Extracts from Virgil, Aeneid 2: 13-62, 195-267: Teacher’s Notes
Introduction to the story
Book 2 of the Aeneid tells the story of the wooden horse and the destruction of
the city of Troy by the Greeks. The extracts for study focus on the apparent
departure of the Greeks from the plain in front of Troy and the reaction of the
Trojans to the wooden horse. The story is a first-person account by Aeneas,
one of the Trojan survivors, who had been a prominent figure in the fighting.
At the end of the 10-year war between the Greeks and the Trojans (the Trojan
War), the city of Troy was destroyed by the Greeks. The Trojan prince Aeneas
escaped from the burning city with his father Anchises and his young son
Ascanius. He had a divine mission, to sail west and found a new race of
people in another land; these people were the Romans, and they were
destined to rule the world. But the goddess Juno, who hated the Trojans,
knew that a people of Trojan origin would one day threaten her favourite city,
Carthage, in North Africa. Therefore, after they had been wandering for seven
years, she persuaded Aeolus, the god of the winds, to wreck Aeneas' fleet.
However, the god Neptune intervened to calm the waves; Aeneas and some
of his fellow-Trojans survived the storm and landed on the coast of North
Africa, near the fledgling city of Carthage.
There Queen Dido, who, like Aeneas, was a fugitive from her native land, was
building Carthage. Hostile tribes surrounded her new kingdom and Dido was
overjoyed to hear of the arrival of the Trojans, for the fame of Aeneas' exploits
in war had already reached her. The queen, through the intrigue of the
goddess Venus (Aeneas' mother), fell in love with Aeneas, and offered him a
share in her kingdom. At a banquet given in Aeneas' honour she asked him to
tell the story of the sack of Troy and the Trojans' wanderings since that time.
In Book 2 of the Aeneid Aeneas begins that story. The extract for study begins
at line 13. Lines 1-12 are a prelude, which can be read in English. These lines
establish the mood.
Everyone fell silent and attentively kept their gaze upon Aeneas.
Then, from his high couch, father Aeneas began to speak thus:
'Unspeakable is the grief, o queen, you order me to revive, how
the Greeks overthrew the might of Troy and a kingdom for which
men weep, the most pitiful events which I myself saw and of
which I was a large part. Which soldier, telling of the deeds of the
Myrmidons or of the Dolopes or of cruel Odysseus would refrain
from tears? And now damp night is falling from the sky and the
setting stars are urging sleep. But if you have such a great desire
to learn of our misfortunes and briefly to hear about the final
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suffering of Troy, although my mind shudders to remember and
recoils from the grief, I shall begin.'
It is important to bear in mind that this flashback is a firsthand account by
Aeneas of the painful events in which he has participated, and that it is thus
told from the Trojan point of view.
Summary of the story
Lines 13-62
The Greeks, despairing of victory, build a wooden horse and fill it with armed
men. They leave the horse on the shore and sail away to the nearby island of
Tenedos. When the Trojans see the wooden horse opinion is divided: some
want to bring it inside the city, while others want to destroy it. Suddenly
Laocoon, the priest of Neptune, rushes down from the citadel to warn the
Trojans that the horse is a trick, and hurls his spear into the side of the horse.
A group of Trojan shepherds appears, bringing a Greek, Sinon, whom they
have captured.
Lines 63-194 (Omitted from the selection.)
Sinon tells the Trojans a false story. He claims that the horse is an offering to
the gods; if they take it into Troy the Greeks will be defeated, whereas, if they
harm it, Troy will be destroyed.
Lines 195-267
The Trojans believe Sinon. Suddenly two serpents come swimming across the
sea, snatch up Laocoon and his two sons and kill them. Then they go to the
Acropolis and hide at the feet of the statue of Minerva (Greek: Athene). The
Trojans interpret this as a warning against treating the horse disrespectfully,
so they take it inside the city and place it in the citadel. During the night the
Greek fleet sails back from Tenedos and gives a signal to Sinon to release the
Greeks from the horse. They kill the Trojan guards and join the rest of the
Greek forces who have entered the city.
Metre
Dactylic hexameter.
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People and Places
To vary his vocabulary and meet the requirements of the metre, Virgil uses
several different names for the Greeks and Trojans. In the case of the Greeks,
this also serves to remind us that their force was made up of men from a
variety of Greek cities. The variety of names can at first be confusing. It may
be helpful to provide students with a list of these different names.
GREEKS
Achīvī
Argīva
Achaeans, an alternative name for the Greeks.
Argive, an adjective referring to Argos, a city in the region of
Argolis in southern Greece. Virgil uses it to mean ‘Greek’ in
general.
Argolicus
An adjective referring to the region of Argolis in southern
Greece. Virgil uses it to mean ‘Greek’ in general.
Danaī
Danaans. Strictly, a people who lived in the Peloponnese in
southern Greece; they were said to be descended from
Danaus. Danaī is a name for the Greeks used in Homer and
later poetry.
Dolopēs
A people from Thessaly in northern Greece.
Dōricus
Strictly ‘Dorian’, but Virgil applies the adjective to mean
‘Greek’ in general. The Dorians were one of the main divisions
of the Greeks (the other was the Ionians), most notable of
whom were the Spartans.
Myrmidonēs The Myrmidons, from Thessaly in northern Greece, were the
soldiers of Achilles.
TROJANS
Dardanidae
Teucrī
The Trojans were descendants of Dardanus. Dardanidae is a
Greek patronymic = 'sons of Dardanus'; the suffix -idae = 'sons
of'.
Teucer was the ancestor of the Trojan kings, and the Trojans
were sometimes called Teucrī.
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Further reading
Commentaries
Austin, R.G.
Gould, H.E. and
Whiteley, J.L.
Jordan, R.H.
Williams, R.D.
Translations*
Day Lewis, C.
Fitzgerald, Robert
Jackson Knight, W.F.
