Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Pedagogical Conference on Arts Education in the Pacific in Fiji, 2002
The Chinese community in Auckland:
a musical ethnography and musical history
By
SIONG NGOR NG
The University of Auckland, New Zealand
Abstract
From a survey conducted by William M Mercer Inc. in 2000, Auckland was ranked fifth in
the world for an overall best place to live and work. This attracted many Asian migrants to
immigrate to Auckland. This paper surveys some of the music making by the Chinese
community in Auckland and how music plays a role in identifying themselves in the
mainstream society.
This paper is an ethnography research based upon observation of festivals, musical activities,
interactions with performers and audience, visits to the museum, personal participating at the
language corner with the Chinese community. It begins with an outline of the historical
background of the Chinese in New Zealand, outlines the music making and the relationship of
music in the lives of the Chinese gold miners in Otago. Continue to the present Chinese New
Zealanders and their musical activities.
Introduction
Seeger (1992:89) in his article Ethnography of Music states that ethnography of music is I
writing about ways people make music. Ethnography is a long process; it includes analysing,
examining performers, audience interaction. Seeger (1988) has also suggested systematic
ways of employing questions when asking participants in regard of a particular music
performers. These questions are ‘who’ is involved, ‘where and ‘when’ is it happening, ‘what’
is being performed, ‘how’ is it being performed, ‘why’ is it being performed and ‘what’ is its
effect on the performers and the audience?
The Chinese population in Auckland reached a very high growth rate of 169 percent during
1986-1991(Statistics-New-Zealand 1995). However, in the 1996 census, the proportion of the
total Chinese population remains low, making up 2.2 percent of 3.8 million people in New
Zealand. Despite of the high percentage of Chinese in Auckland and the regular Chinese
Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Pedagogical Conference on Arts Education in the Pacific in Fiji, 2002
cultural events held in Auckland, there is no documented record of Chinese musical activity.
On the other hand, Zheng-Ting Wang and Harold Love have done research on early Chinese
musical activity and early Chinese theatre in the Victorian goldfields of Australia (Wang,
1999) and (Love, 1985).
The first section of this paper (1865-1907) outlines the early Chinese immigration history and
the second section (1907-1950) outlines the birth and the growth of Chinese social
organisations in Wellington. The third section (1950-1980) discusses the assimilation period
and in the final section of this paper (1980’s to 2003) discusses the different types of musical
activities in Auckland. Since 1980’s there are increasing numbers of musicians, dancers and
actors who were trained in their home country before they moved to New Zealand. Therefore,
these new immigrants are contributing their expertise culturally to the Chinese community in
New Zealand.
The Arrival of the Chinese in New Zealand (1865-1907)
The arrival of the Chinese in New Zealand started in 1865 when Gabriel Read discovered
gold in Tuapeka (Miller 1971). The shortage of miners in the early New Zealand gold rushes
led to a demand for Chinese miners in the gold fields in Otago. A Hong Kong Chinese
merchant Ho A- Mei operating in Melbourne was asked to arrange the recruitment and
shipment of Chinese miners from Victoria (Ip 1995). According to the article published by
New Zealand Herald on the 12th January 2000, the first known Chinese settler was Wong Ah
Poo Hoc Ting. There was a massive influx of Chinese immigrants to Otago. These consisted
of men who came mainly from the gold-fields of Australia, and from South Africa and
Southern China (Ip 1996) and (Statistics-New- Zealand 1995). Soon there was thousands of
Chinese coming to search for fortunes.
Early Chinese settlers in New Zealand
Statistics New Zealand (1995) states that in 1867 there were approximately 1213 male
Chinese settlers in comparison to only six female Chinese. The census shows that the Chinese
male population continued to exceed the female population until 1986. The Chinese worked
in the goldfields in Otago to gain riches. Early settlers probably had no intention living long
Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Pedagogical Conference on Arts Education in the Pacific in Fiji, 2002
term in New Zealand. Racial tension between European mainstream New Zealanders and the
Chinese often led to discrimination against the Chinese settlers.
Discrimination towards the Chinese miners kept most Chinese confined within to their own
communities. Therefore because of the situation that the Chinese miners were experiencing
and majorities of the miners during the gold rush years were illiterate and simply came to
look for gold.
As the number of immigrants rose several restrictions were imposed upon Chinese migrants
in New Zealand. Restrictions included a poll tax of ten pounds in 1881, which increased to
hundred pounds in 1899 (Ip 1996) and (Statistics-New-Zealand 1995). Therefore, because of
the conditions imposed by the government, the number of Chinese immigrants decreased
from 5004 in 1881 to 2147 in 1916 (Statistics-New Zealand 1995).
