THE REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA
Daniel Villavicencio & Marín Zamalvide
General Introduction to Costa Rica and its Science and Technology System
The analysis of Costa Rica shows that it
country with a historically high level of
development in the context of the Latin
region. Costa Rica does not have a
consolidated tradition with respect to
and Technology activities, over the last
years it has developed an institutional
and a sustained policy of support for
activities that can be considered
successful if we take into account the
of its indicators. Likewise, we must
the continuing improvement of its
and technological capacities and their
which is the attraction of direct foreign
investment in sectors that intensively
knowledge - in particular those sectors
information
and
communication
technology.
1.
is
a
human
American
Science
thirty
system
these
evolution
consider
scientific
impact,
use
related to
Considerations of the History of Science and Technology in Costa Rica
The existence of higher education institutions in the country dates back to the 19th century but these
institutions were more involved in the education of liberal professionals than the development of areas
of scientific research. Nevertheless, from the mid 20th century, with the founding of the University of
Costa Rica, the country began to consolidate an academic system to support the different areas of
scientific and technological knowledge.
Since the beginning of the 1970s, the country has consolidated not only a university system but also a
series of institutions in the field of science and technology that geared towards research tasks and
coordination of the field. This is demonstrated by the increased access to higher education of a
significant proportion of the population and sustained growth in the size and productiveness of the
scientific community.
At the beginning of the 1990s the relevance afforded to these research and development activities
was
consolidated
with
the
creation
of
a
new
institutional
organization
and
State bodies, such as the specific Ministry for this area, together with the appearance of private and
civil organizations geared towards the promotion of scientific and technological knowledge. These
efforts succeeded with the First National Science and Technology Program (1998-2002) and, for
example, diverse actions that led to a strengthening of the field of agricultural and biological
knowledge. Nevertheless, spending on Science and Technology is 0.3% of GDP and this money
mostly comes from public funding.
The Second National Science and Technology Program (2002-2006) sought to overcome low levels of
private sector participation in Science and Technology activities, and is currently drawing to a close. Its
principal strategy would seem to be the providing of support for the participation of international
companies in the information technology sector and sustained support for emerging companies that
use knowledge intensively, in particular in the area of information technology and biotechnology.
Table 1:
Historical review of the main governance S&T institutions
Year
Action
1972
Creation of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Researches
1986
Creation of the Ministry of Science and Technology (MICIT)
1986
Transformation of the role of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Researches
1990
Formalization of the National System of Innovation of Costa Rica
1992
Creation of the National System of Scientific and Technological Information
2004
Creation of the Regional Council of Science and Technology
2.
Management of Science and Technology
The origins of some of the institutions currently responsible for carrying out S&T policies are to be
found in the 1970s. The first legal framework establishing policy dates from 1972,1 with the creation of
the National Council for Scientific and Technological Research.
The council was an autonomous institution with its own legal resources and representation. The
objective in creating this institution was the promotion and systematization of S&T activities as a
vehicle for development. However, the current S&T system has its origins in the late 1980s and early
1990s.
A second stimulus in the consolidation of an institutional system was the creation of the Ministry of
Science and Technology (MICIT – Spanish acronym) in 1986. This institution’s powers include the
definition of science and technology policy via the National Science and Technology Plan. Its
objectives include:
•
The integration of S&T policies with general policy in the economic and social sphere;
•
Coordination of the different science and technology players as well as acting as an
interlocutor before higher organizations charged with political decisions;
•
Definition of specific policies for the stimulation and support of scientific and technological
activities;
•
The offering of incentives to the private and public sectors and to higher education
institutions and research centres with the goal of increasing capacity for generating
scientific and technological knowledge;
•
The promotion of innovation as an essential element in strengthening capacity for
adaptation to changes in the international economy in such a way as to improve the
quality of life of the general population;
•
Stimulation of the capacity for national technological management for reconverting the
national productive sector and increasing its competitiveness.
The Ministry’s functions are defined by the Promotion of Scientific and Technological Development
Law2 ratified in 1990. This law established mechanisms for the functioning and coordination of the
National Science and Technology System that is responsible for facilitating scientific and technological
research leading to economic and social advances through sustainable development.
The creation of the Ministry, and the definition of its tasks as the principal political organ established by
law, led to a redefinition of the role of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Research
(CONICIT – Spanish acronym). It was transformed into the second most important institution in the
field and orienting its activities towards the provision of support for scientific activity and innovation, the
promotion of knowledge generation and the dissemination of this knowledge at the national level. The
achievement of these objectives are facilitated through the funding of scientific research, the provision
of support for the training of new human resources and the dissemination of information to the
scientific community. Similarly, it plays an important role in obtaining various international loans for the
promotion of scientific and technological activities, such as the lines of credit provided by the InterAmerican Development Bank. It also carries out such tasks as the statistical systematization of
researchers, publications, innovative companies, etc. through creation of the Science and Technology
Register.
1
2
Law No.5048, published in 1972
Law No.7169
Throughout the 1990s a series of institutions were consolidated that would come to form part of the
Costa Rican National Innovation System. In 1992, the National Biotechnology Commission3 was
created with the objective of exploiting the country’s comparative advantages associated with products
based on such knowledge. In this same year a series of complementary institutions, such as the
National Scientific and Technological Information System, were created with the goal of providing
systematization in order to more effectively use all available national information resources. In relation
to this formation, Law 7169 led to the creation of the Scientific Colleges that were designed to provide
students with an education in solid scientific knowledge and improve the teaching of sciences by
focusing on the following areas: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and information technology.
