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LA-C 41: CONSTRUCTING THE SAMURAI
FINAL EXAM
STUDY GUIDE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
HAGAKURE: THE BOOK OF THE SAMURAI ............................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
BUSHIDO: THE SAMURAI ETHOS ................................................................................................................ 1
CHILDHOOD ....................................................................................................................................................... 2
DAIMYO KATAGO ............................................................................................................................................ 3
A SWAGGERER .................................................................................................................................................. 3
THE SPORTING ELEMENT IN THE LATE TOKUGAWA ......................................................................... 4
HOMOSEXUALITY AMONG THE SAMURAI: THE INFLUENCE OF FEUDALISM ........................... 5
THE VENDETTA OF THE FORTY-SEVEN SAMURAI ............................................................................... 6
THE AKO INCIDENT, 1701-1703...................................................................................................................... 7
HAGAKURE: THE BOOK OF THE SAMURAI ............................................................................................. 7
ACT THREE, ACT FOUR, ACT ELEVEN ...................................................................................................... 8
THE HOUSE OF SUGAWARA.......................................................................................................................... 8
LAST DAYS OF THE BAKUFU, A TIME OF TRIAL FOR THE FAMILY, DETENTION CAMP IN
EDO, JOURNEY TO HELL ............................................................................................................................... 8
CIVIL WAR .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
DIVINE DESTRUCTION: THE SHINPUREN REBELLION OF 1876 ........................................................ 9
THE SATSUMA REBELLION OF 1877 ......................................................................................................... 10
THE BURDEN OF DEATH IS LIGHT: SAIGO AND THE WAR OF THE SOUTHWEST .................... 11
POLITICAL ASSASSINATION IN EARLY MEIJI JAPAN: THE PLOT AGAINST OKUBO
TOSHIMICHI..................................................................................................................................................... 12
COMIC: SATSUMA REBELLION.................................................................................................................. 12
NOGI MARESUKE (1849-1912)....................................................................................................................... 12
SONG OF VICTORY: THE BATTLE OF PORT ARTHUR ........................................................................ 14
THE HILL OF FATE......................................................................................................................................... 14
THE RIFLE ........................................................................................................................................................ 15
BUSHIDO AND THE SAMURAI: IMAGES IN BRITISH PUBLIC OPINION, 1894-1914 ...................... 15
LOST BATTLES: “SPECIAL ATTACK”....................................................................................................... 17
COMIC: THE RUSSO JAPANESE WAR, 1904-1905.................................................................................... 17
FILM SUMMARIES .......................................................................................................................................... 18
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Yamamoto Tsunetomo
Trans. William Scott Wilson
[29] 379
The Way of the samurai is in death.
Samurai has to have loyalty to retainer, no matter what the situation is.
Raise children carefully.
Homosexuality is okay as long as you are faithful.
Otherwise any sort of unfaithfulness (i.e. not monogamy) is bad.
One should raise kids so that they unafraid of death (especially execution) from early age.
Stories of insane bravery and taking suffering like a warrior-these things are laudable.
Bushido: The Samurai Ethos
Zen and the Way of the Sword: Arming the Samurai Psyche
Winston L. King
[30] 389
The Tokugawa peace altered the traditional role of the samurai class from constant military service to primarily
administrative roles, and as such had a major impact on the teachings and codes of conduct by which they lived,
and which helped to distinguish them from the lower classes. Writings from this time period show many
attempts to establish new guidelines as the class reoriented itself and tried to preserve the core of its historical
ethos while adopting suitable behavior for their new situation. Bushido was never a completely specified code,
and teachings varied over time and between clans, but certain broad themes appear in essentially across the
board in writings concerning bushido, and a number of practices eventually became fairly standardized, so it is
possible to treat the concept as “:a somewhat systematized and predictable pattern of samurai behavior” (390).
One of the core ideals in most early samurai tradition was the importance of being prepared to die at any
moment, through constant meditation on death and willingness to give up one’s life. This did not translate
directly to peacetime in a meaningful way, but many authors advocated a fitting new interpretation of the ideal:
to perform one’s duties as though every action were one’s last, and therefore spare no effort in any situation.
Many also advocated meditation on death as had been used by some in bygone eras as preparation for combat.
Furthermore, proper maintenance of, training with, and wearing of weapons was mandated, as well as readiness
to use them – maintaining the ready-to-fight status that was now rather obsolete. This last practice probably
resulted in many deaths among hotheaded young samurai, but the traditional warrior-protector role was the
raison d’être of the class and not lightly abandoned.
Loyalty is perhaps the most emphasized and revered virtue in the samurai ideal, and while in peacetime the
possibility of proving ultimate loyalty by sacrificing one’s life for one’s lord was distinctly less of a possibility,
the principle was retained in full force. Among the various types of duties and obligations, duty to one’s lord fell
into the category of on, or infinite debt (as opposed to giri and gimu, quantifiable obligations that were to be
repaid) – the same type of debt owed to the buddhas, parents, teachers, and the like. A retained owed everything
to his lord – position, possessions, and service. Writers stressed that not only should a samurai be ready to
volunteer anything required by their lord without complaint, but also that retainers should live frugally to
conserve resources for the master. They should do their best to advise their lord, but never to challenge his
judgment – instead they should present advice offhandedly, and in a case of strong disagreement, a retainer’s
final option was to emphasize his point via seppuku. A disagreement should of course only be carried that far if
the retainer believed that it was essential to his master’s welfare, and not waste his life, which he owed in
service.
Honor was also very important, and the maintenance of honor essential to the samurai’s role as an exemplar for
both his own retainers and all commoners. Avoiding disgrace by improper conduct was not the only way
samurai protected their honor, however – they also employed steel to respond. As there were few opportunities
for quick action with the sword in peacetime, doing so without hesitation was considered by some to evidence a
warrior’s resolve, although some, including Suzuki Shosan, criticized the tendency to take such actions only
against commoners (quarrels among samurai that resulted in a death often carried a penalty of seppuku for the
‘winner,’ a fact which undoubtedly held such actions in check).
