International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance (2006) 6: 3–14
DOI 10.1007/s10775-006-0002-4
ÓSpringer 2006
Challenges for Career Interventions in Changing Contexts
NORMAN AMUNDSON
Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, B.C.,
V6T 1Z4, Canada (E-mail: amundson@interchange.ubc.ca)
Received: September 2005; Accepted: November 2005
Abstract. Current social and economic changes have created a challenging context for career
counsellors. Within this context counsellors are being asked to view their role from different
perspectives. There is recognition of the importance of lifelong guidance and also the need to view
guidance from a broader social context with greater emphasis on social responsibility and ethics.
New forms of delivery are also emerging. These include an emphasis on client centred and holistic
counselling, an affirmation of narrative methods, and a more dynamic counselling approach.
Lastly, there is the development of a number of new methods of service delivery. Some examples
include one stop counselling centres, virtual counselling services, mentoring, career coaching, and
the inclusion of social enterprises as part of the counselling process. The implementation of these
changes has implications for training, specialization and for accreditation.
Résumé. Défis pour les interventions d’orientation dans des contextes en mouvance. Les changements
sociaux et économiques actuels ont créé un contexte qui constitue un défi pour les conseillers
d’orientation. Dans ce contexte, on demande aux conseillers de concevoir leur rôle selon différentes
perspectives. On reconnaı̂t l’importance de l’orientation tout au long de la vie ainsi que la nécessité
de considérer l’orientation à partir d’une perspective sociale plus large avec un accent plus marqué
sur la responsabilité et l’éthique sociales. De nouvelles formes de conseil sont aussi en émergence.
On insiste sur une approche holistique et centrée sur le client, sur les méthodes narratives et sur un
conseil plus dynamique. Enfin, on voit se développer un certain nombre de nouvelles méthodes
concernant l’offre de services. A titre d’exemples, on peut citer les centres de conseil plateformeunique les services de consultation virtuels, le tutorat, le coaching de carrière et l’insertion dans des
entreprises sociales en tant qu’élément du processus de conseil. La mise en oelig;uvre de ces
changements a des implications pour la formation, la spécialisation et pour l’accréditation.
Zusammenfassung. Herausforderungen an Hilfen zur Berufsentscheidung in veränderlichen Kontexten. Aktuelle soziale und ökonomische Veränderungen haben einen herausfordernden Kontext für
Berufsberater geschaffen: In diesem Kontext sind die Berater aufgefordert, ihre Rolle aus verschiedenen Perspektiven zu betrachten. Die Bedeutung einer lebenslangen Beratung wird erkannt,
und ebenso die Notwendigkeit, Beratung in einem erweiterten sozialen Zusammenhang unter
größerer Betonung von sozialer Verantwortung und von ethischen Gesichtspunkten zu betrachten.
Ebenso entstehen neue Formen der Hilfen zur Berufsentscheidung. Diese schließen eine Betonung
der klientenzentrierten und ganzheitlichen Beratung ein, eine Bestätigung narrativer Methoden und
einen dynamischeren Beratungsansatz. Schließlich findet auch eine Entwicklung neuer Angebotsformen statt. Einige Beispiele sind ganzheitliche (One-Stop) Beratungszentren, virtuelle Beratungsangebote, Mentoren- und Coachingangebote, sowie die Einbeziehung sozialer Institutionen in
den Beratungsprozess. Die Umsetzung dieser Veränderungen hat Auswirkungen auf die Ausbildung, die Spezialisierung und die Berufszulassung von Berufsberatern.