Other relevant institutions forming part of this system are the National Academy of Science and the
National Chamber of Technology Companies.
Diagram 1:
S&T system
Ministry of
Agriculture
Ministry of
national
planning
and
economic
policies
Ministry of
Economy,
industry
and
commerce
National
commission
for the
Improvement
of the Quality
Ministry of
Foreign
commerce
Ministry
of
health
Ministry
of public
education
Ministry of
natural
resources
Ministry
of energy
and
mining
State
University at
Distance
Ministry of science
and technology
(MICIT)
National
Council of
Rectors
(CONARE
University of
Costa Rica
Scientific
college
National
University
National
Council of
Scientific and
Technological
Research
(CONICIT)
National
commission
of
biotechnology
Technologic
al Institute
of Costa
Rica
Regional
Council of
Science and
Technology
National
Academy
of
Science
3
Association
for the
Promotion of
the Sciences
and the
Technology
Decree No.21065; MICIT
Programs and
instruments
Association of
Companies of
Technological
Base
2.1
S&T Policies
The framework for policy in Science, Technology & Innovation is determined by a group of public and
private institutions together with higher education institutions active in the sector. The country is
currently implementing the Second National Science and Technology Program for the period 20022006 and is seeking to expand on the policies developed in the previous program (1998-2002), which
was considered a success as it managed to improve the country’s science, technology, innovation and
competitiveness indicators.
The current plan has the general objective of creating conditions for scientific and technological
development that allow for the implementation of an economic and social development model
guaranteeing improvements in the population’s living standards and increasing the competitiveness of
companies and the national academic sector. To this end seven objectives have been established,
and these are translated into specific strategies and programs designed to achieve the established
goals.
The first major objective is Strengthening the National Science and Technology System through the
design of adequate policies, improvements to legal instruments, the development of strategic action
and the decentralization of science and technology as the supports for a knowledge based economy.
This objective is to be met through the application of three concrete policies:
1.
The first policy is the devising of a strategy for the National Science and Technology
System, and the Ministry of Science and Technology, under the control of the Ministry and
the National Council for Scientific and Technological Research. The funding sources for
this policy come from National Budget resources and loans secured from multilateral
bodies.
2.
The second policy is focused on the creation and consolidation of Regional Science and
Technology Councils (CORECIT – Spanish acronym). These are collegiate bodies
attached to the Ministry of Science and Technology and have the function of promoting
and managing scientific and technological development in the various regions of the
country. Among its objectives are to be found: the coordination and implementation of
regional science and technology policy and the dissemination of existing knowledge from
urban and rural areas with the goal of improving the living standards of all citizens; guiding
the population towards a correct interpretation and understanding of the achievements
and impact of science and technology in daily life and, finally, achieving greater economic,
social and environmental advances that guarantee a better quality of life.
3.
The third policy is the promotion and fostering of an updated Science and Technology
Register. In this way information, concerning databases and indicators will be kept up-todate and this will allow for easy access to such information via communication and
information technology.
A second major objective is the provision of support, promotion and incentives to scientific and
technological education through the Capital Increase Program, which can be broken down into six
specific objectives.
•
Support for the promotion of S&T in popular culture through participation in the various
forms of mass communication. Those responsible for applying this policy are the MICIT
and CONICIT while funding is provided from the National Budget.
•
The creation of mobile classrooms for the spreading of S&T in different forums at the local
level. Those responsible for this activity are the MICIT, State Institutions of Superior Level
(IEES), the CORECIT and the various municipalities. Funding for this policy comes from
the National Budget and contributions from the private sector.
•
Support through financial strengthening of the numerous scientific colleges as a means to
promote their consolidation. Those responsible for carrying out this policy are the MICIT,
the Ministry of Public Education and the various State Universities. Funding comes from
the Incentives Fund that forms part of the National Budget.
•
The strengthening of the Grants and Incentives Fund, which is for the awarding of grants,
the development of internships and other activities. Those responsible for achieving these
objectives are the MICIT and the CONICIT and the funding comes from the National
Budget and the National Incentives Fund.
•
Support for Research Centres and university education institutions. This support implies
the organization of National and International Science and Technology Prizes and the
funding of science and technology research projects. Those responsible for this policy are
the MICIT and the CONICIT and funds come from the National Budget.
•
Improvements in the teaching of S&T at all educational levels in order to stimulate the
idea of science as a vocation among students through the creation
and promotion of prizes, science Olympiads and science fairs associated with
the different disciplines. The key players in this are the MICIT, the Ministry
of Education, CONICIT, CIENTEC, IEES Public Universities and the private sector.
Funding is provided from the National Budget, Public Universities and the private sector.
A third major objective is the Promotion of Information and Communication Technology Usage that is
geared towards improving Costa Rica’s position on the international stage. This can be broken down
into twelve concrete policies.
•
Effect improvements to the communication infrastructure and the Advanced Internet
Network through bettering the quality of service, offering competitive prices and
supporting innovation in this technological area. This implies democratization of Internet
access and its use as a tool for human development and democracy, as well as the
purchase of 100,000 computers for homes and Small and Medium Sized Companies
(PYMES – Spanish acronym) via the banks and the provision of Internet access. Those
responsible for implementing this policy are the MICIT, the National Bank of Costa Rica
and the Popular Development Bank, while funding comes from the National Budget and
various members of the private sector (the banks and equipment suppliers).