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Perhaps the largest changes to samurai tradition during the Tokugawa period were those concerning education
and conduct. Whereas earlier samurai began martial training at an early age and were primarily expected to be
constantly ready to fight, samurai of the Tokugawa period were expected to perform more administrative duties
and make formal appearances, requiring entirely different sorts of training and comportment. During this period
there was a lively debate regarding exactly how much education should be mandated and of what nature – some
held that practical training in record keeping and other useful skills was sufficient, while others advocated
exposure to history or even liberal arts education in literature, poetry, and fine arts. The term bushi referred of
course to “a man of both the sword and letters” (141), but there was great disagreement on how much learning
was too much, and whether it might have a ‘feminizing’ effect on a young warrior. But even the most martiallyfocused writers agreed on the importance of proper attitude and bearing, especially among samurai of lower
rank, who had little other way to demonstrate their qualities. They should always be alert, respectful of their
superiors, punctual, and attentive to appearance – although some emphasized this final point more than others,
even to the extent of suggesting that one carry rouge at all times.
Sexual mores were of course included in the traditions of the class, and were very gender-specific. Girls and
boys were separated at an early age and raised in the environment training them for their eventual roles. Women
were expected to be chaste and virtuous, and there was an extreme concern with the possibility of adultery, to
the point that a woman allowing a stranger in to relieve himself was convicted. This was viewed as necessary to
ensure the purity of a house’s line, a concept tied up with the ever-important honor of the class and clan. Males
were allowed to keep concubines and visit prostitutes, provided that such relations did not jeopardize the family.
Homosexual relations between older samurai and their young trainees are mentioned in a variety of sources, and
even praised by one as the way to enlightenment. This point has been somewhat controversial in modern times.
Finally, important special rights concerning death and vengeance distinguished the samurai class from all others.
A samurai convicted of a crime would not be executed as a commoner would, by the public executioner or a
samurai testing out his sword, but would be allowed to take his own life with honor and dignity. The basic
method was disembowelment followed by the severing of the neck by a kaishaku (second), generally a trusted
friend, but the ritual surrounding the act became highly detailed and specified during the Tokugawa regime.
Seppuku committed as an act of protest or upon the death of one’s lord (eventually banned) was not generally as
elaborate, but the principle remained the same. Like much of the rest of bushido, this practice revolved around
the maintenance of honor. Sometimes, though, a death would not result in the conviction of the killer, and in
those cases the family of the victim was given another option – the vendetta. This was a manner of recovering
their honor after the disgrace of a lost combat, and was required for heirs in a case of succession. The vendetta
was simply an authorization to hunt down and kill the original killer, a right highlighting the role of samurai as
both the military and police of the feudal system. Vendettas were not, of course, always authorized, and one of
the most famous, that of the famous 47 ronin, was distinctly not – in those cases the avengers would be punished
for their actions. Still, even when vedettas were entirely banned, the practice took some time to die out,
demonstrating the lasting strength of a tradition intimately bound up in honor and loyalty.
Childhood
Remembering Aizu: The Testament of Shiba Goro
Shiba Goro
[31] 407
• Goro’s parents were strict with rules and disciplines (they would take away new cloth from a child for
quarreling).
• Even though she was strict just as the wife of samurai should be, she showed kind-ness and affection to
her children from time to time. (Goro writes that his mother doted on him)
• Goro says that the samurai strata were distinguished by the color of clothes within the samurai class,
and that the samurai were required to submit to a strict code of etiquette (which reveals how
Tokugawa samurai were preoccupied with etiquette)
• Goro was educated by a private tutor when he was seven, as he could not go to the school (Nisshinkan)
until he was ten. His education consisted primarily of memoriz-ing passages from Chinese classics.
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• Goro confesses that he was a sissy as a child. He would cry whenever he saw a bald head and was inept
at sports that tested physical strength, causing the relatives to worry about his future.
• Goro calls the strict etiquette (such as not stepping on the threshold when entering a house) an “iron
discipline.” While the etiquette sounds excessively detailed and strict, it certainly can not be called
“iron discipline.” (which shows that the samurai became weak and sissy in the peace era)
Daimyo Katago
Monumenta Nipponica
Matsudaira Sadanobu
[32] 411
• The daimyo carried the hero act a bit too far to prove his samurai manliness. ex) tobacco, hot spices,
jujutsu. And he criticized others for their weakness even though he himself was not as tough as he
made himself out to be.
• The concillors in the family tried to comment that the times were not right for his addiction to the
martial arts, but it was all in vain.
• A Sorai scholar approached the daimyo and attracted him by telling him how tough Confucius was.
The daimyo took what was convenient for himself from the lectures of the scholar, and started
abusing his people more.
• He became more conceited and wasteful as he took fancy to anything Chinese (including wine and
women). He belittled others and at the same time made much of his high-mindedness, and people
became resigned to the situation.
• A doctor persuades him to start going to the theater, and convinced that sophistication is found only in
theaters, the daimyo adopted the theatrical mode in every aspect of his daily life.
• An old man clad in Chinese robs appears in the daimyo’s dream and teaches him what real
sophistication is. He criticizes fanatics of Chinese studies, poets, masters of tea ceremonies, martial
arts specialists, teachers of martial arts and etc. for claiming to be sophisticated while they are not.
(The criticisms are usually for the façade that these specialists put on)
• The old man then advises the daimyo to pursue whatever he likes without looking for the perfect way
to sophisticate him. Then, he talks about what real sophistication is – for the lord to fulfill his part as a
daimyo and for his subjects to fulfill theirs.
• Notes
o The story reflects the reality of Tokugawa Japan – the samurai’s obsession with façade as a
justification of their rule over the common people in the era of peace.
o It appears that the samurai were aware of the challenge that the peace era presented to the
warrior class, and were struggling to justify themselves. (example: “the time is not right for
such things [violent military arts].”)
o The story also reflects the change in the samurai ideal. None of the types of sophistication
suggested in the story is relevant to fighting and winning in the battle. Instead, the ideals are
reached, according to the author, through fulfilling one’s duty fully. The secular people
believe that the ideals are reached by sophisticating oneself through different activities –
such as tea ceremony, drama, etc.
A Swaggerer
The Floating World in Japanese Fiction
Howard Hibbet
[33] 429
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This piece tells the story of a tradesman who owns a very successful store. But the man did not currently have
an heir, so he made elaborate vows to the gods and Buddhas in hopes to strike a bargain with Fate. The man
was granted a son and named him Jinshichi. The son, however, was not interested in the family business of
making clerical wear, and instead became obsessed with studying the samurai and military skills. After
becoming especially violent, the father asks Jinshichi to focus on more important things like the family business,
but he does not listen and becomes more violent in his behavior.