Resumen. Desafı́os para la Orientación Profesional en Contextos Cambiantes. Los cambios sociales
y económicos actuales han generado un contexto desafiante para los orientadores de la carrera, a
quienes se les pide contemplar su rol desde distintas perspectivas. Se reconoce la importancia de la
orientación a lo largo de la vida y la necesidad de asumir la orientación desde un contexto social
más amplio con mayor énfasis en la responsabilidad social y la ética. También están surgiendo
nuevas formas de intervención. Entre éstas podemos destacar el énfasis en la orientación holı́stica y
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NORMAN AMUNDSON
centrada en el cliente, una defensa de métodos narrativos y un enfoque de la orientación más
dinámico. Finalmente, se han desarrollado nuevos métodos para la provisión de servicios. Algunos
ejemplos son los centros de orientación de ‘‘una parada’’, servicios virtuales, mentores, acompañamiento (coaching) y la inclusión de empresas sociales como parte del proceso de orientación.
La realización de estos cambios tiene claras implicaciones para la formación, especialización y la
acreditación.
The rapid pace of social and economic change has contributed to the creation
of a changing context for career counselling. The changes have been fuelled by
increasing globalization, advances in technology and information, and significant demographic shifts (Homer-Dixon, 2000). The scale of change is of a
magnitude that has forced people to critically reflect upon many underlying
assumptions and of course this has relevance for the way in which career
counselling practice is developing. Bloch (2005, p. 195) makes the following
observation:
In the late 20th century many supposedly immutable truths were thrown into question not by
those who simply questioned the truths but by those who had gone beyond doubting the individual beliefs to doubting the very system of thought in which the beliefs were constructed.
This somewhat chaotic environment has dramatically changed the nature of
working life and a number of authors have documented these changes
(Amundson, Jang, & To, 2004; Feller, 2003; Herr, 1999). The changes can be
summarized as follows (Amundson, 2005):
– Greater competition and pressure for productivity.
– Less defined and predictable career pathways – both within organizations
and in looking for work.
– Organizational change being driven by mergers, joint ventures and work
alliances.
– More opportunities for work in different parts of the world.
– Greater reliance on temporary or contract positions.
– Greater need to consider self-employment options.
– Increased diversity (racial, gender) in the workplace.
– Greater emphasis on technological skills.
– Increased need for skilled trades workers.
– More tasks and greater work/life complexity.
– More need for dual career planning/pressure on families.
– Increased emphasis on interpersonal skills i.e., teamwork, networking.
– Need for continuous learning.
– Need for ongoing innovation.
– Fewer opportunities for upward mobility.
– Greater income disparity between workers and managers.
These changes have had a great influence on people at all levels. Within the
career counselling field the nature of clients has increased in complexity and in
CHALLENGES FOR CAREER INTERVENTIONS
5
resistance levels. The client populations have become more diverse and multibarriered. There are demands for a greater range of services. Career counsellors
are also expected to work with many clients who have been mandated to come
for counselling.
As counsellors attempt to work within this new more challenging environment
they find that their funding is being reduced while expectations are rising. In
many ways they are living the same reality as their clients. There are cutbacks to
services, increasing reliance on short-term project based funding and expectations to do more with less. They are also dealing with a workplace with greater
accountability and pressure for certification and ongoing skill development. This
parallel process certainly leads to tension in the workplace and in some ways can
reduce the level of quality service (Amundson, Borgen, Jordan, & Erlebach,
2004).
A response to these types of challenges is required at both the policy and the
career intervention level. The OECD has been involved in a major study to
examine career counselling policies and practice. Watts (2003) has used the
results from this study to comment on public policy development. There also
has been the recent establishment of the International Centre for Career
Development and Public Policy (ICCDPP). This new centre has developed
some important recommendations for career counselling policy and practice.
This paper will focus only on the changes in career intervention that are
emerging as a response to the contextual challenges. While these changes in
practice are important they are closely linked to practical and policy support
for effective implementation.
New perspectives
Lifelong career guidance
Given the ongoing nature of change there is a growing recognition that career
choice and decision-making is a life long process. The idea of a lifetime job or
even a lifetime profession is something that is changing. People can no longer
depend on educational and work organizations to direct their career planning.