•
The consolidation of digital signatures, establishing the necessary legal framework for
their development. Those responsible are the MICIT and the National Assembly, while
funding comes from the National Budget.
•
The broadening of Internet access through the creation of telecenters, a policy controlled
and financed by the Costa Rican Institute of Electricity (ICE), The National Bank of Costa
Rica (BNCR), the Costa Rican Post Office, the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports
(MCJD) and the State university at Distance (UNED), Ministry of Science and Technology,
X-Ray Costa Rican SA, (RACSA), Advisor Commission of High Technology (CAATEC)
•
The improvement of training for Internet users through the implementation of a Training
Plan. Those responsible for this plan are the ICE, BNCR, the Costa Rican Post Office,
MCJD and the UNED MICIT, RACSA, CAATEC. Funding comes from the National
Budget, ICE, BNCR, the Costa Rican Post Office, MCJD and the UNED RACSA,
CAATEC.
•
The dissemination of national S&T among the population through the implementation of a
Science and Technology Promotion Plan that includes the organization of forums,
workshops and promotional campaigns. This policy is developed by the MICIT with the
participation of the National Bank of Costa Rica, MCJD, the Costa Rican Post Office,
RACSA, and CAATEC. Funding is provided by the ICE, BNCR, the Costa Rican Post
Office, MCJD and the UNED
•
Promotion of digital government via the encouragement of use of ITC in government
activities through the creation of a Government Portal and in the communication of Civil
Society. Those responsible for this policy are the MICIT and the numerous players of
public administration, with funding coming from the National Budget.
•
The drawing up of an Act to create the National Commission of Political Information
Technology that would design a National Information Technology Policy Program.
Funding for this policy would come from the National Budget and responsibility for the
program would lie with the MICIT.
•
The promotion of software at the national level via diverse strategies of financial support
for companies in the computing, information technology and data transmission sector. For
the initial phase, funding will come from the National Budget and the private sector. Those
responsible for the development of this policy are the MICIT, the IEES and the Chamber
of Software Producers (CAPROSOFT – Spanish acronym).
•
The establishment of Doctoral Programs in the area of Computing as these are currently
non-existent in the country. Funding will come from the National Budget and the private
sector while those responsible for carrying out the policy will be the MICIT, CENAT, IEES
and CAPROSOFT
•
The extension of financial support to students in the area of software in order to update
their knowledge through the introduction of internships and postgraduate programs.
Funding for this policy will come from the National Budget while those responsible for
carrying out the policy will be the MCIT, CENAT and CAPROSOFT.
•
The promotion of “tele-jobs” with the support of companies. Funding for an initial phase
will come from the National Budget and the policy will be carried out by the MICIT, MTSS
and CAPROSOFT.
•
The stimulation and promotion of the Advanced Internet Network (Internet 2) via the
CRnet and the ICE. Funding for this policy will come from the National Budget, IEES,
CENAT, CRNET, and the European Union.
A fourth major objective is the Promotion of Technology Transfer between Suppliers and Users of
Technology, which can be broken down in to the following nine policies each with specific objectives.
•
Improvement of the competitiveness of products and services of high aggregate value
through the promotion of technologically based companies and their links with universities
via the Aura Validation Project. This will be funded from the National Budget and via the
Costa Rica-US Foundation and the US Embassy. The carrying out of policy will be the
responsibility of the MICIT, CONICIT, CEFOF, CENAT and the University of Costa Rica.
•
Facilitation of technology transfer from business sector Research Centres through support
for technological negotiation conferences. Those responsible for this policy are the MICIT,
Universities, the regional private sector and the various CORECITS, all of which are
responsible for funding.
•
Improvements to the competitiveness, productivity and information of the productive
sectors through the development of various mechanisms. This will be funded by the
National Budget and from the sales of services. The body responsible for carrying out the
policy will be the CEFOF.
•
Development of national awareness and promotion of clean technologies in production
processes to protect the environment and improve the quality of life. This will be funded
from the National Budget and by International Cooperation. Bodies linked to the carrying
out of this policy are the MICIT, Centre for Training of Teachers and Technical Personnel
for the Industrial Development of Centre America (CEFOF), the National Centre for
Cleaner Technology, the Ministry of Atmosphere and Energy (MINAE) and the Ministry of
Health.
•
The drawing up of a National Science and Technology Promotion and Dissemination Plan
that will promote research in the areas of energy, biotechnology and biodiversity. This will
be funded by the Incentives Fund anticipated in the National Budget. Those responsible
for carrying out the policy will be the MICIT, CONICIT, National institute of Biodiversity
(INBIO) and the various universities.
•
Stimulation of programs and projects in the field of applied nuclear energy for peaceful
purposes. This will be financed by the Incentives Fund anticipated in the National Budget
and by the OIEA. Those responsible for the policy will be the MICIT, CEA, the Ministry of
Health, the private sector and academia.
•
Promotion of technological services via an integral strategy favouring the business, public
and academic sectors. This will be funded from the National Budget and by International
Cooperation. Those responsible for carrying out this policy will the MICIT and the
CONICIT.
•
Promotion of connecting businesses via fostering the development of conglomerates in
such a way as to improve their productivity and competitiveness. Those responsible for
carrying out this policy will be the MICIT, CINDE and PROCOMER and funding will be
provided by the INCAE, MEIC, CINDE, Competitive Funds and from the National Budget.