The town, fearing that Jinshichi would harm them because of his radical and violent attitude, asks the tradesmen
to consider moving to another neighborhood so that Jinshichi does not bring suffering on the whole group. The
father decides to publicly disown his son. Jinshichi left his parents house with just a sword and lived alone for
nearly three years.
Then one day a daimyo from the western provinces happened to be passing through. On his train there was a
very wild horse that was led by 8 stable-boys. Suddenly, the horse knocks over all the stable-boys and escapes
to the place where Jinshichi is now living. None of the other stable-boys can tame the house, so Jinshichi finally
steps forward and asks them to allow him to mount the house and quiet it. A samurai explains to Jinshichi that
the animal is a wild stallion and that only one or two men can ride him. He doubts that Jinshichi can tame the
house, but lets him try.
Jinshichi goes up to the horse and succeeds in mounting it. He then grasps the reins in a secret way he learned
and quiets the horse. Very impressed, the samurai returns to tell his Lord about what has happened. The Lord
asks Jinshichi to enter his service. Jinshichi agrees and is immediately granted an audience. Jinshichi pleased
the daimyo and realized his ambition of acquiring a large fief- thus, his long-held interest in military matters was
turned into profit.
The Sporting Element in the Late Tokugawa
Armed Martial Arts of Japan
G. Cameron Hurst
[34] 433
During the late Tokugawa period martial arts changed from self-defense to sport. Intense competition,
especially in swordsmanship, became a hallmark of the era. Competition, or the desire to win, often demeaned
as “mere” sport, was a crucial element in the practice of the martial arts in Tokugawa times. This need for
competition led many bushi to take up fencing, which was taught in urban academies.
The Development of Fencing:
Perfection and widespread adoption of protective equipment—bamboo swords, helmets, padded chest
protectors—that allowed the safe practice of swordplay against the opponent helped turn swordsmanship into
the competitive sport of fencing. Protective wear was seen as controversial because it moved away from the life
and death aspect that fighting originally had and turned it into a playful sport during the peaceful age.
The gear that the fencer wore was modeled after armor wore by the samurai during battle. Though in the end
fencers had a great deal of gear of wear that went from their face to their legs, all these protective armor were
not available at the same time.
To some, including Nakanishi Tadazo, the use of the protective gear was seen in a negative light. They
considered it to go against the true purpose of swordsmanship. Others had problems with the use of the bamboo
sword (which was adopted to replace the wooden sword because it was lighter and not as dangerous), because
they felt it bore little resemblance to a real blade and that practicing with it provided no battlefield conditioning.
People also believed that to use gear to protective oneself is cowardly.
Fujita Toko argues against these negative opinions. He states that it is unrealistic to expect men to practice with
wooden swords (which almost always can break arms or severely hurt the opponent) or real swords because they
are too dangerous and often the opponent will die. This is practical for fighting the enemy, he claims, but not
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when practicing against a friend. The use of bamboo swords allows the opponent to still strike with 70-80%
force without severely injuring his opponent.
The purists were concerned with keeping swordsmanship an art and a skill, and thus, making it closely
resembles actual combat (through the use of wooden swords and no protector wear). But the author notes that
because the men could not fight 100% (usually only could use 20% of their force) because they would severely
hurt the opponent, this way of fighting was artificial form of the combat that their forebears had developed
anyway. They, however, saw the changes as deviating more from the original way of fighting. Despite the use
of the bamboo swords, the wooden swords still remained widely in use.
Overall, we see that the spread of fencing resulted in an emphasis in swordsmanship that shifted from mastery of
kata to the demonstration of actual skills (i.e. from spiritual to physical realm). This resulted in the bushi
focusing more on the competitive aspect rather than the ideal of self-realization, discipline and enlightenment
through the mastery of the kata.
Homosexuality Among the Samurai:
The Influence of Feudalism
Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan
Gary P. Leupp
[35] 437
This piece chronicles the presence of homosexuality in the samurai class. The author indicates that
homosexuality within the samurai class likely mirrored that of the relationship between monks and courtiers
within the clergy. As samurai often participated in long battles, they would isolate themselves from women to
prepare both physically and emotionally. As a result, the all male isolation likely contributed to the homosexual
tendencies. Furthermore, the focus on the male physique and celebration even in art likely contributed.
The author also discusses the effect of feudalism on homosexuality, as it created a hierarchically organized
military class that exchanged service for land. With time, the role of the woman declined, and men replaced
them. Moreover, the strength of men to overcome and survive likely created an erotic response from both men
and women alike.
The most common aspect of homosexuality comes in the relationship between the lord and retainer. Although
vassals would often turn against their own lords for another, it was still common place for the loyalty of a vassal
to his to lord to be stronger than the relationship he maintained with even his own wife, children, and parents.
Plays written in the 18th century even reflect the homosexual relationship and values from centuries prior to the
play. Young samurai were often taught with monks and as a result, this is also a likely place they received
informal instruction.
In general, there were two types of male-male sexual behavior; that based on age and that based on gender. With
age-structured, adult males used younger males for the “passive” position, such as is present in anal or oral sex.
With gender-structured homosexuality, there were actually roles and partners for interested men, which were
often times cross dressers.
In pre-Tokugawa Japan, age-structured homosexuality flourished in monastic and military society. Immediately
prior to modern Japan, homosexual traditions emerged mainly due to the lack of women, were often agestructured and seen as contributing to education and maturation, and often required the younger partner to
assume female like positions or appearances. As towns and cities grew, the presence of homosexuality in them
also continued to grow. Overall, in the Tokugawa period, homosexuality was regarded as normal and
permissible.