There is an increasing focus on employability and ‘‘self-organizing’’ behaviour in
response to career challenges. Career terms such as ‘‘boundaryless’’ (Arthur &
Rousseau, 1996), ‘‘portfolio’’ (Handy, 1994), and ‘‘protean’’ (Hall, 1996) have
been associated with this self-organizing ideal. This shift in focus implies a need
for a different approach to career guidance. This new approach is one in which
the functions of career guidance are stretched in several different directions.
Firstly, there are many different groups of career guidance counsellors and
they each have traditionally worked in isolation from one another. There are
counsellors working in the schools, in post-secondary institutions, in employment agencies, with private and public organizations, and so on. Each group
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NORMAN AMUNDSON
has its own professional associations and there is very little overlap among the
various groups. What is needed at a very basic level is greater integration and
‘‘fusion’’ of occupational and organizational guidance at both a theoretical and
practical level (Amundson, Parker, & Arthur, 2002). Career guidance professionals need to expand their professional borders to include a lifelong career
guidance perspective.
If guidance is truly lifelong, then the next shift is to developmentally include
activities, which build upon one another and can be employed over the life
span. There is an old adage that states that if one ‘‘gives a person a fish they
won’t be hungry for a day, teach them how to fish and they won’t be hungry
for a life time.’’ In our current context we could probably add some further
skills in addition to simply catching fish. The fish need to be caught in a
sustainable manner and then there are the skills of packaging and marketing
that also could be included. As an overview of this developmental process the
Blueprint for Life/Work Designs (2005) provides a competency template for
children, youth and adults. The Blueprint organizes career competencies into
the following three broad areas: personal management, learning and work
exploration and life/work building. It also offers information to organizations
about the necessary levels of structure, support and commitment.
As career counsellors seek to weave together career competencies through
the lifespan they need to focus on helping people to identify and apply life/
career patterns. The term ‘‘psychological DNA’’ can be used when referring to
these patterns and guidance exercises have been developed such as the pattern
identification exercise to focus on the patterns (Amundson, 2003b). The pattern identification exercise involves an in-depth exploration, usually starting
with interests and then expanding to include information related to values,
skills, personal style and significant others. The analysis is collaborative and
the focus is always on the ways in which patterns can be identified and applied
across different aspects of life. Most people are surprised by the way in which
an in-depth examination of an interest can lead to life/career patterns that play
a role across all aspects of life.
In addition to specific exercises, a wheel diagram that serves as a guiding
framework to help people organize personal and labour market information
has been used. This wheel has been adapted and incorporated into four career
guidance workbooks: (1) Career Scope – youth (Amundson, Poehnell, &
Pattern, 2005); (2) Career Pathways – adults (Amundson & Poehnell, 2003); (3)
Career Exploration Handbook – Royal Canadian Mounted Police (Amundson
& Poehnell, 2004); and (4) Guiding Circles – aboriginal youth and adults
(McCormick, Amundson, & Poehnell, 2002). The wheel has proven itself to be
a useful guidance tool for different ages and for different cultural groups.
CHALLENGES FOR CAREER INTERVENTIONS
7
Social perspectives
Many counsellors are becoming more aware of diversity issues and the fact that
career guidance is more than just an individual enterprise. It is a project that
calls for moral choices and the recognition that people always need to be
understood within their social and cultural context (Thrift & Amundson,
2005). Guichard (2003) suggests that in this broader context the core question
of career counselling can ‘‘no longer be centred around helping people achieve
their own potential as independent individuals, but rather by helping people
achieve their own humanity, through collectively helping others achieve their
own humanity, each in his or her own way.’’ (p. 318).
Rather than accepting all career choices as equally valid there is recognition
of the need to place greater emphasis on the quality of career decisions that are
being made (Cochran, 1997). Plant (1999) suggests that career decision-making
needs to be framed within the context of ‘‘green guidance’’ where people are
encouraged to critically think about the types of decisions that are being made.
It is not just about getting a job, it is also a matter of reflecting upon what type
of work one is doing. There are many issues to be considered here, Plant is
particularly focused on the way in which work supports or undermines the
physical environment.