Chinese Musical Activity in Dunedin
Ng (1993) states that in 1891-1892, there were 190 Chinese at Round Hill and five at
Riverton, Dunedin. On the other hand, the total population was reduced to 140 in 1892-1893.
In the Round Hill tent there were guitar and violin hanging on the wall and lascivious song
was “hushed (sic) in the gold miners “(Ng 1993:83). It is unclear what kind of instruments
these were. It might be a Western guitar and a violin or might have been an erhu and a yueh
ch ‘in (also known as the moon guitar). If the instruments were a Western violin and a guitar,
we can assume that Western instruments were also popular among the Chinese and perhaps
the Chinese were able to play those instruments.
The Chinese were also involved in playing for church services run by Reverend Alexander
Don and Reverend W. Chan at the Old Men’s Home in Dunedin (Ng 1993). It was reported
that in 1905, Kong Sze Yan played the flute and Chan Yau Tsun (George Chan) played the
harpsichord for the church service (Ng 1993: 152).
The Growth of Chinese Society and Social Organisation (1907- 1950)
Although the Chinese were in New Zealand since 1865, there were many laws set by the
government to reduce the Chinese population in New Zealand. From 1908 to 1952, Chinese
Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Pedagogical Conference on Arts Education in the Pacific in Fiji, 2002
were not allowed to be naturalised. The Opium Prohibition Act, section eight was introduced
which allowed police officers to enter any Chinese home without a search warrants (Ip 1995).
Chinese social organisations were formed in response to the laws and racism towards the
Chinese.
The racist climate that the Chinese were experiencing resulted in a number of Chinese
musical activities. The majority of the musical drama and musical performances were
organised by Chinese social organisations that aimed to provide entertainment and
maintaining a sense of Chinese identity among the Chinese in New Zealand.
The Poon Fa Association (1916) and the Kwong Chew Club (1920) were founded in
Auckland. The Hung League (1907), The Tung-Tsang Association (1924) and Szeyap
Association (1936) were founded in Wellington (Ip 1995: 178). These associations organised
Chinese Festivals such as the annual Double Tenth (Chinese National Day) celebration.
A Period of Assimilation: 1950’s - 1980’s
The Chinese community in New Zealand remained isolated, self-contained from the European
community. The Chinese population increased from 6,731 in 1956 to 10,283 in 1966 (Ip
1995:185). The increase would have been a combination of natural increase of emigration
from Chinese diaspora and New Zealand born Chinese. Loss of language and Chinese culture
was especially common during this period. Chinese parents were encouraging their children
to speak English in order to excel in education and in New Zealand social contexts.
During the period of assimilation (1950s-1980s) the Chinese were untroubled by any
concerns of ethnicity and generally were not interested to identify themselves. Nevertheless,
there were a number of significant musical activities. This includes performances such as
Cantonese opera and musical item by Sezyap Association in Wellington.
Cantonese Opera
Cantonese opera is more popular in Auckland and in New Zealand generally, when compared
to jingju (Peking opera). This is largely because most Chinese in New Zealand are Cantonese
(Ip 1995:165) and moreover, Cantonese is the most common dialect used by the majority of
Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Pedagogical Conference on Arts Education in the Pacific in Fiji, 2002
the Chinese in New Zealand. However, it is important to note that only a portion of the opera
was usually performed in New Zealand mainly because of the high cost of the stage setting
and the costumes. The Cantonese opera performances in Auckland are strictly for
entertainment and are not performed in religious contexts.
According to the chairman of the Auckland Chinese Community Centre (ACCC), Cantonese
opera was performed in Auckland as early as in 1960. The opera was based on the romantic
story of Wu Yuet There were a total of eight musicians and the performers and the musicians
were all invited from Hong Kong The performance was made possible by the Chinese
community in Auckland together with the assistance from ACCC because the Chinese
community wanted an opera performance to mark the birth of ACCC in 1960.
It is fair to say that opera singing takes place mainly in the Chinese community homes. Those
who cherish the opera music will usually have the music on records. After 1960, the next
Cantonese opera was only performed in Auckland after a period o f fifteen years. Following
that there was an equally long break of two decades before the next opera performance was
held in Auckland in 1999.