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The Vendetta of the Forty-seven Samurai
The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan
Eiko Ikegami
[36] 445
• Numerous theatrical productions and fictional versions of the story have been produced with the motif
of revenge running like a thread through all of them
• The incident of the 47 ronin reflected and affected cultural metamorphosis: it not only indicated the
ways in which the honor culture of the samurai was changing but inspired the future course of that
culture
• March 14,1701 Lord Asano Naganori attacked Kira Yoshinaka by wounding him in the shogun’s castle
at Edo
• It was an important ceremonial occasion for the shogunate so not only was the act illegal, but shogun
was mad that Asano would break court etiquette and interrupt his day
• Asano was ordered to commit seppuku the very same day and his fief in Ako was confiscated and his
vassals became ronin
• The motive was unclear may have been a personal grudge
• Popular opinion found not the attack on Kira disgraceful but Asano’s failure to “follow through”
showed fukaku, shameful incompetence as a warrior
• Also, they thought it unfair that Kira did not get punished since if it were considered a fight, under
samurai rules, both should be punished---punishment was very hasty
• Oishi Yoshio the former senior elder of the house, tried to lobby to get the fief turned over to the
younger brother of Lord Asano but that did not happen
• In December 15,1702, 47 ronin burst into Lord Kira’s mansion and killed him
• 2 months later, 46 of them were forced to commit seppuku---drew enthusiastic praise as act of revenge
and kabuki play made about them
• at this time samurai warrior spirit clearly fading
• controversial because the ronin were punished under public law event though enacting revenge was
seen as righteous under samurai tradition
• this revenge was actually a new form because before, such acts were led by a victim’s son instead of by
vassals
• the solidarity of the vassals was possible through the daimyo structure, which tied the fates of vassals
to the house
• lot of letters and accounts from the ronin members was recorded
• We see that there were two factions within the ronin: the radicals led by Horibe Taketsune were
interested in upholding their personal honor (ichibun) and the personal honor of their Lord and
wanted to attack immediately while Oishi was interested in the honor of the house (oie) and wanted to
first find legitimate ways of restating the house
• When legitimate ways seemed not possible, both conservative and radicals joined to commit revenge
• Radicals were worried about hitomae (the honorable status that allowed a man to face his peers) among
the seken (the community around them)
• The controversy also was about what this honor was, whether you could only obtain honor from
following the shogunate or if the seken honor was enough
• The shogunate found that while the private principle was good, it should not go above the public
principle or else no law should stand
• Other’s believed that Kira’s murder wasn’t legitimate revenge because Kira was not the one who hurt
Asano but that Asano was excuted because he violated law on a very important occasion and thus
neglected his public duty
• Others believed that it was the right thing to do because a vassal’s denial of primary loyalty to his
immediate master would erode the foundations of the feudal state
• A new rationale had been introduced of the public values being greater than those of the samurai
• Samurai till then had been taught to act impulsively but now, were being told that self-control was a
virtue
• The new samurai’s special vocation in his house was seen as the military, which should be connected
not to an individualistic definition of honor, but to a spirit of public obligation
• The ronin incident showed the changing status and ideas of the samurai
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The Ako Incident, 1701-1703
Monumenta Nipponica
Bito Masahide
[37] 455
The “ako incident” refers to the two incidents together of Asano’s attack on Kira, and the later attack of Asano’s
retainers on Kira Yoshinaka. The Ako incident later became more widely known as Chushingura when it was
performed on stage.
The reason behind Asano’s attack is not known for certain. The one eyewitness account tells us that Asano came
up behind Kira, struck him, and shouted “this is for what happened these past days.” Kira tried to escape, Asano
struck him again and Kira fell to the floor. Asano was then restrained and taken into custody. Later that day the
chief inspectors of the bakufu arrived and ordered that Asano be executed by seppuku.
We do not know the concrete cause of Asano’s grudge toward Kira but there are theories. One standard
explanation is that the Asano house failed to give Kira an adequate bribe in return for guidance in matters of
etiquette. Asano was then allegedly put to shame concerning details of the reception of the imperial envoys, and
that (it is suggested) is what gave rise to his anger.
Asano’s punishment was swift and severe; however the bakufu declared Kira innocent, presumably because
Kira had offered no resistance whatsoever. The bakufu maintained that Asano’s crime was in violent behaviour
that paid no heed to time or lace - for disruption of order within Edo castle during a state ceremony. Therefore
Kira was merely a victim and thus innocent.
One view is that the bakufu decision was unfair because parties to a fight should be punished equally. However,
it can be argued that since Kira did not attempt to respond it wasn’t really a proper fight. Then again, though it
may not have been a proper fight if one side flees, the basic assumption is that no proper warrior would ever flee.
The training of a samurai demanded that he stand his ground.
In the previous incidents of attacks within Edo castle, the attackers were sentenced to death by seppuku in every
case except one, where the attacker was killed on the spot. Those who were not killed in the attack ended up
with a sentence of banishment. The fact that Kira received no punishment suggests how much bakufu policy had
changed, and how they were increasing emphasis on maintaining law and order.
Because of Asano’s act, his castle was to be taken. His retainers considered refusing to surrender it to the bakufu,
to try maintain the Asano house and criticise the bakufu’s decision. This was not possible, so their only
remaining option was to take Kira’s life with their own hands. It is unlikely that the retainers were attacking
Kira out of a sense of indebtedness to Asano; it was more likely for their own personal honour. They were
continuing the battle that their lord ad started, which once started had to be ought through to victory – leaving
otherwise would be a dishonour.
The retainers took a deliberate attitude to the attack because there was no point rushing and failing in their
mission. Consequently there was a question of whether they were violating the bakufu law banning conspiracy.
One the one hand, it was agreed that the attack against Kira to fulfil the dying wishes of their lord was an act of
true loyalty. However the large numbers involved in planning the attack was a violation of the law against
conspiracy. Then again, the large numbers were necessary to accomplish their goal successfully. The issue was
problematic, as shown by the fact that a final decision on the fate of the ronin was not reached until the
following year. The ronin were sentenced to execution by seppuku. The people felt sympathetic and admired the
ronin for their actions. This is why the dramatised forms of the incident known as “chushingura” are so popular.
Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai
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Yamamoto Tsunetomo
Trans. William Scott Wilson
[38] 477
• The Way of the Samurai is found in death
• When taking revenge, don’t take time to think because you will run out of time
• The 47 loyal ronin should have committed seppuku at Sengakuji for there was a long delay between the
time their lord was killed and the time they got revenge
• “When the time comes, there is no moment for reasoning”
• Don’t think of victory or defeat, think of strong retaliation---the way of avoiding shame is in death
Act Three, Act Four, Act Eleven
Chushingura (The Treasury of Loyal Retainers)
Takeda Izumo
[39] 479
The House of Sugawara
Three Japanese Plays from the Traditional Theatre
Ed. Earle Ernst
[40] 501 → this reading is a “traditional theatre” piece
ACT III
The scene takes place in a classroom.