West, David
P.Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Liber Secundus with a
commentary by R.G. Austin (Oxford University
Press, 1964)
P. Vergilius Maro, Aeneid Book Two, edited
with Introduction, Notes and Vocabulary by H.E. Gould
and J.L. Whiteley (Macmillan, 1943)
Virgil Aeneid II, edited with Introduction, Notes and
Vocabulary by R.H. Jordan (Bristol Classical Press,
1999)
The Aeneid of Virgil Books 1-6, edited with Introduction
and Notes by R.D. Williams (St. Martin’s Press, 1972)
The Eclogues, Georgics and Aeneid of Virgil (Oxford
University Press, 1966)
Virgil, The Aeneid (Penguin, 1983)
Virgil, The Aeneid (Penguin, 1956)
Virgil, The Aeneid (Penguin, 1990)
*The translations of Day Lewis and Fitzgerald are in verse; those of Jackson Knight
and West are in prose.
Modern scholarship
Camps, W.A.
An Introduction to Virgil’s Aeneid (Oxford University
Press, 1969)
Griffin, Jasper
Virgil (Oxford University Press, 1986)
Knox, B.
‘The Serpent and the Flame’, in Steele Commager
(ed.), Virgil, a collection of Critical Essays (PrenticeHall, 1966)
Martindale, Charles (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Virgil (Cambridge
University Press, 1977)
Williams, R.D.
Aeneas and the Roman Hero (Macmillan, 1973)
Articles in Omnibus
Haney, P.
Harrison, S.
Nussbaum, G.
Aeneas and Sinon (Issue 16)
Aeneas at the Fall of Troy (Issue 27)
Vergil’s Fall of Troy (Issue 18)
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Reading and initial investigation
Three key aims are:
•
understanding what the Latin means
•
translating the Latin into correct, natural English
•
appreciating the poetry.
It is often useful to adopt the following tri-partite approach before attempting
a translation.
1. Read aloud - to emphasise phrasing and stress word groups. Teachers
may wish to make use of the audio provided in the ‘Listen To’ activities on
the CSCP website.
2. Break up complex sentence into constituent parts for comprehension and
translation.
3. Comprehension questions.
Teachers can guide students towards understanding that translation is a twostage process. First, translate the words literally. Then, produce a polished
version in natural English, aiming for a style that is as close to the structure
and vocabulary of the original Latin as possible while being expressed in
correct and idiomatic English. Sometimes this may require a degree of
paraphrase to avoid contorted ‘translationese’.
As a final consolidation, it is good practice for students or the teacher to read
aloud a passage which has been translated and explored.
About the Teacher’s Notes
Within these Teacher’s Notes, the prescribed text has been broken up into
short sections. The notes on each section are usually followed by a Discussion
and Questions, although there are some sections without these where it was
felt that they were not required. The notes concentrate on matters of language
and content, but do include some comment on style and literary effects. The
Discussion and Questions focus on literary appreciation.
Throughout the notes, use is made of rhetorical and technical terms. Some of
these may be unfamiliar to teachers new to teaching Latin literature and a full
glossary is therefore provided at the end of these notes.
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Lines 13-20
This is the start of Aeneas' first-person account of the fall of Troy. The Greeks,
despairing of victory, build a wooden horse. Pretending it is an offering to the gods,
they fill it with armed men.
Language and content
13
frāctī ... repulsī: the subject of the perfect participles is ductōrēs (line
14). The two phrases each give a different reason: first the human, then
the divine. The chiasmus (the two perfect participles surrounding their
dependent ablative nouns) and the alliteration of f bind the two
phrases together and emphasise the weakened state of the Greeks.
14
Danaum: genitive plural for Danaōrum. The genitive ending -um for ōrum is archaic; it is characteristic of epic style and gives a solemn
effect. Danaī (Danaans) is a name for the Greeks used in Homer and
later poetry. The Danaans were strictly a people who lived in the
Peloponnese in southern Greece; they were said to be descended from
Danaus.
tot: goes with lābentibus annīs.
lābentibus annīs: ablative absolute with present participle. It was ten
years since the siege of Troy had begun.
15
īnstar montis: īnstar is an indeclinable neuter noun; the genitive
montis is dependent on it. The phrase īnstar montis is in apposition to
equum. A literal translation would be: 'a horse the equal of a
mountain', i.e. 'as big as a mountain'. The hyperbole stresses the size of
the horse.
dīvīnā Palladis arte: Pallas Athene (Roman: Minerva) was the goddess
of wisdom and handicrafts. The gods took sides in the Trojan War and
Pallas Athene favoured the Greeks. Traditionally the horse was said to
have been built by Epeos (line 264: ipse dolī fabricātor Epēos) with
Athene's help.
16
aedificant: historic present tense. Roman writers often use the present
tense for events that occur in the past. The effect is to make events
more exciting and vivid. Teachers may wish to discuss with students
the relative merits of a present tense or past tense translation in
English.
sectāque ... abiete: literally 'with cut fir', i.e. 'with fir planks'.
sectāque ... costās: the metaphor is from weaving. The ribs (costās) are
laid vertically and the planks of fir-wood (sectāque abiete)
horizontally, and the two are interlaced.
abiete: the i is treated as a consonant, so abiete is scanned as a dactyl.
17
vōtum … simulant: add eum esse; an accusative and infinitive
(indirect statement) dependent on simulant. A vōtum is an offering
made to the gods to ask for a safe journey.
18
hūc: i.e. into the horse. Explained in the next line by caecō laterī.
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dēlēcta virum ... corpora: lit. 'the chosen bodies of men' = 'the chosen
men'. The periphrasis virum corpora emphasises the size and physique
of the men.
virum: for virōrum.
19
caecō laterī: dative, equivalent to in caecum latus. Virgil often uses the
dative case to express the idea of motion towards, especially with
compound verbs. In Latin poetry, prepositions that express where,
where to and where from are often omitted.
caecō: here = ‘dark’. caecus means ‘blind’, but is extended to mean
‘unseeing’ and ‘dark’.
laterī: singular for plural. Latin poets often use singular forms for
plural and vice versa.