•
Support for new technologically based companies through strengthening the company
incubator program. The funding sources for this policy will be Universities, industrial parks,
and the National Budget via Competitive Funds and Incentive Funds.
A fifth major objective is the Promotion of Sustained Growth for Resources Assigned to Research,
Development and Innovation. This policy can be subdivided into five specific policies geared towards
achievement of the stated objective.
•
Promotion of improvements in the competitiveness of PYMES through an increase in
funds destined for applied research and consolidation of the loan from the World
Development Bank (WDB) for Science, Technology and Competitiveness. Funding will be
provided from the National Budget through the Incentives Fund and Competitive Funds as
well as by the WDB.
•
Development of biotechnology companies as a source of competitiveness through the
development of consolidation strategies, the creation of a Support Centre for Innovation in
Biotechnology and through placing the Biotechnological project at the service of
agriculture. Funding will be provided from the National Budget, foreign investment,
cooperation funds from the CEE, MICIT, the Ministry of Public Education, the Ministry of
Agriculture
and
Livestock
Farming
and
the National Seeds Office. Those responsible for carrying out these policies
will be the MICIT, CONICIT, International Bodies and public bodies that will provide
funding.
•
Support for the creation and competitiveness of the PYMES. Funding will be provided by
the Popular Bank and from the National Budget via Competitive Funds. The policy will be
carried out by the MICIT, MEIC, INS PROCOMER and the private sector.
•
Production of Science and Technology indicators (basics, innovation and social
perception) through the consolidation of the Science and Technology Indicators System.
Funding will be provided by the MICIT, chambers of commerce, the various universities,
the Incentives Fund and International Cooperation. Those responsible for carrying out the
policy will be the MICIT, CONICIT, INEC, IEES and the private sector.
•
Development of greater capacity in science and technology services through the
strengthening of Research Centres. Funding will be provided by International Cooperation
and from the National Budget. Those responsible for carrying out the policy will be the
MICIT, universities and private technology centres.
A sixth major objective is the Promotion and Stimulation of National and International Technical and
Financial Cooperation. This policy is divided into three further policies each with specific objectives:
•
Increased cooperation with Latin American countries via the Latin American Science and
Technology Plan for Development. Funding is provided from the National Budget and the
policy will be carried out by the MICIT.
•
Increased company productivity and competitiveness through cooperation with Latin
American companies and Research Centres via the Strategic Technological Alliances
Program BEROEKA. Funding should be sought by each of the projects. The policy will be
carried out by the MICIT.
•
Promotion of initiatives for improving Science, Technology and Innovation through the
formulation and execution of projects with the Central America and Panama Commission
for Scientific and Technological Development. Funding sources will be the CTCAP and
International Funds. The MICIT will be in charge of this policy.
The seventh major objective is Support for Productive Modernization Efforts with a View to Improving
the Quality and Productivity of Products, Goods and Services. This general objective is to be met by
four specific policies.
•
Consolidation of the organization and management of the Costa Rican Accreditation Body
(ECA – Spanish acronym) via the updating of its technical documents. Funding for this
policy is the responsibility of the ECA, the National Budget and International Cooperation.
Those responsible for carrying out the policy are the MICIT and the ECA itself.
•
Development of a communication and dissemination strategy for the ECA. As above, the
MICIT and the ECA will be responsible for funding and carrying out the policy.
•
Accreditation via the strengthening of accreditation services in the areas of experimental
and calibration laboratories, and inspection and certification bodies. Funding sources are
the ECA, the National Budget and National Cooperation. The policy will be carried out by
the MICIT and the ECA.
•
Promotion of greater participation of the ECA at the international level through
its taking part in international accreditation forums. Funding for this policy and
the bodies charged with carrying it out are similar to those indicated for the previous
policy.
At present, the majority of the policies described above are at different stages of development and
anticipate different mechanisms for follow-up and evaluation that will be established at the end of the
period covered by the Plan.
Table 2:
Historical review of main S&T policies
Year
Programs
Institution
1990
Act for the Promotion of the Scientific and
Technological Development
Ministry of Science and Technology
1990
Establishment of the National System of
Science and Technology
Ministry of Science and Technology
1992
Fund of Incentives
Ministry of Science and Technology
1998-2002
First National Program of Science and
Technology
Ministry of Science and Technology
2002-2006
Second National Program of Science and
Technology
Ministry of Science and Technology
2002
Pro PYME Fund
Ministry of Science and Technology
National Council for Scientific and Technological
Researches
2002
2002
2002
Program for the increase of the scientist
and technological culture of the population
Ministry of Science and Technology
Promotion of the use of the technologies of
information and communication Program
Ministry of Science and Technology
Project of Validation Aura for the creation
of companies of high added value
Ministry of Science and Technology
National Council for Scientific and Technological
Researches
Public and private institutions of the CIT area
National Council for Scientific and Technological
Researches
University of Costa Rica
2002
Promotion and Popularization of the
Science and the National Technology Plan
MICIT, CONICIT, Public and Private Universities
3.
Major Participants in R&D Activities
The major participants in Research and Development Activities in the country are the public and
private higher education institutions, regional and international bodies, cooperatives and foundations.
Nevertheless, the majority of R&D activities are performed within universities and in particular the
University of Costa Rica that boasts the country’s most important tradition and trajectory.
This university was founded in 1940 but its origins date back to the beginning of the 19th century. The
university possesses 64 laboratories, used for R&D activities in numerous fields of knowledge, and
offers scientific and technological services. Its links with organizations and bodies from the productive
sector and with the numerous public administration institutions are established through specialized
offices in technology transfer and the University Foundation.