The pupils are agitated as the teacher is not around
The chorus praises the virtues of learning
A new boy, Kotaro, comes to the classroom, brought by his mother
The children carry on misbehaving: The class bully, Chucklehead, steals a piece of candy from another student.
The teacher comes back. He seems anxious and puzzled. His wife points out the new student.
The husband and teacher is troubled because he must kill one of the students, the son of lord Sugawara.
The new student looks prince-like
He sacrifices the new student. His body is identified by a village official as that of the prince.
The teacher believes that it was the lord’s power that blinded the official’s eyes to the treachery.
The mother of Kotaro comes back to the school to fetch her child and realizes he was killed.
She accepts his death because it was for a greater good.
As the school teacher points out: “nothing more important than the welfare of the prince”
Last Days of the Bakufu, A Time of Trial for the Family,
Detention Camp in Edo, Journey to Hell
Remembering Aizu: The Testament of Shiba Goro
Shiba Goro
[41] 513
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Civil War
Mitford’s Japan: The Memoirs and Recollections, 1866-1906
Algernon Bertram Mitford, the first Lord Redesdale
[42] 529
Divine Destruction: The Shinpuren Rebellion of 1876
New Directions in the Study of Meiji Japan
John M. Rogers
[43] 535
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Rebellion occurred October 24, 1876 and it consisted of 181 men who attacked the Kumamoto
garrison. Afterward, 28 died and 85 more would commit seppuku, the largest during peacetime Japan.
The men were part of the Keishinto, which was a group who followed the teachings of the Kumamoto
religious scholar, Oen. This rebellion was grounded on a specific Shinto school of thought.
This rebellion received very little scholarly attention because a) it was put down in a matter of hours, b)
the political insignificance and c) it had been regarded as a rebellion of crazed religious fanaticism.
During this time period, Japan was undergoing massive modernization which included getting rid of
the 4-class system. The samurai class was removed over two decades (1869-1889) and the
pronouncements were made in Kumamoto where stipends were cut, Westernization was sponsored etc.
A small body of dissatisfied and disillusioned shizoku reacted to these changed by following the
traditionalist Oen who looked to the past to justify the samurai tradition. After his death, they began a
more conservative group of Shinto whereby the men would present to the gods a variety of options and
the path to be taken would be presented.
o When swords were band, the gods told them to attack on October 24. Many military and
government leaders were killed in this rebellion.
The context of the rebellion can be understood by the history of the shizoku. This group was part of
the educational system in Kumamoto, where military and literary arts were taught. Essentially, they
would be brought up to take administrative jobs. Yokoi Shonan introduced the Yogakko (School of
Western Studies) taught by an American. It was part of the modernization and Westernization of Japan.
The students now started wearing western clothing and abandoning the traditional shizoku clothes etc.
Several events that angered the shizoku include: introduction of western schools, removal of stipend,
banning of swords, banning of Topknots (had to have western hairstyles; reminded the shizoku of the
prisoners of the Tokugawa period), reforms that included banning of vendettas and duels, and other
radical measures which were never implemented (replacing Japanese with English, intermarriage for all
Japanese etc.)
Oen and the shizoku believed that these reforms were an attack on Japanese life as the tradition and
ideal past were what defined Japan.
Oen himself was a strict follower of Shinto who believed the government should be run with Shinto
principles which included excluding foreign principles. If one does not rule in such a way, disaster
would inevitably come.
The Keishinto (Shinopuren or League of the Divine Wind) was originally part of the Kinnoto, which
was a group of shizoku who followed Hayashi and Oen, but not as extreme. Once the Kinnoto tried to
assimilate to westernization, the Keishinto formed.
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Bad social and economic conditions caused people to join and Keishinto and these were also factors for
the rebellion. Many of the members also became Shinto priests, which is why they are so heavily
influenced by Shinto ideals.
In the end, the Keishinto distorted the fundamental teachings of Oen and replaced it with divination to
justify their actions. Oen taught to not interfere with public affairs, but rather that the gods will take
care of things.
“These views echo the three features seens as the most fanatic Edo-period constructions of the samurai:
an exaggerated self importance as inheritors of cultural tradition; an identification of self destruction
with bravery; and a narcissistic obsession with appearances.”
The Satsuma Rebellion of 1877
Monumenta Nipponica
James H. Buck
[44] 551
General
- Last organized resistance to Restoration government
- Led by Saigo Takamori
- Characterized by conflict b/t traditional feudal values and Imperial conscription army
- Should never have happened – imperial forces enjoyed material advantages of resources, manpower,
and tactics
- Significance of outcome is Political – freed Restoration gov’t from resistance
- Proved that conscript army system works – samurai not a necessity in military
Cause of Rebellion
- Saigo Takamori retreated from national politics since Oct. 1873 to run Private Schools
o Mostly taught Chinese classics and ‘spiritual training’
o Also studied French/English, and military tactics
- Main gov’t concerned with influence of these schools, and with the independence of the semiautonomous Satsuma area
- Satsuma refused to adjust to reforms – still used lunar calendar, private army, refusing admission to
outsiders
- Jan 30 1877 Government attempted to seize munitions secretly, was unsuccessful and Satsuma men
seized government installations in retaliation
- Saigo unaware until after the fact, but heard of plot to assassinate him, Nakahara’s confession of
assassination plot, then decided to take a stand
Start of Rebellion
- Saigo acted with reluctance
o Satsuma army organized in Feb 1877, mainly of Private School members
o High training and morale, but low arms/supplies
- In contrast, imperial army were vastly better equipped with weapons and ammunition
- Satsuma army planned to pass through Kumamoto and straight through to Tokyo within a month –
expected little/no resistance fro imperial troops
- Government did not expect him to take this straight path – lucky for them, as his course did not
succeed in rallying other dissidents throughout the country
- Gov’t sent troops to Kyushu
- Saigo’s troops engaged imperial troops at Kumamoto on 21 February, drove Imperial forces into
Kumamoto Castle
- General Tani under siege in the castle – worried about moral and loyalty of inexperienced conscripts &
of people of Kumamoto
o Tried contacting Saigo for more info – rebuffed
o Decided to remain in castle
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19 February, fire broke out in garrison – luckily military supplies not destroyed and actually
improved morale & cohesiveness of Tani’s forces
o waited for Saigo’s attack – “fish in a kettle”
