superstitious Behavior Substance Abuser Survey 88a Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth Heuristic procedure in which a problem is broken down into smaller steps, each of which has a subgoal. In Freud's theory, the moral aspect of mental functioning comprising the ego ideal (what a person would ideally like to be) and the conscience and taught by parents and society. Defense mechanism by which people redirect socially unacceptable impulses toward acceptable goals. Behavior learned through coincidental association with reinforcement Perception below the threshold of awareness. One of the descriptive methods of research; it requires construction of a set of questions to administer to a group of participants A person who overuses and relies on drugs to deal with everyday life 88b survey research synaptic cleft sympathetic nervous system synaptic vesicles Symptom substitution Syntax synapse Systematic desensitization 89a synaptic gap or synaptic space; tiny gap between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron (almost never touch); location of the transfer of an impulse from one neuron to the next the measurement of public opinion through the use of sampling and questioning tiny oval-shaped sacs in a terminal of one neuron; assist in transferring mineral impulse from one neuron to another neuron by releasing specific neurotransmitters a branch of the autonomic nervous system and prepares the body for quick action in emergencies; "fight or flight" The way words and groups of words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. The appearance of one overt symptom to replace another that has been eliminated by treatment. A three-stage counterconditioning procedure in which people are taught to relax when confronting stimuli that forming elicited anxiety. the space between two neurons where neurotransmitters are secreted by terminal buttons and received by dendrites 89b Temperament thalamus temporal lobes Thanatology Teratogen theory terminal buttons (axon terminals) Theory of mind 90a motor sensory relay center for four of the five senses; and with a brain stem and composed of two eggshaped structures; integrates in shades incoming sensory signals; Mnemonic-"don't smell the llamas because the llamas smell bad" Early-emerging and longlasting individual differences in disposition and in the intensity and especially the quality of emotional reactions The study of the psychological and medical aspects of death and dying main area for hearing, understanding language (Wernicke's area), understanding music; smell a collection of interrelated ideas and facts put forward to describe, explain, and predict behavior and mental processes Substance that can produce developmental malformations (birth defects) during the prenatal period An understanding of mental states such as feelings, desires, beliefs, and intentions and of the causal role they play in human behavior ends of axons that secrete neurotransmitters 90b thyroid gland Token economy thyroxine token economy timbre Tolerance Time-out Tolman 91a An operant conditioning procedure in which individuals who display appropriate behavior receive tokens that they can exchange for desirable items or activities. operant training system that uses secondary reinforcers (tokens) to increase appropriate behavior; learners can exchange tokens for desired rewards located in neck; regulates metabolism by secreting thyroxine released by thyroid; hormone that regulates the body's metabolism; OVERACTIVE-over-excitability, insomnia, reduced attention span, fatigue, snap decisions, reduced concentration (hyperthyroidism); UNDERACTIVE-desire to sleep, constantly tired, weight gain (hypothyroidism) The characteristic of requiring higher and higher doses of a drug to produce the same effect. the quality of a sound determined by the purity of a waveform cognition; studied rats and discovered the "cognitive map" in rats and humans An operant conditioning procedure in which a person is physically removed from sources of reinforcement to decrease the occurrence of undesired behaviors. 91b top-down processing Transference Trait triarchic theory of intelligence Transduction Trichromatic theory transfer appropriate processing Trichromats 92a Psychoanalytic phenomenon in which a therapist becomes the object of a patient's emotional attitudes about an important person in the patient's life, such as a parent. information processing guided by pre-existing knowledge or expectations to construct perceptions Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions Any readily identifiable stable quality that characterizes how an individual differs from other individuals. Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue; a.k.a the YoungHelmholtz theory. Process by which a perceptual system analyzes stimuli and converts them into electrical impulses; also known as coding. People who can perceive all three primary colors and thus can distinguish any hue. occurs when initial processing of information is similar to the process of retrieval; the better the match, the better the recall 92b twin studies Unconditioned Response Type A behavior Unconditioned Stimulus Type B behavior Unconscious Types unconscious 93a Unlearned or involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus studies as identical and rhetorical twins to determine relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior Stimulus that normally produces a measurable involuntary response Behavior pattern characterized by competitiveness, impatience, hostility, and constant efforts to do more in less time Behavior pattern Freud's level of mental life exhibited by people who that consists of mental are calmer, more patient, activities beyond people's and less hurried than normal awareness. Type A individuals level of consciousness that includes unacceptable feelings, wishes, and thoughts not directly available to conscious awareness Personality categories in which broad collections of traits are loosely tied together and interrelated. 93b Undifferentiated type of schizophrenia Variable-interval Schedule Validity Variable-ratio Schedule variability Vasocongestion variable vestibular sense 94a A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after predetermined but varying amounts of time, provided that the required response occurs at least once after each interval a schizophrenic disorder that is characterized by a mixture of symptoms and does not meet the diagnostic criteria of any one type. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after a predetermined but variable number of responses has occurred Ability of a test to measure what it is supposed to measure and to predict what it is supposed to predict In the sexual response cycle, engorgement of the blood vessels, particularly in the genital area, due to increased blood flow the extent to which scores differ from one another body sense of equilibrium and balance a condition or characteristic of a situation or a person that is subject to change (it varies) within or across situations or individuals 94b visual acuity Walter B. Cannon Visual cortex Wechsler intelligence tests Von Restorff effect Wernicke's area Vulnerability Wilhelm Wundt 95a motivation; believed that gastric activity as in empty stomach, was the sole basis for hunger; did research that inserted balloons in stomachs sharpness of vision three age individual IQ tests: WPPSI (children), WISC (children), WAIS (adults) The most important area of the brain's occipital lobe, which receives and further processes information from the lateral geniculate nucleus; also known as the striate cortex. located in left temporal lobe; plays role in understanding language and making meaningful sentences occurs when recall is better for a distinctive item, even if it occurs in the middle of a list structuralism; in 1879 founded first psychology laboratory in world at University of Leipzig; introspection, basic units of experience A person's diminished ability to deal with demanding life events. 95b William Dement Wolpe William James working memory William Sheldon Working through Withdrawal Symptoms Zajonc & Markus 96a learning; systematic desensitization Sleep researcher who discovered and coined the phrase "rapid eye movement" (REM) sleep. Temporarily holds current or recent information for immediate or short-term use; Information is maintained for 20-30 seconds while active processing (e.g., rehearsal) takes place founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment In psychoanalysis, the repetitive cycle of interpretation, resistance to interpretation, and transference. personality; theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny) intelligence and development; discovered that first born and only children tend to have higher IQs than latter born children The Reaction experienced when a substance abuser stops using a drug with dependence properties 96b zone of proximal development Zygote 97a the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone with difficulty, and the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or children with more skill A fertilized egg 97b