19-20 cavernās ingentēs: plural for singular, as often in poetry.
cavernās … uterumque: uterum repeats the idea of cavernās. This is an
example of theme and variation. It is characteristic of Virgil's style to
repeat an idea in different words; the effect is often emphatic. The
metaphor in uterum suggests that the horse is pregnant and about to
give birth to armed men. The metaphor is picked up in later references
to the horse in Aeneid 2: alvum (51), uterō again (52, 243, 258) and fēta
armīs (238).
mīlite: a collective singular = 'with armed soldiers'.
18-20 hūc … complent: Austin draws attention to the hard consonants in
these lines (hūc dēlēcta … corpora … inclūdunt caecō … penitusque
cavernās ingentēs uterumque … complent) and suggests that the
sound may imitate 'the clatter of the climbers into the Horse'. Notice
that so far Virgil has not named any of the Greeks inside the horse; this
adds to the air of secrecy and mystery.
Questions
1. What aspects of the horse are emphasised here? Pick out some of the
significant words and phrases which contribute to this picture of the
horse.
2. Look at lines 18-20. In the description of the inside of the horse, what
atmosphere is created? Pick out some words and phrases that help to
achieve this effect.
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Lines 21-25
The Greeks withdraw to the nearby island of Tenedos, tricking the Trojans into
thinking they have gone home to Greece.
Language and content
21
est: first word in the sentence, so could be translated as 'There is'.
in cōnspectū: i.e. 'in sight of Troy'.
Tenedos: an island about four miles off the coast near Troy.
fāmā: ablative.
22
dīves opum: opum is genitive plural: 'rich in resources'.
Priamī dum rēgna manēbant: i.e. before the war. Priam was king of
Troy. dum here = 'while', 'as long as'. rēgna is plural for singular, as
often in poetry. manēbant here = 'remained firm'.
23
male fīda: male negates fīda = 'not to be trusted', 'treacherous'.
carīnīs: = 'ships'; an example of synecdoche, the use of part of a thing to
represent the whole.
24
sē ... condunt: sē is the object of condunt, 'hide themselves'.
25
nōs: Aeneas is referring to the Trojans. The emphatic pronoun at the
beginning of the line marks the change of focus from Greeks to Trojans.
nōs … ratī: add sumus with ratī and eōs as the subject of abiisse;
accusative and infinitive (indirect statement). The effect of this brevity
is to focus on the Trojans' sudden realisation that the Greeks have
gone.
Mycēnās: a city in Greece, here standing for the Greek mainland as a
whole. Agamemnon, the leader of the Greek expedition to Troy, was
king of Mycenae.
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Lines 26-30
The Trojans open the gates, and come out of the city to explore the abandoned Greek
camp.
Language and content
26
Teucria: an alternative name for Troy. Teucer was the ancestor of the
Trojan kings, and the Trojans were sometimes called Teucrī.
longō … lūctū : the ablative is used without the preposition (ā or ē);
this is characteristic of poetic style.
Notice the patterned poetic word order: two noun and adjective pairs
(omnis …Teucria; longō … lūctū) separated by two other words.
Sound patterns, rhythm and word order combine to make this a very
expressive line. Assonance of o and u and the spondees (all except the
fifth foot) may suggest sighing and relaxation. The alliteration of l and
s is chiastic (lssl), perhaps echoing the way Troy has been for so long
enclosed in its grief. Williams compares the sound to 'a long deep sigh
of relief'. These three self-contained end-stopped lines (24-6) slow
down the pace of the narrative before it begins to quicken again at line
27.
27
panduntur portae: the rhythm (5 heavy syllables before the caesura),
sound (alliteration of p) and reversal of the normal word order give a
grand, ceremonious feel to these words, which stresses the action of
opening the gates. The siege has been going on for ten years, so the
opening of the gates is a significant moment.
iuvat: add nōs.
Dōrica: ‘Greek’. Strictly Dōricus means ‘Dorian’, but Virgil applies the
adjective to mean ‘Greek’ in general. The Dorians were one of the main
divisions of the Greeks (the other was the Ionians), most notable of
whom were the Spartans.
27-30 iuvat … solēbant: from iuvat to the end of line 30 the rhythm becomes
increasingly dactylic, in contrast to the slow spondaic movement of
line 26. This reflects the joy of the Trojans.
28
dēsertōsque locōs lītusque relictum: notice the chiasmus (adjective,
noun, noun, adjective), intensified by the alliteration of l in the centre
of the line. The repetition stresses the idea that the Greeks have
abandoned their camp: an example of theme and variation. This is
further emphasised by the prominent placing of the adjectives dēsertōs
and relictum at either end of the line.
29-30 hīc … hīc … hīc … hīc: the repetition may suggest one of the Trojans
pointing out the sites to his fellow citizens.
29
Dolopum: the Dolopēs were a people from Thessaly in northern
Greece.
manus: here = 'band' of soldiers.
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30
tendēbat: add tentōria (tents); a technical term for 'pitch a tent'. The
verb has two subjects, manus and Achillēs.
Achillēs: Achilles was the greatest hero on the Greek side. He had
killed Hector, leader of the Trojans and the son of Priam, king of Troy.
locus: add est.
aciē: the ablative without a preposition expresses 'in' a place. aciēs here
= 'battle'.
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Lines 31-39
The Trojans see the wooden horse. Opinion is divided: some want to bring it inside
the city, while others want to destroy it.
Language and content
31
pars: here = 'some'. pars is the subject of two verbs: the first (stupet) is
singular, the second (mīrantur) is plural.
stupet: stupeō ('I am amazed at') has an accusative object (dōnum).
innūptae: Minerva was an unmarried goddess.
innūptae … Minervae: notice the word order, two noun + adjective
phrases, one enclosed within the other. This is common in poetry.
exitiāle: this is Aeneas speaking with hindsight. At this point in the
story the Trojans do not know that the horse is meant to be a gift to
Minerva nor that it would be deadly. The five-syllable adjective
foregrounds the idea of doom.
31-2 stupet … mōlem mīrantur: again it is the size of the horse that Virgil
selects for emphasis, cf. īnstar montis (15), ingentēs (20).