Several distinguished researchers in the U.S. have also raised the importance
of contextual issues in making career choices. Gardner, Csikszentmihalyi, and
Damon (2001) have focused their efforts on the ‘‘Good Work’’ project. The
project focuses on ‘‘what it means to carry out ‘good work’ – work that is both
excellent in quality and socially responsible – at a time of constant change’’
(p. ix). Good work brings harmony between excellent work and ethics. With
this harmony come both personal and social rewards.
New methods
Client centred and holistic career counselling
With all the demands and constraints in the counselling situation it is easy to lose
sight of the need to develop and maintain a good counselling relationship. The
research on counselling efficacy (Hackney & Cormier, 1996) points to the
importance of the counselling relationship and the working alliance. All counselling interventions are dependent on the foundation of a good relationship.
Building a relationship in career counselling means making every effort to
see the whole person, not just the problems. With this broader view there is a
growing awareness of the integration of the personal and the vocational
domains (Bedi, 2004). Personal and contextual variables such as family,
community, ecology, leisure and spirituality need to be taken into account
when considering career issues (Amundson, 2003a; Hansen, 1996; Plant, 1999).
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NORMAN AMUNDSON
One way of addressing these various factors is through an exercise where
people are asked to list all the things they enjoy doing (Amundson, 2003b).
Once they have listed up to 20 different things there is a discussion of the items
with particular reference to issues such as: when they last did the activity, costs,
whether an activity was planned or spontaneous, whether they were alone or in
a group, and the needs that were being fulfilled (mental, emotional, physical,
spiritual). This simple exercise helps broaden the level of enquiry and serves as
a good foundation for relationship building.
In addition to discussion focused exercises there also is a need to attend to
the degree of ‘‘mattering’’ that clients feel within counselling contexts. Mattering is the belief that clients hold about their significance in the counselling
process (Connolly & Myers, 2003). Mattering is enhanced through our actions
as well as through our words. Mattering is expressed in the way we greet
clients, the way in which we relate to them during counselling sessions, and the
way in which we follow-up with them afterwards.
Narrative focused counselling methods
In order to cope with increasing complexity in the workplace there is a need to
move away from positivistic ideology toward a view of the person as a selfconceiving and self-organizing system (Cochran, 1997). Rather than trying to
dissect and analyse all the pieces it is more prudent to try to capture the full
narrative through the eyes of the person involved (Peavy, 2004). The focus here
is on how people understand and make sense of their situation as told through
their unique career stories.
Savickas (2005) indicates that career counsellors using this method should
encourage clients to tell stories about their work experiences. These stories help
create a certain narrative truth about how people live their lives. In listening to
the stories counsellors need to be aware of how the stories reflect various
personality dimensions, life themes, and a general capacity for adapatability.
Dynamic counselling methods
As people try to navigate the many complexities of the current social and
economic context they often are perplexed and feel ‘‘stuck,’’ uncertain of how
to move forward. In some ways they suffer from a ‘‘crisis of imagination’’
(Amundson, 2003b). Dynamic counselling helps to reinvigorate the imagination by creating new possibilities and structures and by encouraging the use of
multiple perspectives. Some of the changes in dynamic counselling focus on the
use of different forms of physical space, more visual methods, different time
frames, and more flexible interpersonal arrangements. There also is the use of a
greater range of counselling methods, some of which include: focused questioning, metaphors, card sorts, mind mapping, values exercises, achievement
profiling, walking the problem, task analysis, and so on (Amundson, 2003b).
CHALLENGES FOR CAREER INTERVENTIONS
9
These dynamic methods fit well with paradoxical notions such as ‘‘positive
uncertainty’’ (Gelatt, 1989) and ‘‘planned happenstance’’ (Mitchell, Levin, &
Krumboltz, 1999). Rather than focusing on linear and ‘‘either-or’’ thinking
there is the acceptance of ambivalence, intuition and flexibility and the
recognition that in many instances problems need to be approached from a
‘‘both-and’’ perspective.