The following Research Centres of the University of Costa Rica are notable for their excellence:
•
The Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology (CIBCM – Spanish acronym) study
molecular and cellular biology applied to the study of viruses, bacteria and parasitic
organisms. Among its applied research activities can be found the genetic improvement of
crops via molecular biology and genetic engineering. It is also involved in projects of
molecular identification and the characterization and classification of the country’s rich
biodiversity. It also undertakes activities in bio-exploration, evaluating possible uses for
these riches in a sustainable development model for the country.
•
The Centre for Food Technology Research (CITA – Spanish acronym) specializes in
technology for food production, chemical analysis and processes as well as their
application to industrial processes.
•
The Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratory (LAQAT – Spanish acronym) specializes in
analytical chemistry, atmospheric chemistry and meteorology and conducts basic and
applied research. It offers its services to the productive sector and public administration in
the areas of air quality analysis, evaluation of energy producing systems and their
emissions as well as treatment systems for the reduction of emissions. It also undertakes
consulting activities concerning the use of clean technologies.
•
The National Laboratory for Structural Materials and Models (LANAMME – Spanish
acronym) primarily study the behaviour of different construction materials, structures and
systems during earthquakes.
•
The Centre for Agricultural Research (CIA) is an agricultural research centre that conducts
research into the following areas: natural resources, soil, biotechnology and post-harvest.
It offers services to the productive sector via its soil, microbiology and biochemical
laboratories and offers consulting and assessment services.
•
The Materials Science and Engineering Research Centre (CICIMA – Spanish acronym) is
a research centre dedicated to the study of the physical and chemical properties of
materials used in industrial processes.
Another group of relevant participants in R&D is formed by institutions directly dependent on public
administration, among which the following are noteworthy:
•
The Costa Rican Institute of Technical Norms (INTECO – Spanish acronym), which is a
national normalization body. Its principal function is the normalization of products and
services and it represents the country before the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
•
The
Veterinary
Services
Laboratory
(LANASEVE
–
Spanish
acronym)
is dependent on the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Farming and undertakes support
work for those bodies involved in the evaluation and analysis of animal health. It plays an
important role in the certification of the majority of Costa Rican exports.
•
The National Office of Norms and Measurement Units (ONUM – Spanish acronym), which
has
amongst
its
functions
legal
metrology,
the
control
of packaged products, measurement equipment and the quality control of various
products.
In Costa Rica, there also exist organizations of a national and regional character that play an important
role in Science and Technology such as:
•
The National Institute of Biodiversity (InBio – Spanish acronym) is a Biodiversity research
and management centre and among its objectives are the study, valuation, dissemination
and applications of national Biodiversity. It is a non-governmental civil organization with
close links to government bodies, universities, the business sector and other public and
private entities. The most important lines of research are inventory and monitoring,
conservation, bio-informatics and bio-exploration.
•
The “Dr. Franklin Chang Díaz” National Centre for Advanced Technology (CENAT –
Spanish
acronym)
is
an
inter-university
body
specializing
in
the development of research and postgraduate programs in the area of advanced
technology and of linking and innovation projects both with the private sector
and the government sector. Its work is conducted in the areas of materials science and
engineering, biotechnology, information science and information technology,
manufacturing processes, environmental management and science, culture and society.
•
The objective of the Centre for Technological Management (CEGESTI – Spanish
acronym) is promotion of the competitiveness of Costa Rican and Central American
companies. To achieve the objective it offers consulting, training and information services.
•
The Centre for the Training of Teachers and Technical Personnel for the Industrial
Development of Central America (CEFOF – Spanish acronym) is a technology transfer
centre founded with financial aid from the Japanese government. It is involved in the
training of human resources in the areas of information technology, productivity and
quality control.
With respect to the role of the private sector in S&T, less than half of companies are involved in R&D
activities. Nevertheless, certain differences exist between the distinct activity sectors with the
manufacturing sector contributing just 31.7% of private R&D, followed by the agricultural sector with
54% and the service sector with 60%4. However, the most important participation within this last sector
is related to the activities of software companies with 95% of them involved in R&D.
4
R. Monge-González; A. Vicente-León; J. Alfaro-Chamberlain, I&D, Innovation and Transfer of Technology in the Costa
Rican Productive Sector more oriented towards the Know-how based economy
Table 3:
Main S&T performers
Institute
Mission and Objectives
Legal status
Institute of Technical Norms of Costa Rica (Instituto
de Normas Técnicas de Costa Rica (INTECO)) 1987,
www.inteco.or.cr
Certification and normalization of
products and services.
Non profit
organization
Laboratory of Veterinary Services (Laboratorio se
Servicios Veterinarios (LANASEVE)), 1978
www.protecnet.go.cr
Assessment and analysis of the
animal health
Affiliated to the
Ministry of
Agriculture
National Institute of Biodiversity (Instituto Nacional de
Biodiversidad (InBio)), 1989 www.inbio.ac.cr
Research and management of the
national biodiversity
NGO
National Centre of High Technology "Dr. Franklin
Chang Díaz” (Centro Nacional de Alta Tecnología "Dr.
Franklin Chang Díaz" (CENAT),) 1999
www.cenat.ac.cr
High technology and innovation
area. Specialized in the development
of researches and post graduated
studies
Inter university
institution.