32
Thymoetēs: an elderly advisor to King Priam, who, in some late
classical accounts, is even described as Priam's brother or brother-inlaw.
33
dūcī…hortātur et … locārī: add eum. dūcī and locārī are present
passive infinitives. dūcī may be a stumbling block for some students as
they may want to interpret it as from the noun dux. Teachers can
deflect this by asking a question such as, ' What two things did
Thymoetes say should be done with the horse?' The accusative and
infinitive is used with hortātur instead of the usual prose construction,
ut + subjunctive.
arce: the ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place
where (in/on). The citadel (arx) was the religious centre of an ancient
city.
34
dolō: the ablative without a preposition expresses the reason, 'through
treachery'. There was a story that Thymoetes' wife and son were killed
on the orders of Priam; this would supply a motive for his treachery.
Trōiae sīc fāta ferēbant: 'the fates of Troy were tending that way'. In
English the singular 'fate' may be more natural.
35-8 at … latebrās: this is a long and syntactically difficult sentence. One
approach is to break it into clauses and, before translating, explore each
clause separately with comprehension questions. Questions which
could be asked are:
In line 35 what kind of people are mentioned along with Capys?
In line 36 how is the horse referred to?
In lines 36 -8 what three different ways of treating the horse do Capys
and the other sensible Trojans suggest?
35
Capys: he was one of Aeneas' companions.
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36
37
38
39
quōrum melior sententia mentī: add eī and erat. This describes the
people who agreed with Capys, 'those to whose mind there was better
judgement' , i.e. 'those whose minds had better judgement'. Students
will find this difficult to construe. One way to approach it would be to
rearrange the word order, and analyse it word by word: [eī] mentī
quōrum [erat] melior sententia. Capys et [eī] together form the plural
subject of iubent (line 37).
pelagō: dative, poetic for in pelagus. See on line 19, caecō laterī.
pelagō is separated from praecipitāre, on which it depends, but the
alliteration of p links the words together, and this can be brought out in
the initial reading aloud.
Danaum: gen. pl. See on line 14.
dōna: plural for singular. See on line 19.
īnsidiās suspectaque dōna: two descriptions of the horse, both
stressing that it is treacherous. Repeating an idea in different words is a
feature of Virgil's style and is sometimes referred to as ‘theme and
variation’.
praecipitāre iubent … ūrere: add nōs as object of iubent.
subiectīsque ūrere flammīs: subiectīs … flammīs is an ablative
absolute. One way of translating it is as an infinitive: 'to light a fire
beneath it and burn it'.
terebrāre cavās uterī et temptāre latebrās: 'to drill holes into and probe
the hollow hiding places of its belly'; in better English: 'to drill holes in
the hollow hiding places of its belly and probe them'. The suggestion is
that the Trojans should bore holes in the side of the horse, then push
through sharp objects, possibly spears, to find out whether there is
anyone hiding inside. Possible translations of temptāre are 'probe',
'explore', 'test'.
scinditur: the position at the beginning of the line and first word in the
sentence (unusual for a verb) throws emphasis on the division of
opinion.
incertum studia in contrāria vulgus: notice the patterned word order,
two pairs of noun and adjective, one sandwiched inside the other, with
a preposition in the centre.
studia: here = 'feelings', 'factions', 'sides'. This end-stopped line sums
up the situation described in lines 32-8.
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Lines 40-49
Laocoon suddenly arrives and warns the Trojans that the horse is a trick and the
Greeks are not to be trusted.
Language and content
40
ibi: referring to either time or place, 'there' or 'then'.
magnā comitante catervā: ablative absolute with present participle,
'with a large crowd accompanying [him]' = 'accompanied by a large
crowd'.
41
Lāocoōn: a Trojan prince, son of King Priam, and priest of Apollo.
ardēns: in a metaphorical sense, 'burning' with anger or passion.
Teachers could encourage students to suggest various possible
translations, such as 'blazing with anger', 'raging', 'in a rage,' 'eagerly'.
summā … ab arce: poetic word order; adjective and noun are
separated by two words, including the preposition. The temples of
Apollo and Minerva were generally built on the citadel, the highest
point of a city.
42
et procul: add clāmat or another verb of speaking. Verbs of speaking
are often omitted in poetry.
40-2 Laocoon's eagerness to speak to the Trojans assembled on the shore is
emphasised by choice of detail, diction and word order: he is at the
head of a crowd dashing down from the citadel (prīmus … ante
omnēs); prīmus is the first word in the sentence and the line, separated
from Lāocoōn; he is burning with eagerness or anger (ardēns); he runs
down (dēcurrit) and starts shouting even before he reaches the shore
(procul).
42
quae tanta īnsānia: add est hoc, 'What is this …?'
43
āvectōs hostēs: add esse. esse is often omitted in poetry.
44
dolīs: ablative with carēre. Perhaps plural for singular as often in
poetry; alternatively the plural can be interpreted as 'acts of deceit'.
Danaum: alternative for Danaōrum. Danaī is an alternative name for
the Greeks, who were the descendants of Danaus. See line 14. The
genitive depends on dōna. The alliteration of d may stress the
contradiction between dolīs and dōna, and associates both closely with
the Greeks.
sīc nōtus Ulixēs: add est or est vōbīs. The question can be interpreted
in several ways: (1) taking sīc with nōtus and adding est, 'Is this how
Ulysses is known?; (2) taking sīc with nōtus and adding est vōbīs, 'Is
this what you know about Ulysses?' (3) detaching sīc from nōtus and
adding est, 'Is this how the notorious Ulysses would behave?' Ulixēs
(Ulysses) is the Roman name for Odysseus. Ulysses was renowned for
his cunning. Laocoon is guessing at Ulysses' involvement, because he
attributes any tricks or subterfuge to him. There was a later story that
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45
45-6
46
47
46-7
48
49
the wooden horse was Ulysses' idea, but there is no evidence that it
was current in Virgil's time.
hōc inclūsī lignō: notice the word order. The adjective and noun are
separated by inclūsī; the arrangement of the words mirrors the idea of
the men hidden inside the horse.
lignō: 'wooden object', i.e. the horse.