22 February – ring of siege completed, Tani knew conclusively Saigo was present
24 February – assault weakened, Saigo redistributes forces to meet imperial reinforcements.
Neither armies gained tactical advantage, approx equal loss of life
o Supply system not yet effective for imperial army, Saigo prevented reinforcements from
arriving
Lord Shimazo of Kagoshima remained out of the dispute – did not support Saigo
Gov’t sent forces to Kagoshima advertising intentions to quell rebellion
March-April – Kuroda carried out pincer attack on Kumamoto
Imperial army careful not to harm civilians, paid for houses damaged in combat & burial of the dead
March 1877, two small uprisings in northern Kyushu – Fukuoka & Nakatsu
Meanwhile, in Tani’s castle supplies are running low and Satsuma’s ranks were closing in, family met
on opposite sides of the front line
7 April, Major Oku led a force out to meet with Imperial Army units for food and ammunitionr
Early April – Satsuma forces forced back fro Kumamoto
14 April, castle relieved – Kumamoto Castle relieved after 54 day siege – turning point of rebellion
April –September – Saigo fought the long defeat
24 September – final assault – Saigo committed suicide, remains of Satsuma army charged into enemy
lines to their deaths.
o
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The Burden of Death is Light:
Saigo and the War of the Southwest
The Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo Takamori
Mark Ravina
[45] 571
1873 Itakagi began a campaign for a popular assembly, he believed in democratic
ideals, and he created what became Japan's first political party.
Saigo (bushido embodied)
- although we know about him, he can still be romanticized
- he was quite, deliberate, etc. => he had true "samurai" qualities
- he was committed to tradition
- he was "huge" from a physical aspect
Okogu (anti-bushido)
- rational, pragmatic => not as endearing
- he was quick to westernize
- had a moustache (don't know why that's important)
- leads Japan to modern era, but Saigo goes down
Saigo's involvement with rebellion
- 1877, involved in "Satsuma Rebellion"
--Sayo part of new Tokyo gov't => disagreements => returned to Satsuma =>
Satsuma rebelled vs. Tokyo
--"pains of centralizing"=>outer provinces which were formerly autonomous are
now under control
- Samurai lose the top-know, sword, $, gov't trust, *Status*
- Sagio does reforms to take away Samurai rights for purpose of self-reliance
Saigo becomes the leader=>The "Last Samurai"
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In the movie, Katsumoto would be modeled after Saigo.
Political Assassination in Early Meiji Japan:
The Plot Against Okubo Toshimichi
Meiji Japan’s Centennial
Sidney DeVere Brown
[46] 585
Comic: Satsuma Rebellion
Manga Nihon No Rekishi Nenpyo Jiten
Shiiya Mitsunori
[47] 595
Nogi Maresuke (1849-1912)
Six Lives Six Deaths: Portraits from Modern Japan
Robert Jay Lifton
[48] 599
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General Nogi committed suicide the day of Emperor Meiji’s funeral ceremony
Died in uniform, wife in kimono Æ well planned out
Synced with cannon shot signaling Emperor’s final passage
Suicide via seppuku with wife
An act of Junshi – suicide in which a vassal follows his lord into death
• Public reacts with enormous emotion and controversy
• Junshi outlawed so this was an aberration
• But majority praised Nogi’s ritual death as supreme glorification of his absolute loyalty to Emperor
Meiji
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Nogi was both the symbol of “pride and pain” of Meiji Japan
Pride of Nation’s triumphant chauvinism and expansionism
But personally struggled with playing conflicting roles and duties to family
Became a samurai against his will (preferred scholarly pursuits but forced by father because he was
first son), then an officer against his samurai ideals
Key points of life story:
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Nogi grew up during the Tokugawa peace
Adopted bushido, especially cherished the principles of loyalty
But bushido taught only a code of behavior, not how to win battles
Very conservative, distrusted and disregarded Western technology (i.e. firearms)
o Disastrous consequences in warfare later
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1866 joint rebellion by Satsuma and Choshu; Nogi joined
As Emperor Meiji’s rise to power unfolded, Nogi fled Choshu
Transferred to Kyoto to learn French military techniques
Later sent back to home domain to quell disruptions
• Promotions, rose upward in the ranks
• Radical transformations via Meiji government
o Feudal domains converted into prefectures under central government authority (no more
autonomous freedom)
o Samurai lost privileges and felt confused (no more swords, topknots), felt like they were
losing their souls
• In 1873 dispute broke out as to whether or not Japan should invade Korea
• Some factions broke off, including Saigo Takamori
• Nogi found himself in contest against Choshu when fighting with them before
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1875 Nogi and his brother become negotiators on opposites sides
His brother is killed in an uprising, and his mentor commits seppuku
Nogi feels incredible guilt even he never ordered the attacking unit
Double dishonor; failed to give order to attack, and failed to stay by side of family
o Lived in a time of social upheaval when obligations were in conflict
• Studied German techniques next, but felt very alienated in the country
o Meiji government adopted techniques from various foreign powers for their military and navy
• Withdrew strongly into Japanese conservatism and traditionalism
o In this period, he stabilized into a conservative man until death
• 1904 Russo-Japanese War
• Port Arthur + Hill 203 – overambitious charge employing strategy of of “human bullets” and
“determined spirits” Æ 58,000 dead overall
• Ironically it was only after Nogi left that they were victorious
o Nogi given the credit for victory anyway, for affirming Japanese prowess
• But the deaths sit heavy on his conscience, felt humiliation and loss
o Argued for honorable titles for the families of all those deceased
o Visisted families to extend sympathy
• After war, assigned by government to be director of Peers School
o Raised up to national symbol hero, used by the government
• For most of his life, considered himself a failure and experienced despair
• After Port Arthur, didn’t feel he had the right to be alive
• Enormously vulnerable to the “death guilt”, stemming from earlier episode with his brother and
mentor
• Yearned to live and die as a samurai
• Perfect opportunity to save himself and redeem himself
• Never fully belonged in a modernized Japan
• Had to die for the Emperor because he did not die with his family or his friends
• Junshi validated his life
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• Government used him, or rather his residual image, even after his death
• Spurred nationalist fervor, divine model for soldiers
Song of Victory: The Battle of Port Arthur
Japanese Literature in Chinese
General Count Nogi Maresuke (1849-1912)
[49] 619
With the Kings’s million I struck the proud foe,
From the plains drove upon the fort till the dead piled in hills.