Technological Management Centre (Centro de
Gestión Tecnológica (CEGESTI)), 1990
www.cegesti.org
Promotion of the competitiveness of
the companies of Costa Rica and the
countries of Central America
Non profit
organization
Centre for training of technical personnel for the
industrial development of Central America (Centro de
Formación de Formadores y de Personal Técnico
para el Desarrollo Industrial de Centroamérica
(CEFOF)), 1993 www.cefof.ac.cr
Formation of human resources in the
areas of computer, productivity and
control of quality and technological
transfer
Costa Rica and
Japan cooperation.
University of Costa Rica (Universidad de Costa Rica
(UDCR)), 1940 www.ucr.ac.cr
Human resources formation,
research and social diffusion of
knowledge
Public University
Technological Institute of Costa Rica (Instituto
Tecnológico de Costa Rica (ITCR)), 1971
www.itcr.ac.cr
Human resources formation,
research
Public university
National University (Universidad Nacional (UNA))
1974, www.una.ac.cr
Human resources formation,
research
Public university
State University at Distance (Universidad Estatal a
Distancia (UNED)), 1977 www.uned.ac.cr
Its objective is to offer university
education to the social minorities
sectors
Public university
National Council of
Universities
3.1
Human Resources in Science and Technology
The first point to bear in mind is the number of graduates and their education profile when dealing with
human resources in the field of S&T. When analyzed in this way, we see that while the number of
people receiving a university education in the region is high, the distribution among areas of
knowledge is heterogeneous. Based on figures from 2002 participation in the areas of basic scientific
knowledge and engineering is 9%, a figure that for some analysts is evidence of a scarcity of
specialized researchers.5 The number for the social sciences is 47%, 25% for education and 17% for
health sciences. This tendency continues for graduates of Masters Programs where basic sciences
and engineering represent just 7% of the total while social sciences represent 57% and education
28%.
In the case of PhDs, although the total number of graduates is low (26), for this year there are no
graduates in the areas of basic science and engineering, while graduates in social sciences and
education represent 92% of the total. This situation has become more serious with introduction of a
law promoting early retirement for academics and researchers and the drop in numbers for people
becoming involved in Science and Technology.
The research community in Costa Rica is comprised of approximately 1193 people that mean a
relation of 1.02 researchers for every 1000 members of the Economically Active Population. The
majority of these (84.9%) work in higher education institutions, and this is followed by the government
sector (8.8%), the private sector (4%) and non-profit organizations (3%)6.
Analysis of areas of knowledge shows that 37% of researchers are engaged in the area of natural
science, 25% in social science, and 19% in agricultural science. What is notable, however, is the low
level of participation by researchers in engineering and technology (10%) and medical science (9%).
This distribution demonstrates the country’s weakness in terms of human resources for science and
technology.
With respect to the training of researchers, 22% hold a PhD, 30% a Masters Degree, 28.9% hold a
Bachelor’s Degree and 0.3 have a specialized field of study.
The majority of Masters Graduates completed their studies in Costa Rica (50%) while the majority of
Doctors (43%) completed their studies in the USA. The average age of researchers is 41.3 and no
significant variations are to be observed between the different areas of knowledge.7 There is a clear
difference, however, between the participation of women and men in scientific activities as just 38% of
researchers are women. These differences in gender participation will be studied in more depth in a
later section.
5
6
7
National Science and Technology Program 2002-2006. MICIT (2002)
Scientific and Technological Register, CONICIT.
Scientific and Technological Register , CONICIT.
4.
Scientific Production
Analysis of the scientific production of the country will include the evaluation of publications in peerreviewed journals as well as applications submitted for patents.
With respect to publications, analysis is concentrated on publications appearing in SCI Search and
PASCAL. Analysis of publications in SCI Search per inhabitant provides a figure of 6.9; publications in
the SCI Search in relation to the PBI 16.3; publications in the SCI Search in relation to R&D spending
is 3.6 and for publications in the SCI Search, for each 200 researchers the figure is 13.3.
Table 4:
Total expenditure in science and technology per capita, percentage pf GDPI and
research
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Expenditure on S&T
52.40
61.75
-
-
62.536
69.464
Expenditure on S&T per capita
14.76
16.21
-
-
15.3
16.6
Expenditure on S&T as a perc. of GDPI.
0.33%
0.39%
-
-
0.36%
0.38%
Source: RYCYT:2003; MICIT Costa Rica ;2004
The PASCAL data gives the following results: for publications per inhabitant the figure is 3.9;
publications with respect to the PBI 9.2 and publications on R&D Spending 1.6.8 With respect to the
production of publications the figures, while not low for a country from this region, do not correspond to
the levels of human development or the levels of R&D development demonstrated by the country as a
whole.