Achīvī: the Achaeans, an alternative name for the Greeks.
aut … nostrōs: the spondees underline the gravity and significance of
Laocoon's words; he has guessed the truth and at this moment the
Greeks' plan could have been exposed.
The word order in this line is elaborate. Two noun adjective pairs, haec
… māchina and nostrōs … mūrōs are separated by the verb (fabricāta
est).
in: here = 'against'. Translate, 'to threaten'.
māchina: in general a 'contraption' or more precisely the term used for
any device used to besiege a city, 'an engine of war'.
īnspectūra …ventūraque: the future participles express purpose, 'to
spy on .. to come'.
urbī: = in urbem. The dative is an alternative to in + accusative. See the
note on line 19.
The assonance in this line is notable: īnspectūra …ventūraque dēsuper
urbī.
Laocoon's second suggestion is that the horse is some kind of device
either to spy on the Trojans or to attack the city from outside the walls.
Laocoon could be thinking of the horse as a kind of scaling ladder or
his idea may be that men hidden inside the horse could shoot arrows
into the city.
error: here = 'deception'.
equō: notice the word order. equō is stressed by being placed first in
the sentence before nē.
nē crēdite: = nōlīte crēdere. nē + imperative is a poetic alternative to
nōlī(te) + infinitive.
Teucrī: the Trojans. See note on line 26.
timeō … ferentēs: a famous and memorable sentence. Students may be
aware of this, or slight variations, as an English proverbial phrase.
Teachers could ask students what they think makes the phrase so
striking and memorable.
et: 'even' or 'especially'.
dōna: the horse is an offering to the goddess Minerva, not a gift to the
Trojans.
Discussion
Laocoon's decisiveness contrasts with the dithering Trojans on the shore.
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A good focus for discussion would be Laocoon's speech and its rhetorical
power. Laocoon's entrance is sudden and dramatic. His name is delayed to
the second line of the section, but the first word prīmus has built up
suspense. Vergil does not waste time describing Laocoon or telling the reader
anything about his background; the focus is on the moment. The first three
lines of his address (lines 42-4) display his passion (cf. ardēns, line 41):
rhetorical questions, short sentences, omission of verbs, alliteration and the
enjambement between lines 43 and 44 create an urgent and emotional tone.
Next is a long sentence (aut … error, lines 45-8) of reasoned argument: the
end-stopped lines and three lines beginning with aut set out the argument
clearly. This is followed by the brief plea or command (equō nē crēdite,
Teucrī, line 48). Finally, Laocoon ends with the introduction of a personal
note (timeō) and with a memorable phrase.
Questions
1. How would you divide up Laocoon's speech into three or four sections?
How is the tone and style different in each section? It will help to read the
speech aloud yourself or listen to the recording.
2. What impression of Laocoon's character have you gained from these lines?
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Lines 50-56
Laocoon hurls his spear into the side of the horse.
Language and content
50
fātus: perfect participle of the deponent verb fātur ('he speaks') =
'having spoken'. The original audience would have heard the poem
being read aloud so Virgil needs to indicate that the direct speech has
finished.
validīs ingentem vīribus hastam: notice the intricate word order:
adjective a, adjective b, noun a, noun b. Placing the two adjectives first
emphasises the force of the throw. Alliteration connects validīs and
vīribus.
51
in latus inque … alvum: both phrases refer to the horse's flank; the
second repeats and expands on the first, to fill out the line. This is an
example of theme and variation: the same idea repeated in different
words. It is typical of Virgil's style.
curvam compāgibus alvum: in the plural compāges = 'framework',
'structure'. Literally, 'the belly curved with/on its joints/framework'.
Grammatically curvam qualifies alvum which, unusually for a second
declension noun, is feminine. Virgil often employs a transferred
epithet: curvīs compāgibus would be more usual. The phrase could
possibly be translated in more natural English as: 'the curved frame of
its belly'.
52
contorsit. stetit: notice the word order. The juxtaposition of the two
verbs, positioned at the beginning of the line, stresses them. stetit is
further stressed by being placed first word in the sentence.
illa: 'that/it', referring to hasta.
uterōque recussō: ablative absolute. recutiō = 'to strike so as to cause
to vibrate'. To get both ideas across the phrase could be translated as,
'when the belly had been struck and made to reverberate'.
51-3 curvam … dedēre: these lines pick up the metaphor of pregnancy and
childbirth introduced in lines 19-20 (see the note there). curvam …
alvum, uterō, gemitumque dedēre. However, the result of this
pregnancy will be death for the Trojans, not life.
52-3 Teachers could draw students' attention to the sound of these lines.
First notice the content: the focus is on the sound made by the spear
hitting the horse (īnsonuēre, gemitum). Then listen to the lines being
read aloud and notice how the sound mirrors the sense. The assonance
of uterōque recussō may echo the vibration. The repetition in cavae …
cavernae suggests an echo and the open vowels (cavae … cavernae)
have a hollow sound.
53
Students may need some help with the word order in this line. The
two verbs (īnsonuēre, dedēre), in what may be in an unfamiliar form,
come first, and the subject is at the end, separated from its adjective
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54
55
56
(cavae … cavernae). One approach is to use comprehension questions
such as:
What happened when the horse was struck?
What made the sound?
How is the sound described more exactly?
īnsonuēre: alternative for īnsonuērunt. This form of the 3rd plural
perfect indicative is common in poetry.
dedēre: alternative for dedērunt.
sī fāta deum: add nōn laeva fuissent.
fāta: the noun fātum ('destiny, fate') comes from the perfect participle
of the deponent verb fātur ('he speaks'), so the literal meaning is
'something that has been said'. fātum is thus originally 'what the gods
have said, 'i.e. 'a decree (of the gods)', 'the will (of the gods)'. A good
translation here would be 'the decrees of the gods' or 'the will of the
gods'.
deum: alternative for deōrum.
mēns: there is some ambiguity here. Does 'mēns' belong to the gods or
the Trojans? If the gods, then mēns = 'intention, purpose'. Scholars and
translators are divided: Williams ('if the fates of the gods and their
intentions had not been against us') and West ('minds of the gods')
favour the gods; Austin ('if destiny and our own wits had not gone
against us'), Fitzgerald ('if our own minds had not been crazed'),
Jackson Knight ('if ... our own reason had not been deranged') and Day
Lewis ('if our own will had not been so contrary') favour the Trojans.
