Introduction to Conscious Memory
Learning & Memory
Arlo Clark-Foos, Ph.D.
Henry Molaison (H.M.)
Scoville & Milner (1957)
Declarative Memory
‡
vs. Nondeclarative (Procedural/Behavioral; Cohen, 1984)
Capacity to bring to mind previous personal experiences
and factual information, and to use this information to
solve novel problems.
Syllogistic Reasoning and
Transitive Inference
Syllogistic Reasoning and
Transitive Inference
‡
Bryant & Trabasso (1971): Human Development
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McGonigle & Chalmers (1977): Replication w/ monkeys
Can we make transitive inferences?
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Matching to Sample
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Reasoning by Analogy
• Red Adair (Gick & Holyoak, 1980)
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George de Mestrel and Velcro
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Lyndon Johnson’s “domino effect” in Vietnam
• (Holyoak & Thagard, 1995)
Processes/Stages of Memory
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Encoding (Learning)
How information is represented in memory
‡
Structural, physical properties of representation
• “What does it look like?”
‡
Depth of content and associations
• “How hard did you really study?”
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Organization of associations and relationships
• “How is alike and different from other things that I know?”
Imagery
‡
Simonides and the Method of Loci
Imagery
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Alan Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory (1986)
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKg2zCnuN1Y
DOG
Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
Craik & Tulving (1975)
Professor Sanford’s
Prayers
(Neisser, 1982)
Self-Reference Effect
‡
Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977)
Adaptive Memory
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Nairne, Thompson. & Pandeirada (2007)
Intent in Learning
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Hyde & Jenkins (1973): Intent to learn does not matter
‡
Sebrechts, Marsh, & Seamon (1989): Yes, it does!
Very Rapid Forgetting
Distribution of Study Sessions
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Spaced vs. Massed Practice
• Cramming!
• High School Physics (Grote, 1994)
Advanced Organizers
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Schemata, Scripts
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Sir Frederic Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts
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Chess Masters (Chase & Simon,1973)
• Not better memory, just a better schema
‡
Bransford & Johnson (1972): ___________ passage.
Three Groups
1. No Picture (Control)
2. Picture Before
3. Picture After
Schemata help organize
information as it is being
encoded.
Schema-Based Errors (Brewer & Tryons, 1981)
Post-Information Effect
‡
Schemata can help retrieval too (more later)
‡
Bower & Mann (1992)
‡
Marsh, Landau, & Hicks (1996): Humpty Dumpty
Storage
‡
Forgetting?
‡
Decay vs. Interference vs. Bad Retrieval Cues (later)
• FIFO, Leaky Bucket
‡
Retention
• Ebbinghaus (1885) Savings in Relearning (Power Law)
Brown-Peterson Paradigm
“Please learn
the following”
HWJ
TRK
QPT
BHS
MXG
Count Backwards by 3s
397
394
391
298
295
…
“Please recall
the consonant
trigram.”
Brown & Peterson-Peterson
Interference
‡
Keppel & Underwood (1962)
‡
Retroactive Interference
• McGeogh & Donald (1931): Rest, RI, Item-Specific Control
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Proactive Interference
• Underwood (1957)
Retrieval
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Accessibility vs. Availability (Tulving & Pearlstone, 1966)
• Cued-Recall
Metacognition & TOT
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Brown & McNeil (1966)
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Hart (1967): Feeling-of-Knowing (FOK)
• Would you recognize it if it was presented with options?
• Judgment-of-Learning (JOL)
Retrieval
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Recognition
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Free Recall
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Cued Recall
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Retrieval Cues
• Encoding Specificity: Tulving & Thompson (1973)
Context-Dependent Memory
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Same Room?
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Godden & Baddeley (1975): British Navy Divers
State-Dependent Memory
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Eich et al. (1975): Study high, test high, get high scores
Mood-Dependent Memory
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Bower, Monteiro, & Gilligan (1978)
Mood-Congruent Memory
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Bower, Gilligan, & Monteiro (1981)
• Happy Andre and Sad Jack
Schemata and False Memory
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Bransford & Franks (1971): Ants Passage
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Roediger & McDermott (1995): DRM Paradigm
Super Memory
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Shereshevskii (Luria, 1968)
• Journalist
‡
Falloon (Ericsson & Chase, 1982)
• Long Distance Runner
Neural Basis of Conscious Memory
Amnesics
Corkin (1984)
‡
Memory vs. Intelligence
‡
STM vs. LTM
‡
Declarative vs. Nondeclarative
H.M. and Mirror Tracing (Corkin, 1984)
Gollins Partial Pictures Task
Where is H.M. now?
Medial Temporal Lobe
‡
Schachter & Wagner (1999): PET Scan
Medial Temporal Lobe
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Schachter & Wagner (1999): fMRI Scan
Hippocampus
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Activation during Encoding & Successful Recall
• Schachter et al. (1996)
Hippocampus
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Associations (Henke et al., 1997)
Hippocampus
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Transitive Memory (Preston et al. 2004)
Hippocampus
‡
Transitive Memory (Preston et al. 2004)
Hippocampus
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Spatial Memory & Cognitive Maps
• O’Keefe & Nadel (1978)
• Parahippocampal Place Area
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Relational Memory Account
• (Olton et al., 1979)
• Eichenbaum et al. (1990)