The majority of specialist journals are published by the country’s principal university and is designed to
disseminate information concerning research activities developed in the various research centres and
are for a specialized reading public rather than the public. The country’s principal scientific publications
are produced by the University of Costa Rica and are:
8
•
Current Issues of the CIHAC,
•
Current Issues in Psychology,
•
Costa Rican Agronomy,
•
Annals of the CELEQ,
•
The Central American Studies Annual,
•
CIRCA Bulletin – Technical Series,
•
The Aquatic Environments Bulletin,
•
Bulletin of the Post-Harvest Technology Laboratory,
•
Digital Record,
•
The History Journal,
•
Dialogs: the Electronic History Journal,
•
Chibcha Linguistic Studies,
•
Girasol: The Organ of Communication of the Vice-Rector,
RICYT
•
Heredity,
•
Engineering,
•
Population and Health in Mesoamerica,
•
University Presence,
•
Reflections,
•
The Mesoamerican Agronomy Journal,
•
The Crisol Journal,
•
The Journal of Tropical Agriculture,
•
The Journal of Tropical Biology,
•
The Journal of Legal Sciences,
•
The Social Sciences Journal,
•
The Geology and Ecology Journal,
•
The Journal of History,
•
The Journal of the Costa Rican College of Microbiologists and Clinical Chemists,
•
The Electronics Journal,
•
Current Research in Education,
•
The Journal of Modern Nursing in Costa Rica,
•
Science Journal,
•
The Central American Geology Journal,
•
Blood Journal,
•
REVITECA,
•
The Costa Rican Thought Series, and
•
University Weekly.
With respect to patents filed during the last year for which we have data, 428 patents were filed and of
these, 52 correspond to Costa Rican residents and 376 to non-residents. It is notable that the total
number of patents and the numbers presented by both residents and non-residents have enjoyed a
sustained increase over the last ten years. Nevertheless, as the figures show, for every patent filed by
Costa Rican researchers approximately 6.3 applications are filed by non-residents.
Table 5:
Expenditure on R&D by Financing Sector
Financing Sector
2003
2004
Government
11%
17%
Enterprises
32%
28%
Higher Education
38%
34%
Others organizations
19%
21%
Source: MICIT Costa Rica ;2004
Table 6:
Researchers per Thousand Labour Force
Researchers per Thousand
19991
20032
20042
1.02
0.67
0.60
1:Source RYCYT 2003
2:Source: MICIT Costa Rica ;2004
5.
Observations Concerning the Research Profession
With regard to the labour situation and pay levels for the research community, no documents have
been found that would indicate these factors are critical for the creation of a science and technology
community. Perhaps, because of this, the country has not suffered from the prolonged presence of a
brain drain. One clear indicator of this is the high level of returning scientists once they complete their
postgraduate studies in foreign countries. This would indicate that it exist adequate conditions in the
country for the satisfactory integration of highly qualified human resources.
It is also pertinent to highlight certain aspects of the gender balance within the science
and technology community. Data indicates that women form 38% of the community, with
12.2 women for every 20 men. The only area of knowledge in which there are more women than men
is in social sciences where they have a superiority of 11%.
In agricultural science, the difference is even greater, with only 14.9% of the total being represented by
women and in the area of engineering where the participation of women is just 33%. Nevertheless,
what is perhaps even more worrying than the reduced participation of women in the scientific and
technological community is their limited access to directional and supervisory posts. Women occupy
just 30% of directorships of the 152 research units identified. This difference is also reproduced at the
level of directing projects, as women are responsible for just 31% of these projects.
Table 7:
Total graduates by Knowledge Field and Level from the Public Universities
(2003)
Univ. degree or equivalent Magister
PhD
Arts and letters
69
29
1
Basic Science
69
117
0
Social Science
1030
715
2
Education
846
77
8
Natural Resources
109
40
1
Engineering
333
22
0
Medical Sciences
439
30
0
Source: MICIT Costa Rica ;2004
Table 8:
Researchers by Knowledge Field
Percentage
Natural Sciences
37%
Engineering and Tech.
10%
Medical Sciences
9%
Agro Sciences
19%
Social Sciences
25
Source : Registro Científico y Tecnológico, CONICIT; 2002
Table 9:
Researchers by level
Percentage
PhD
27%
Masters
38%
Univ degree or equivalent
28%
Others
7%
Source: MICIT Costa Rica, 2004
6.
The Informal Structure of Science and Technology
Numerous professional associations exist in the country that are involved in development activities
linked to science and new information concerning technology, but there also exist four recently created
organizations that play an important role in the promotion of professional activities in research and
development:
•
The National Academy of Science (ANC – Spanish acronym) was created in June 1992
as a permanent forum for the discussion and analysis of scientific activity in order to
promote the advancement of science at the national level through the stimulation and
dissemination of scientific research; it has close links to national and foreign research
centres and scientific organizations.
•
The Association for the Promotion of Science and Technology (PROCYT – Spanish
acronym) was created in 1992 with the fundamental objective of improving the social,
educational and productive status of members. It promotes the dissemination of programs
to popularize science and technology among the population, placing special emphasis on
Costa Rica’s young children and youths.
•
The National Council of Rectors (CONARE – Spanish acronym) was created in 1974 and
reformed in 1982; this body is formed by the rectors of the University of Costa Rica, the
National University, the State Distance Learning University and the Costa Rican
Technological Institute. Its principal objective is to stimulate the systematic and
coordinated action of the State’s Higher Learning University Institutions in accordance
with the responsibility established in the Covenant for the Coordination of State University
Higher Education.
•
The Chamber of Technologically Based Companies (CEBATEC – Spanish acronym),
which was created in 1992 with the objective of protecting the interests of associated
companies, which in the majority of cases are companies that intensively use knowledge
as a source of competitiveness. This goal is achieved through technological programs and
projects directed at companies in order to stimulate their growth, consolidation and
efficiency.
7.
Scientific Cooperation and Accords
One of the strategies proposed by Costa Rica is the maximization of cooperation with other countries
and multilateral organizations. The MICIT is responsible for organizing these actions. International
cooperation is analyzed in three groups: bilateral cooperation (with countries), multilateral cooperation
and participation in International Cooperation Networks.