The WJEC translation opts for the gods ('their intention').
laeva: here = 'unfavourable', 'harmful'.
impulerat: the subject is Laocoon. Add nōs as object. Usually there
would be a subjunctive verb in the apodosis of a past unfulfilled
condition (impulisset) after the pluperfect subjunctive in the protasis
(fuisset, line 54). As the indicative mood is used for a fact and the
subjunctive for a hypothesis, the indicative here suggests that Laocoon
almost succeeded. Translate, 'he would have forced [us]'.
ferrō: singular for plural as often in poetry.
ferrō … foedāre: the alliteration draws attention to these words.
Argolicās … latebrās: separation of noun and adjective. Argolicus is
another word for Greek, referring to the city of Argos in southern
Greece.
stāret … manērēs: subjunctive verbs in the remainder of the
conditional sentence, 'would be standing … would remain'.
Priamīque arx alta manērēs: this is a restatement of the first half of the
line, but with one significant variation, the verb changes to 2nd person
singular and arx alta is vocative. Aeneas' address to the citadel is
striking; the personal involvement and emotional tone intensifies the
pathos as Aeneas pauses in his dramatic narrative to reflect and linger
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on this possibility. This is an example of apostrophe: an address to a
dead or absent person or an inanimate object.
Questions
1. In what ways does Virgil bring out the significance of this moment?
2. Study the effects Virgil achieves by word choice, word order and sound in
lines 56-9.
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Lines 57-62
A group of Trojan shepherds appears, bringing a Greek whom they have captured.
Language and content
57-62 This long sentence with its multiple clauses will need to be handled
carefully. The bare bones of the sentence is: iuvenem … pāstōrēs …
trahēbant ... quī sē … obtulerat (main clause and relative clause). The
relative clause is extended by two purpose clauses (hoc … Achīvīs,
line 60) inserted between the relative pronoun (quī) and its verb
(obtulerat). The sentence is further extended by two adjectival phrases
(fīdēns … parātus, line 61); the second of these is expanded by two
dependent infinitive phrases (seu … seu, line 62). One way of
approaching the sentence is to break it into its constituent parts, and
begin with comprehension and grammar questions. For example:
In line 57 how is the young man described?
Look at the ending of iuvenem. Is the young man the subject or object
of the sentence?
What were the shepherds doing to the young man?
What other two pieces of information are we given about the
shepherds?
After an initial literal translation has been made, teachers could
encourage students to produce a smoother English version by breaking
the single long sentence up into several shorter English sentences.
57
ecce: this word is used by Virgil to mark a sudden interruption.
manūs iuvenem … post terga revinctum: manūs is an accusative of
respect, used with the passive participle revinctum to denote a part of
the body. The literal translation is 'a young man tied in respect of his
hands'; in more natural English, 'a young man with his hands tied'.
The accusative of respect is a poetic usage. Students may be tempted to
disregard the macron and assume manūs is nominative singular and
therefore the subject. Teachers can provide guidance by directing
attention to the macron and asking for possible interpretations of the
case, with a reminder that the first noun in a sentence may not be the
subject. Alternatively, this error may be circumvented by starting the
exploration of the sentence with comprehension questions of the type
suggested in the previous note.
terga: plural for singular, a poetic usage; it is often used with parts of
the body.
intereā: postponed from its usual position at the beginning of the
sentence.
58
magnō … clāmōre: separation of adjective and noun; poetic word
order.
rēgem: Priam.
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59
61
62
Dardanidae: another name for the Trojans, who were descended from
Dardanus. Dardanidae is a noun in apposition to pāstōrēs. The word
is a Greek patronymic = 'sons of Dardanus'; the suffix -idae = 'sons of'.
Students may be interested to compare patronymic forms in other
languages e.g. Robertson, MacDonald, Ivanovich (Russian: son of
Ivan).
quī: the antecedent is iuvenem, but this is not apparent until the verb
(obtulerat, line 61).
venientibus; add eīs (the Trojan shepherds). Presumably the
shepherds were on their way from the countryside to see the
abandoned Greek camp and the wooden horse.
ultrō: 'on his own initiative'.
hoc ipsum ut strueret: this reveals the young man's purpose in
wanting to be captured by the Trojans. ut is postponed, with the effect
of emphasising hoc ipsum. hoc ipsum ('this very thing', 'just this' i.e. to
be brought before Priam so that he can tell his false story and be
admitted to Troy) is the object of strueret.
fīdēns animī: 'confident in spirit / in his heart'. animī is genitive.
in utrumque: 'for either [outcome]', i.e. success or failure; explained by
seu … seu in the next line.
certae … mortī: the dative depends on occumbere.
Discussion
The focus of this long sentence is the object, iuvenem (line 57). He is
mentioned first, so the spotlight is on him rather than the subject, pāstōrēs
(line 58), which is postponed. From quī (line 59) onwards he is the subject of
the relative clause. Thus he is presented initially as the victim, but it emerges
that he is in control of the situation. Virgil does not yet name him; in the
speech that follows he reveals that his name is Sinon. He is part of the Greek
plot: his rôle is to persuade the Trojans to take the wooden horse inside the
city. His sudden and dramatic arrival has the effect of distracting the Trojans
from Laocoon's warning.
A possible subject for discussion is metre. Austin (note on line 57) remarks on
the unusual number of elisions (at least one in every line): iuvenem (57),
magnō (58), sē (59), ipsum, Trōiamque (60), animī, atque (61), certae (62). He
suggests that this awkward rhythm expresses the "rough violence" of the
scene. The spondees in line 58 may suggest the effort of the shepherds
dragging their prisoner.