Chaos theory also fits with this more dynamic approach. With chaos theory
there is an emphasis on understanding how patterns and new forms of order
emerge from environments where there is disorder and unpredictability (Bloch,
2005; Pryor & Bright, 2003). Pryor and Bright (2004, p. 2) indicate that ‘‘in
human terms this equates ultimately to spiritual values such as purpose,
meaning, balance, harmony, mission, commitment, contribution and integrity.’’
New forms of delivery
Integrated one stop centres
Organizational trends towards greater productivity through mergers, joint
ventures and work alliances have also found a place in the delivery of career
services. In the United States the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 helped to
coordinate most federally funded employment and training services into a single
system, called the one stop centre. These centres were designed to streamline
services for jobseekers, engage the employer community, and build an infrastructure for service delivery. In a recent impact study, the initial results appeared
promising (United States General Accounting Office, 2003). The centres were
using cross training, special service training, collaboration and partnerships to
offer more integrated services. The recommendation was for further studies
focusing more specifically on job placement and job retention data.
In discussing the efficacy of these one stop centres with counsellors at a
recent conference there was an expression of enthusiasm for the process and the
recognition that clients benefited through the more integrated system. At the
same time, there was also an indication that there were some real challenges in
merging the different services.
Virtual career guidance
Technology and information systems have become increasingly important in the
new economy for productivity and for working with more complex systems. It is
not surprising to see that information technology has become an integral part of
most career guidance systems. According to Sampson (1999) the use of an integrated web site in a career centre can help to: (1) Provide educational and
employment information; (2) Supplement some services such as resume writing,
career exploration and assessment; (3) Provide up-to-date operational
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NORMAN AMUNDSON
information about the running of the centre; and (4) Provide links to commercial
and non-commercial resources and services. Sampson et al. (2001) go on to
illustrate how web-based guidance can be used to build a virtual guidance centre.
The four components of such a centre are: links to existing websites, locally
developed information, access to web counselling, and an overall monitoring
function (Amundson, Harris-Bowlsbey, & Niles, 2005). Illustrations of centres
where web based guidance is well integrated include the Florida State University
site at http://www.career.fsu.edu and ReadyMinds (http://www.readyminds.
com), a commercial site. In the U.K. there is Learn direct (http://www.learndirect.co.uk/home/), a virtual centre focusing on youth and adult learning.
The receptivity of career practitioners toward internet based career guidance
is something that remains an ongoing issue. Hambley and Magnusson (2001)
conducted a study focusing on this question. Their results suggest that while
practitioners were generally receptive to the internet they still had concerns
about how to use the resource in a time efficient manner. Those practitioners
that made the most use of the internet had a higher level of education and
tended to use the Internet in their personal lives. They also found that for
counsellors in rural setting the Internet was used more frequently.
Brief counselling, mentorship and coaching
The push towards greater efficiency and productivity has led to a growing
interest in breaking down traditional career guidance into shorter and more
accessible segments. In brief counselling, for example, there is an attempt to use
a more intense and positively focused process with short-term goals. The intent
is that small changes can lead to more broadly based results and that strength
based guidance can have a significant impact (Friedman, 1993).
Other developments have included the use of some career guidance activities
under the framework of mentorship or career coaching. Initially this developed
as a more facilitative way for managers and seasoned professionals to support
the development and career choices of new employees (Randolph, 1981).
Mentorship relationships and programs have continued to thrive in many
different settings with most of the focus on the benefits of the mentorship
relationship (Johnson, 2002). Workers today are being asked to work within
organizations where there are less defined and predictable career pathways.
They also need to form networks and to work collaboratively with others
(teamwork). All of these factors help create a more challenging workplace.
Having a good relationship with a mentor can be a valuable asset for integration and for movement within an organization.