While there were many concerts and festivals organised mainly for the Chinese in New
Zealand, there were a number of occasions in which mainstream New Zealanders showed
interest in Chinese music by attending and enquiring about Chinese music. For example, there
is a letter by Zillah Castle (dated 29 May 1958) a well known violin teacher in Wellington to
the Consulate General of the Republic of China enquiring about Chinese instruments. In
Zillah’s scrapbook which is now deposited at the Auckland War Memorial Museum, there
was a programme of the Shanghai Philharmonic Society concert and a newspaper article in
the Evening Post dated 25 November 1975.
Recent Immigration and the Growth of Chinese Population (1980-2003)
In 1996 census, the Chinese population in New Zealand was 2.2 percent. Auckland has the
greatest percentage of new immigrants from all ethnic groups and has a higher percentage of
“overseas-born” Chinese (25.3 percent) than the rest of the country (Ip 1995). The growth of
the Chinese population is also because of the economic deregulation in the 1980’s. New
Zealand aimed to focus on Asian countries for trade and business. Thus, allowing a pro-active
Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Pedagogical Conference on Arts Education in the Pacific in Fiji, 2002
policy seeking quality migrants to shape up the country’s economic and social performance.
The increased of Hong Kong immigrants in New Zealand are due to the lack of assurance
towards the new communise rule during the hand over of Hong Kong to the Chinese.
Ever since 1865, Chinese migration has brought with them their culture and their music.
Chinese immigrants are willing to identify themselves in the community through performing
arts. In order to integrate into the European community, immigrants are trying to adapt a new
form of music making. Chinese immigration in Auckland has increased because of the higher
percentage of Chinese moving to highland cities and to urban communities.
Organisations such as Asia 2000, Creative New Zealand, New Zealand on Air and Auckland
City were established to promote and assist community groups to foster cultural relationship
through performing arts. However, it is only since 1997 that multicultural concert and
celebration such as WOMAD and Festival of Asia were held in Auckland.
Chinese Social Organisations and Arts Activities
Chinese New Year in Auckland
Chinese New Year, Lantern Festival and Double Tenth are festivals through which Chinese
all around the world are able to express their identity publicly through performing arts. There
are a number of Chinese songs, which are often broadcast on the radio during Chinese New
Year. The Chinese songs are usually played continuously in the background especially on the
first day of the Chinese New Year and are usually sung by a male singer. Playing the Chinese
music during the celebration, has become a trend in many Chinese homes. Some of the
common Chinese songs that are played during the celebrations are Liang Xiao and the
Blissful Year.
In Auckland since 2000, the Chinese community has been celebrating Chinese New Year
publicly. The celebration included a variety of performances, competitions and food stalls.
The celebrations began with the lion dance, an essential part of the celebrations. Cultural
performances included an extract of Cantonese opera.
In February 2000, as part of the Chinese New Year celebration in Auckland, the ACCC had
invited two professional singers from Hong Kong to perform Chinese popular music. Despite
Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Pedagogical Conference on Arts Education in the Pacific in Fiji, 2002
the fact that there were two free performances on Saturday morning and evening very few
Europeans attended the celebration. The concert was targeted to the Chinese community and
therefore it was only published in Chinese newspapers. The popularity among the Chinese
community was overwhelming. Free tickets were snapped up quickly. Unlike some of the
concerts organised by the Europeans, a benefactor or a public person usually sponsors
Chinese concerts. It is a pattern in New Zealand to hold a free admission Chinese concert for
the Chinese community.
Lantern Festival
Lantern Festival marks the end of the Chinese New Year celebrations Lantern Festival was
celebrated for the first time in February 2000. Lantern Festival was made possibly by Asia
2000, Auckland City, Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank and Everlasting financial Services in
Albert Park, Auckland. Lantern Festival started since the Han Dynasty (206 BC-221 AD) in
China. According to the Auckland City event organiser, the festival is often referred to the
Chinese as the Chinese Valentine’s Day. Lantern Festivals are now viewed to mark the end of
the Chinese New Year. Traditional forms of entertainment during the Lantern Festival include
dragon and lion dance, stilt walkers, popular and traditional Chinese music. According to the
Auckland City conceit organiser, the Lantern Festival was attended by more than 40,000
people from all cultures. The programme includes Chinese Folk and Popular Songs, lantern
displays, and a number of different types of Chinese dancing.