With this shame I must now face their fathers:
To our song of victory today, how many men return?
Clearly, this poem describes his sorrow that victory comes with the price of the lives of his men.
The Hill of Fate
Monogotari: Tales From Old and New Japan
General Count Nogi Maresuke (1849-1912)
[50] 621
The poem refers to 203-Meter Hill.
Upon this height,
Steep as a wall, and high,
We stand triumphant.
Blood stains our feet
And all around
Corpses are littered.
Many are dead,
But deathless is the fame
Won by our courage.
Not since the gods
Came from the sky
Was there such a conflict.
Sacred this mountain
Which from to-day
A new name shall bear:
“Hill of thy soul”—
Now and forever—
Eternal, immortal!
Note that General Nogi and his wife committed suicide 9/13/1912,
that their souls might follow the Emperor Meiji into the herafter.
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The Rifle
The Oxford Book of Japanese Short Stories
Kojima Nobuo
[51] 623
1.
In the beginning, the writer expresses his love of his rifle—how much he likes to hold “her”, how much he likes
to wipe her—he calls it his “woman.” He tells that when he was 21, he had an affair with an older married and
pregnant woman whose husband left for war.
2.
He was ordered by the squad leader Oya to dig a hole before he saw several Chinese soldiers, including a
pregnant woman who reminds him of the woman he mentioned before. After realizing that he was staring at her,
the squad leader ordered him to first shoot and then to bayonet her. He followed the order, and felt really bad
about it, and accusing his rifle for deceiving him—“changed target practice into butchery.” He then fell
unconscious on the spot.
3.
He was tormented by the thoughts of the Chinese woman, and puts his anger out to his rifle. Before long, both
the woman back home and the Chinese woman died within him and he became numb. He picked up a STD from
a Korean woman and was sent to the hospital. His old rifle was taken away and he did not like the new one. He
then returns to his unit with a misshapen rifle and misshapen mind and body.
4.
One day, he was assigned to bring the meal to the squad leader. However, when he was delivering, the squad
leader threw out the food. He found out later that it was because the original bolt for his rifle was missing, and
he was blamed for it. Later, he was put on a division’s marksmanship competition. He asked to use his old rifle
and the squad leader borrowed it for him. When he saw the rifle, he shouted to the squad leader “it is the bolt the
other man lost.” He tells the squad leader that he cannot go to the competition, but the leader tells him to. He
ended up competing and shooting without even aiming.
5.
The squad was on patrol in the mountain, with their rifles, when a battle started. The writer was sick from a
fever and the squad leader tried to help getting on a donkey in order to carry him. As the evening approaches,
they found a half ruined village with anti-Japanese slogans, and they started fighting. He was dragged off the
donkey to fight.
6.
He had to serve 17 years in the Chinese military prison. While in the prison, he had to do forced labor for the
Chinese, including catching truckloads of rifles that arrived at the prison. One day he recognized his own rifle
after catching one, and it was all rusty. After the reunion with his rifle, he wondered what happened to his lover,
if she united with her husband.
Bushido and the Samurai:
Images in British Public Opinion, 1894-1914
Modern Asian Studies
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Colin Holmes and A. H. Ion
[52] 629
I
Japan’s relations with the western world, in particular the “unequal treaties” in late 1850s forced upon Japan,
was a major concern in Japanese politics from the Meiji restoration. Eventually the Meiji government achieved
success with the treaty revision in the last decade of the 19th century.
At this time, western knowledge was highly regarded to bring about development within the country. The Meiji
government introduced western technologies such as warships, cannons, machines and laws, whilst still
maintaining Japanese traditional culture and values.
In 1902 the signing of the Anglo- Japanese alliance occurred which marked a special relationship with Britain
lasting until 1923 and the victory over Russia in 1905 helped to cement Japan’s international position. These
successes highlighted Japan’s increasing domestic problems e.g worker’s desperate living conditions and the
pollution in Asia Copper Mine. During these times, bushido became an increasingly discussed feature in Japan
life
II
Britain: Until 1870 had enjoyed economic supremacy. By 1914 Britain’s economic position and world political
power had significantly declined. Threatened by American and German advancement in industrial power,
British commentators were looking for the problem in their economy. Ultimately, they thirsted for greater
efficiency. They began to admire Japan following the Anglo-Japanese Treaty and the Russo-Japanese War and
the noble qualities of Japan were counted responsible for japans success.
III
In such an atmosphere, Japanese authors such as Inazo Nitobe, the primary such author of the time, began to
project propagandized images of the samurai code into Britain. In a series of lectures at the London School of
Economics, Y. Okakura made similar stresses. Such writing and lectures focused primarily on social benefits of
Bushido and positive qualities of samurai. However, much interest began to develop in the purely military
aspects of Bushido.
IV
A Major British writer, Colonel Charles Repington, was a key figure in publicizing Bushido. He considered it a
blend of knightly chivalry, Spartan simplicity, and a mix of the philosophies and moralities of the greatest
religions which applied to normal people as well as the warrior. The obsession with this image of Bushido was
widespread, leading Beatrice Webb, for example, to begin referring to the Salvation Army as a “samurai group” .
Bushido and the samurai image was also appealing because many people had lost their Christian beliefs due to
the DARWIN revolution, this didn’t meant that they wished to avoid all forms of commitment to any forms of
religion or moral systems.
Finally the idea that samurai dominated society and lead it in the way that they saw fit for society. Alfred Stead
was a propagandist of the new Japan and wrote many books on the significance of Bushido.
The importance of bushido was stressed by a number of British commentators who used their experience of
Japan to satisfy the general public’s growing fascination with Japan
V
However, there were a few, such as writer F.J. Norman, who argued that such views were nonsense, that they
left out the ruthless aspects of Bushido.