Bilateral accords exist with Germany, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Taiwan, South Korea, Denmark,
Spain, France, the United Kingdom, Rumania, the Russian Federation, Holland, Israel, Italy, Japan,
Mexico, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Venezuela. Although the accords with different countries
include different types of activity, generally they include support for the training of human resources
and, in the case of developed countries, financial support in concrete thematic areas.
With respect to multilateral organizations, Costa Rica is engaged in joint activities with:
•
The Central American Bank for Economic Integration,
•
The International Reconstruction and Promotion Bank,
•
The Organization of American States,
•
The International Atomic Energy Organization,
•
The International Organization for Migration (IOM),
•
The Latin American Faculty of Social Sciences,
•
The International Labour Organization,
•
The Latin American Economic System,
•
The Inter-American Agricultural Cooperation Institute,
•
The Tropical Agriculture Research and Training Centre,
•
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
•
The United Nations Organization for Agriculture and Food (FAO),
•
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and
•
The European Union.
Costa Rica also participates in various cooperation networks and programs. With respect to
International Cooperation Networks the most important are:
•
The Latin American Science and Technology Indicators Network (RICYT – Spanish
acronym),
•
The Caribbean Energy Information System (CEIS),
•
The Network for the Popularization of Science and Technology in Latin America and the
Caribbean,
•
The Network of Postgraduate Studies in Planning and Management of Science and
Technology in Latin America,
•
The Central America and Panama Commission for Science and Technology Policy
Development (CTCAP – Spanish acronym),
•
The Latin American Biological Science Network (RELAB – Spanish acronym),
•
The Latin American Mathematics Network (UMALCA – Spanish acronym),
•
The Latin American Physics Network (RELAFI – Spanish acronym),
•
The Latin American Astronomy Network (RELAA – Spanish acronym),
•
The Latin American Biotechnology Network,
•
The Regional Biotechnology
(PRB – Spanish acronym),
•
The Latin American Botanical Network (RLB – Spanish acronym), and
•
The Caribbean Academy of Science.
Program
for
Latin
America
and
the
Caribbean
Costa Rica also participates in the following Science and Technology Cooperation Programs:
•
The Latin American Science and Technology Development Program (CYTED - Spanish
acronym),
•
The Science and Technology Common Market Program (MERCOCYT – Spanish
acronym);
•
The group of Environmental Cooperation Programs and Networks: The Coastal Regions
and Small Islands Environmental and Development Program (CSI – Spanish acronym),
•
The Earth System Research,
•
The International Framework, the International Biodiversity Program (DIVERSITAS),
•
The Sustainable Development Networks Program (SDNP – Spanish acronym),
•
The Ecological Sciences Program (MAB – Spanish acronym),
•
The Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program (CARICOMP), and
•
The Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR).
Of particular relevance are the Agriculture and Biotechnology Sciences Cooperation Programs and
Networks such as:
•
The Tropical Agriculture Centre for Research and Training (CATIE – Spanish acronym),
•
The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT – Spanish acronym),
•
The Inter-American Institute for Agricultural Cooperation (IICA – Spanish acronym),
•
The Biotechnology Sub-Program of the Latin American Science and Technology for
Development Program (CYTED Spanish acronym),
•
The System of Specialized Information in Food Biotechnology and Technology for Latin
America and the Caribbean, and
•
The International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB).
8.
Conclusion
For the last thirty years, the country has implemented some policies oriented to reinforce the
educational system, to build R&D infrastructure and institutional conditions in order to develop a
national system of innovation. During this time some S&T indicators have improved (human resources
and researchers for instance), or the arrival of foreign enterprises investing in some knowledge
intensive sectors. However, some targets have not been achieved yet, and are part of the policy
agenda in the short term. This is the case of the low expenditures in R&D and the small inclination of
enterprises to innovate.
Pub /. SCI /
research
Public / SCI /
population
Public / SCI.
Rate of Dep.
Patents
Research
/
Labour force
/
Invest.
research
Invest. / per
capita
GDPI
Some basic indicators about Costa Rican performance in science technology and
innovation in international comparison
Invest. / Perc.
Table 10:
Argentina
0,39
9,86
13,86
1,63
1.062
5,2
5.581
15,2
21,4
Bolivia
0.26
2.7
49.85
0.38
300
6,5
129
1,4
10,3
Brazil
1,04
36,67
96,62
0,78
10.002
1,4
15.854
9,1
20,0
Canada
1,88
440,31
133,57
6,41
5.737
16,2
40.513
129,0
37,9
Costa Rica
0,39
17,75
-
1,53
342
6.3
278
7,0
13.3
Cuba
0,62
16,85
31,30
1,15
147
1,3
635
5,6
10,5
Chile
0,60
26,72
55,89
1,08
407
8,0
2.655
17,6
36,7
EEUU
2,64
960,03
217,42
8,77
164.795 0,8
331.538 115,1
25,1
Spain
1,03
162,35
81,51
5,09
3.464
46,4
28.409
67,9
34,1
México
0,39
24,84
95,26
0,64
526
23,8
5.995
5,9
22,0
Paraguay
0,10
0,98
11,93
0,18
10
25,1
36
0,7
7,9
Portugal
0,84
90,30
52,47
3,34
97
1154,4
4.619
44,8
22,6
Uruguay
0,22
9,59
26,09
1,00
34
17,3
398
11,8
32,0
Source: RICYT (2003); Registro Científico y Tecnológico, CONICIT; 2002