Chinese Popular Music
There is a trend in Auckland among Chinese teenagers to listen to popular music. In Hong
Kong, popular music is known as liuxing qu (popular song) or yuegu liuxing qu (Cantonese
language popular song) (Witzleben 1999:243). In Cantonese popular music, the emphasis is
on the singer, rather than on the composer (Witzleben 1999:245). This is because the
performers are treated as in heritor and an interpreter of a tradition. The success of Cantonese
popular music is measured by the number of concerts the performer’s able to perform.
A singer’s identity is developed through Chinese videos (Witzleben 1999:247). In Auckland,
the music videos are used for karaoke singing. It is popular among the Chinese in Auckland to
sing popular music using music videos either at their home or at karaoke shops.
Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Pedagogical Conference on Arts Education in the Pacific in Fiji, 2002
Live popular music concerts rarely occur in Auckland. There is no great d because of the high
expense flow return involved in organising concerts. Nevertheless, in August 2000, ACCC
organised a concert to celebrate the centre 40 anniversary. A total of eight performers from
Hong Kong participated at the concert. The concert was held at the Auckland Civic Centre
over two nights. The majority of the singers sing in three different dialects accompanied by a
pre-recorded music.
Taichung Chinese Philharmonic Band
Chinese music is also used in foster relationship between New Zealand and Taiwan. The
Taichung Chinese Philharmonic Band was invited by the Oceanic Regional Association of
Chinese organisations to perform in Auckland as part of the l0 anniversary of the Taichung
and Auckland sister’s relationship. This band comprises both Western and Chinese
instruments. Unlike traditional Chinese music ensemble, in which the yang chin player also
acts as a conductor, the Taichung Chinese Philharmonic Band has a conductor to conduct the
whole band.
Chinese culture and Chinese music not only have a unique role is associating the society’s
present with the past but also frequently attracted the mainstream society. Graham Sinclair,
Zillah and Ronald Castle are some of the people that were interested on collecting Chinese
instruments. According to the curator at the Te Papa museum, Graham Sinclair and his family
lived on a farm next to the site of the gold miners’ camp at Adams Flat in Central Otago.
Over the years, their Chinese neighbours gave the family a quantity of material relating to the
miner’s in the camp. Chinese instruments are some of the gifts given by the miners to
Sinclair. There are two instruments, the jing hu and the san hsien. The instruments are now
stored at the Te Papa museum labeled under the heading of Graham Sinclair Collections.
Conclusion
What future does Chinese in New Zealand have? Private and public organisations such as
Asia 2000, Auckland City, Creative New Zealand are incorporating and funding ethnic
minorities cultural activities. Media and Chinese newspapers in Auckland plays a role of
providing source of information about local arts and activities to migrants and Chinese New
Zealanders. Schools and university are incorporating Asian studies in their curriculum.
Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Pedagogical Conference on Arts Education in the Pacific in Fiji, 2002
In recent years, mainstream New Zealanders are interested to include early Chinese history
and culture in their production. For example in 1998, Gillian Whitehead a New Zealand
composer composed an opera entitle Outrageous Opera which is based on the history of the
early Chinese goldfields in Central Otago.
In Auckland, Auckland City Council is encouraging community groups to set up events and
cultural concerts in Auckland by providing appropriate funding. In February 2003, Auckland
City Council which was one of the sponsors for the Lantern Festival funded two performing
groups that performed for the first time outside China, Lotus Lantern Dragon Dance group
and a traditional shadow puppet troupe from Zhejiang to perform in the festival.
Lastly it is interesting to note that the music making of the Chinese community has been used
in many ways to reinforce their identity and in recent years are able to bridge any cultural
differences during the process of music making.
Works cited
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Ip, M. (1996). Dragons on the Long White Cloud. Auckland, Tandem Press.
Love, H. (1985). “Chinese Theatre on the Victorian Goldfields, 1858-1870.” Australasian
Drama Studies. 3(2): 45-86.
Miller, F. W. G. (1971). Gold in Otago. New Zealand Heritage. The Making of a Nation. 2:
757-762.
Ng, J. (1993). Windows on a Chinese Past. Dunedin, Otago Heritage Books Images.
Seeger, A. (1988). Why Suya Sing. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Statistics-New-Zealand (1995). New Zealand Now: Asian New Zealanders. New Zealand,
Statistic New Zealand.
Wang, Z.-T. (1999). “Chinese Music In Mid-Nineteenth Century Victoria.” Australasian
Music Research. 2-3: 23-38.
Witzleben, J. (1999). “Cantopop and Mandapop in Pre-Postcolonial Hong Kong: Identity
Negotiation in the Performances of Anita Mui Yim-Fong.” Popular Music. 18(2):
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