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Lines 63-194
Sinon tells the Trojans a false story. He was going to be put to death by the Greeks
but managed to escape. The Trojans pity Sinon and set him free. Sinon goes on to say
that the horse is a religious offering to Minerva to atone for the Palladium, which
Ulysses and Diomedes had stolen from Troy and then polluted. (The Palladium was
the sacred statue of Minerva, on which the safety of Troy depended.) He claims that if
the Trojans take the horse into Troy the Greeks will be defeated, whereas, if they harm
the horse, Troy will be destroyed.
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Lines 195-198
Sinon has succeeded in convincing the Trojans to take the horse inside the city.
Aeneas reflects on what this means for Troy.
Language and content
195
tālibus īnsidiīs … arte: the ablatives express the means by which or the
reason why Sinon's story was believed: 'through such a snare and the
skill'.
periūrīque … Sinōnis: poetic word order; adjective and noun are
separated.
Notice the emphasis on deceit in the choice of vocabulary: īnsidiīs,
periūrī, arte.
196
crēdita: add est.
rēs: teachers should encourage students to think of a more appropriate
word in English than 'thing', e.g. 'story'.
captīque: add sumus. There is an opportunity here to remind students
to bear in mind Aeneas' involvement in the story.
lacrimīsque coāctīs: 'forced tears', i.e. false or fake.
197
quōs: the implied antecedent is nōs (subject of captī [sumus]).
Tȳ
ȳdīdēs: son of Tydeus, Diomedes. Diomedes was one of the principal
Greek warriors. Tȳ
ȳdīdēs is a patronymic, a name derived from the
name of a father or ancestor. In Greek the suffix -īdēs denotes 'son of'.
In Greek epic poetry, in particular the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, the
heroes are often called by their patronymics; Virgil adopted this feature
of epic style in the Aeneid. See the note on line 59.
Lārisaeus Achillēs: Achilles was the greatest of the Greek warriors. He
was the son of Peleus, king of Phthia, in Thessaly. Larissa was a city in
Thessaly, in northern Greece, near Phthia. Lārisaeus can be translated
here as 'Thessalian'. The use of obscure learned epithets is a feature of
much Latin poetry. The epithet has no particular point here. However,
along with the patronymic, it gives the line an elevated, heroic tone.
It also slows the pace and rhythm; the three spondees in the second,
third and fourth foot give this line an impressive solemnity.
Diomedes and Achilles represent the might of the Greek army.
197-8 This couplet is composed of four carefully arranged elements,
identifying the unsuccessful threats to Troy. There are two balancing
pairs, each occupying a line: the human and the non-human. The
repetition of the negative at the beginning of each phrase (neque …
nec … nōn … nōn) and the crescendo, from individual heroes to ten
years then to a thousand ships, emphasises the invincibility of Troy.
198
domuēre: alternative for domuērunt.
annī decem: the Trojan War was traditionally said to have lasted ten
years.
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mīlle carīnae: the traditional number of the Greek ships that went to
Troy. carīna is strictly the keel of a ship, used here for 'ship'; an
example of synecdoche.
Question
What is Aeneas’ attitude to the way in which Troy was destroyed?
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Lines 199-211
Suddenly two serpents come swimming across the sea from Tenedos to Troy.
Language and content
199
hīc: refers to time rather than place, 'at this point (in time)', 'now'.
aliud maius: 'something else greater', i.e. 'something else more
significant', 'another greater sign'. magnus is often used to describe
portents.
miserīs: add nōbīs, 'to us wretched people'.
199- multōque tremendum … magis: 'much more dreadful'. The ablative
200
multō ('by much') goes with the comparative magis, and magis
qualifies tremendum. The position of magis, separated from
tremendum by the verb obicitur and placed at the end of the clause, is
unusual and has the effect of making it emphatic.
There is pronounced alliteration of m in these and the following lines,
perhaps underlining the significance of what is about to be described.
200
obicitur: literally 'is thrown before [us]'. Here = 'is presented to us',
201
ductus … sorte: 'chosen by lot'.
Neptūnō: dative, priest 'in the service of Neptune'. It may be translated
in English as a genitive, 'of Neptune'. Neptune was god of the sea
(Greek: Poseidon) and supported the Greeks in the Trojan War.
202
sollemnēs … ārās: notice the word order. The line is framed by this
noun & adjective pair, a characteristic pattern in Virgil's poetry; a
second noun & adjective pair (taurum ingentem) and the verb
(mactābat) are enclosed.
mactābat: the imperfect tense indicates that the action was interrupted.
ad: here = 'at'.
ārās: the plural to refer to a single altar is common in Virgil.
Teachers may like to focus on the rhythm of this line. As always, the best
procedure is to start with careful reading aloud and listening. If students
read lines 199-202 aloud themselves they will notice that line 202
requires the reader to slow down. They can then be guided in an
analysis of how this effect is achieved. First of all, notice the heavy
spondees which give the line a slow, solemn feeling and may also
suggest effort. If students are interested teachers could explain how the
clash of ictus and accent in the first three feet suggests effort and
struggle.
203-5 A long sentence describing the approach of the serpents. The syntax is
simple: the sentence is composed of a series of short phrases. One
approach is for the teacher to break up the sentence into its constituent
parts and ask students to translate in order (ecce autem/ geminī/ ā
Tenedō/ tranquilla per alta/ horrēscō referēns/ immēnsīs orbibus/
anguēs/ incumbunt pelagō/ pariterque ad lītora tendunt). In this way
students will see how Virgil builds up the description piece by piece.
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203
ecce: this word is used by Virgil to mark a sudden shift in viewpoint
and action. Cf. line 57.
Tenedō: the island where the Greek fleet had hidden. See lines 21-4.
This foreshadows the return of the Greeks.
alta: neuter plural used as a noun. Literally 'deep things' = 'the depths',
'the deep', 'the sea'. This is an example of metonymy: a quality of a
thing used to denote the thing itself. Notice the variety of vocabulary
in this description of the serpents: there are six words for 'sea': alta
(203), pelagō (205), flūctūs (206), undās, pontum (207), salō (209).