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People concerned by the religious side of Japan also drew attention to Japan’s negative diocese of south Tokyo
because of the danger to the missionary. (if bushido was perceived in England in the highest light, support for
his ideas may be reduced.)
The greatest attack on bushido came from the Basil Hall chamberlain, one of the foremost western authorities in
the country. He suggested that bushido was part of the fabric of ideas formed by the rulers of Japan to bolster its
own influence, and that although Japan had had traces of chivalry, the code of Bushido had in fact never existed.
Lost Battles: “Special Attack”
Japan at War: An Oral History
Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore Failor Cook
[53] 641
• Tokko refers to the Divine Wing Special Attack Corps. This corps used “special attacks”, (any attack
using unorthodox methods from which the attacker did not expect to emerge alive.)
• Various aircrafts were crafted for this purpose. As many of them had to be detonated close to the
enemy aircraft they were a dangerous attack method.
• The Kaiten was made up of two large torpedoes fused together, with a pilot’s seat in the back. Each
submarine had several kaiten attached and each one was capable of sinking an aircraft carrier if it hit
its target.
• Yokota Kan has just graduated from the Yokaren (Youth Flying Corps). His commander told all the
men in the graduating class that Japan was in great danger and the students who wished to die for
their country should submit their name
• 94% of the class put forward their name. Kan was chosen and although he was sad at first, he realized
that instead of being shot down, he was to “go out in glory”. 100 members were chosen in total out of
the 2000
• They began training and Although most of the targets were 7 or 8-thousand ton ships, all the men
wanted to die by hitting a carrier as it was the largest and the most respected way of dying.
• On one morning, they left from Hikari, they were to attack with their kaiten so they said “farewell to
life”They were each given a short-sword, a tanto just as if they had graduated from Etajima, and a
headband marked with the words, ‘Given Seven Lives, I’ll Serve the Nation with Each of Them.’”
• But as they approached their target, they were bombed and the kaiten were damaged and made
unusable. So the Kan and his kaiten crew were forced to return on a second journey.
• During the second outing Kan and his cremates joked around, emphasizing their youth by talking about
women, not loyalty or bravery.
• Kan mentions that only one of the men was shaking and he was such a disgrace to the Kaiten Corps
that he cut him out of the pictures he has of them preparing to depart.
• Then as they are to be sent off in their Kaiten, they send off the first three but are unable to find more
ships so the narrator is left behind and forced to come back into the submarine.
• He says, “That was the moment I really wanted to die.” On a third mission, he was again unable to
come back in and as a result, his non-Kaiten crew beat him up for coming back alive since they
envied him for being given the opportunity to die for their nation.
• Then he finds out that the war is over and Japan has lost. “I’ll never launch!” he laments. He cries not
for Japan’s defeat but “for the loss of his fellow pilots.” He even ponders killing himself after getting
some explosives, but he “didn’t have the guts to just blow himself to bits.”
• He, and other former Kaiten members lived post-war lives of agony. When a boat he was traveling
breaks down on an island near the waters where his mates died, he feels it is the spirits of his
comrades who stopped the boats.
Comic: The Russo Japanese War, 1904-1905
Manga Nihon No Rekishi Nenpyo Jiten
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Shiiya Mitsunori
[54] 647
Film Summaries
Last Samurai
Plot:
Tom cruise is drunk. Then he’s offered a bunch money to help form a modern Japanese army to crush a band of
samurai. In his first skirmish he is captured by the samurai and learns about their ways. He discovers that the
samurai adhere to a sense of honour which he had been lacking in his life and joins them in one last battle
against the corrupt modern army, helping to restore a sense of honour to Japan.
Themes:
Honour is a big theme in this movie. Tom Cruise’s character, Captain Algren, seems to have lost his after
numerous battles against the natives, culminating in Custer’s famous last stand. He finds Japan to be more of the
same until he meets Katsumoto, the leader of the last band of samurai and an adviser to the emperor. By fighting
the honourless modern army, he restores honour to Japanese culture.
Another big theme is change. This ties in with the honour theme, and it shows Japan moving from a
traditionalist society to one where no holds are barred in the quest for personal gain. With the advances in
technology came a deterioration of old ideals. Essentially, Last Samurai challenges the idea that progress should
be the ultimate goal.
Personal restoration is another theme, though less prominent. Tom Cruise’s character has lost his soul among
the Americans, and regains it with the Japanese. In many ways this movie shows his own restoration but also
helps to restore the image of bushido and what it really means, which is important since the concept was so
badly distorted during WWII and has remained in that sort of extremist category to this day.
Taboo
Homosexuality vs. duty/order. Kano is this girly looking guy whom everyone in the militia seems to have a
thing for. Essentially this makes things pretty chaotic and there are some assassinations of various guys in the
militia (who incidentally were men who had a thing for kano). The end of the movie suggests that he was the
one who killed them but he frames tashiro, a guy who came and joined the militia with him and was the first to
have a thing for kano (and was rumoured to be his lover). In order to maintain order tashiro is put to death, and
at the end of the film the commander starts to realize what the deal was.
Hara Kiri
All about the honour. Due to the way they treated his son, Motome, Tsugumo goes to the local clan (I think
they were called the iki or something like that) to commit harakiri. The basic issue of this movie is that lots of
poor ronin visit their local clans claiming to want to commit harakiri and the clan gives them some money and
sends them away. Motome's wife and child are both very sick so he tries to get some money this way and they
force him to commit harakiri. He asks to go home for a couple of days and then he'll come back but they won't
let him. They also find out he has a bamboo sword and to punish him for this they make him do it with his
bamboo sword.
His dad finds out and goes to declare that samurai honour is nothing but a facade. The clan goes after him and
he kills a bunch of them before finally committing harakiri. The clan tries to make it sound like all the dead
guys died of illness, proving that samurai honour really didn't mean a whole lot in the end.
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Samurai Rebellion
Similar idea. Isaburo's son, Yogoro, marries Ichi. Ichi was with lord matsudaira but after she bore him a child
she was dismissed for striking him. She turns out to be quite the catch but when matsudaira's son dies he makes
ichi come back. Isaburo and Yagoro refuse to let her go back and also refuse to committ seppuku, which their
lord orders. This is kind of like the 47 ronin: personal honour vs. the rule of law, and it also shows some people
in power abusing that power.
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