Career coaching has also enjoyed considerable success, likely for many of the
same reasons as mentorship. Career coaches can provide some guidance for both
movement within an organization and also for broader career development
strategies. Coaches often operate from outside of the system and at times, this can
CHALLENGES FOR CAREER INTERVENTIONS
11
be an advantage. The field of career coaching has grown rapidly and it has now
developed its own professional group with specific practices and training
programs. Career coaches tend to be more problem and task focused, they often
operate outside of traditional counselling boundaries, and may assume a more
active role in interacting with their clients. The main criticism has been the lack of
standards with respect to professional and ethical issues (Chung & Gfroerer,
2003).
Social enterprise: Counselling on the ‘‘fringe’’
The increasing number of multi-barriered and mandated clients has led to some
real challenges for career counsellors. Many of the traditional intervention
strategies are designed for a middle and upper class clientele. In working with a
more challenging client group there is need for advocacy, innovation, and a
more active stance. For some career counsellors this has meant the blending of
a counselling model with a business model. The creation of ‘‘social enterprises’’
has become one of the ways of addressing the needs.
Programs that seem to have some success are often small and operate outside
the traditional boundaries of government funded agencies. For example, the Just
Works program in Vancouver, Canada targets their career service to the needs of
homeless people. They have established a drop-in pottery studio in a church
basement (pottery is sold at local markets) as well as developed a painting
business that pays people for every 15 min of work. At one point the government
was interested in offering some funding to the program but program officers were
unable to fit the program structure into existing funding formulas. So, the
program continues with a ‘‘shoestring’’ budget and private donations. While the
lack of government funding is a challenge, there also are some benefits. Many
clients are wary of government services and are more receptive to programs where
there is not a direct financial connection to the government.
Implementation issues
While there are many exciting new developments in career guidance with respect
to perspectives, methods and forms of service, there also are some very real
issues in terms of implementation. In order to operate within this more complex
and challenging environment there is a need for training and for career specialization and accreditation. In Canada has been given attention since 1996 on
the development of a national framework for career guidelines and standards.
At the international level the recent creation of the International Centre for
Career Development and Public Policy (ICCDPP) is one mechanism for
continuing this effort toward standards and guidelines for career practice.
Funding shortages also continue to be a problem and it is becoming
increasingly important to answer the questions of some policy makers by
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NORMAN AMUNDSON
linking career practice with economic efficiency, social equity, and sustainability (Herr, 2003; Hiebert, 1994). While much of the existing research points
to participant satisfaction there is a need for better research about the efficacy
of career guidance methods and programs (Magnusson, 2004). The challenge
here is to also develop research paradigms that are consistent with some of the
new forms of career guidance practice. This requires innovation and greater
collaboration between researchers and practitioners.
Summary and conclusions
Changing contexts have created challenges for career interventions but also
new opportunities. The focus of counselling has broadened and people are now
more willing to view guidance as a lifelong activity that has strong social and
cultural influences. There is also recognition of the increasing complexity of
career counselling. Personal and vocational issues are more integrated and
more holistic. Dynamic counselling methods are being employed often within
the context of the story. A number of different forms of delivery are being
implemented. There are attempts to integrate services through one stop centres
and virtual guidance is increasingly becoming a reality. Brief counselling is also
becoming accepted and there are also increased utilization of mentorship and
career coaching. At the other end of the spectrum, there are increasing number
of multi-barriered clients and in some centres social enterprises are being
developed to offer greater employment options.
All these changes have implications for the training needs of counsellors.
With the increase in complexity there is an obvious need for more training and
for standards. There is also a need for greater resources to meet the growing
demands.
Looking ahead, what is emerging are two broad levels of concern. On the one
hand, there are increasing demands for skilled labour and with the current
demographic trends this should result in some shortages. At the same time, there
also are many people who do not have the necessary skills. Thus, there is the
emergence of both an employment and an unemployment problem. This presents
some interesting challenges for career counsellors as they will need to learn to
operate within both domains. To be effective in the 21st century career counsellors will need to expand both their thinking and their intervention repertoire.
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