203-4 geminī … anguēs: the long separation of adjective and noun builds up
tension and suspense.
204
horrēscō referēns: add rem. referō here may be translated as either
‘tell’ (the story) or ‘recall’ (the event). Another reminder that Aeneas is
the narrator and of his personal involvement in the events he is
describing.
205
incumbunt pelagō: 'lean/press on the sea'. incumbō suggests both
movement and effort. pelagō is dative: the dative is often used with
verbs which have the prefix in-.
pariter: 'side by side'.
lītora: plural for singular, as often in poetry.
206
pectora … arrēcta: separation of noun and participle. The assonance
and internal rhyme bind the words together (pectora … arrēcta).
quōrum: connecting relative pronoun, used to link a sentence to the
previous one. Literally 'whose', but at the beginning of a new clause
translate as 'and their'. Notice the word order; the relative pronoun is
usually the first word in the sentence or clause, but in poetry it is
frequently postponed. The effect here is to emphasise pectora.
arrēcta: 'held high', 'rearing up'
206-7 pectora … undās: pectora and iubae are both subjects of superant.
206-11 There are some striking sound effects in these lines, notably the
sibilance, imitating the hissing of the serpents and also perhaps the
noise of the sea: sanguineae superant (207), sonitus spūmante salō
(209), suffectī sanguine (210), sibila … linguīs vibrantibus (211).
There is also alliteration of p: pectora ... pars … pontum pōne (206-8).
207
superant: 'overtop', 'rise above', 'tower over’.
pars cētera: 'the remaining part [of them]', 'the rest [of their bodies]'.
208
legit: here = 'skims'.
sinuatque immēnsa volūmine terga: the subject of sinuat is still pars
cētera. There are two ways of interpreting the ablative volūmine: (i)
qualifying sinuat, 'curves their immense backs in a coil'; (ii) going
closely with immēnsa to form the equivalent of a compound adjective,
'curves their immense-with a coil backs', i.e. 'their immensely-coiling
backs'. The WJEC translation favours (i).
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209
210
211
fit sonitus spūmante salō: spūmante salō is an ablative absolute with
present participle. The short sentence is effective in concentrating
attention on the sound of the foaming sea and the hissing snakes.
arva: plural for singular, as often in poetry, 'dry land'.
tenēbant: the sense of the imperfect tense can be translated as 'they
were on the point of reaching'.
ardentēsque oculōs suffectī sanguine et ignī: 'having stained their
burning eyes with blood and fire'. The participle suffectī here has a
middle sense, as in Greek (the serpents stain their own eyes), and the
accusative phrase ardentēs oculōs is the direct object. (Another way of
interpreting the construction is to take ardentēs oculōs as an
accusative of respect defining the part of the body to which, i.e. in
respect of which, the participle applies, 'stained in their burning eyes'.)
Whatever the explanation, the idea is clear: translate as, 'their
burning/blazing eyes flecked/tinged/stained/shot with blood and fire'.
ignī: ablative singular, alternative for igne.
sībila … ōra: the adjective and noun frame the line, a pattern
characteristic of Virgil's poetry (cf. line 202). Here the word order has
the effect of mirroring the meaning: the serpents' tongues are inside
their mouths. If students say this line aloud they will feel how the
interplay of b and l sounds focuses attention on the speaker’s lips and
tongue: sībila lambēbant linguīs vibrantibus.
Discussion
Discussion could focus on Virgil's narrative and descriptive technique. One
way of engaging with this is to ask students to think of the episode as if it
were a film. The narrative now returns to Laocoon after the Sinon episode, just
as a film cuts from one scene to another. The two lines introducing the episode
(199-200) produce a sense of foreboding (maius … multōque tremendum …
magis … imprōvida … turbat); in a film this evocation of mood could be
effected by music. Virgil does not tell us what Laocoon has been doing in the
meantime nor the purpose of the sacrifice; he reveals only what the reader
needs to know. The economy of the narrative results in maximum dramatic
impact.
The focus then shifts from Laocoon on the shore to the distant horizon. The
scene is described as if from the point of view of the Trojans on the shore, as
they gradually realise what is happening. They see two things in the distance
approaching from Tenedos, the sea is calm, they shudder at the sight (as
Aeneas shudders in recalling it), they make out the huge coils, then realise
that what they see is a pair of serpents. The description starts mysteriously
with two undefined shapes in the distance and ends with a menacing closeup of mouths and tongues. Virgil focuses on the size of the serpents:
immēnsīs (204), arrēcta (206), superant (207), immēnsa (208). The imagery of
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blood and fire effectively suggests destruction. This could be regarded as
anticipating the destruction of Troy. The sound effects of the verse contribute
significantly to the power of the description: the imagery is aural as well as
visual.
Questions
1. Examine the techniques Virgil has used to make the description of the
serpents vivid. You could consider: the visual details he selects; the way
the picture is built up piece by piece; how the description appeals to the
reader's sense of hearing as well as sight; any particularly striking words
and phrases.
2. If you were filming this episode how would you do it? Are there any
aspects of the scene that a film could not convey?
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Lines 212-227
The Trojans on the shore flee. The serpents make straight for Laocoon and his two
sons and kill them. Then they go to the acropolis and hide at the feet of the statue of
Minerva.
Language and content
212-3 diffugimus … petunt: these two short sentences contrast with the long
sentence describing the arrival of the serpents. They concentrate
attention on the actions of the Trojan bystanders and the serpents and
convey the rapidity of events. diffugimus is emphasised by its key
position, first word in the sentence (unusual for a verb) and in the line.
vīsū exsanguēs: the ablative vīsū is causal, explaining exsanguēs, 'pale
at the sight'. exsanguēs suggests powerlessness and fear as well as
providing the visual detail of faces drained of blood. This is
particularly effective as a contrast to the bloodiness of the snakes: they
have blood-red crests (sanguineae, line 207) and their eyes are flecked
with blood (sanguine, line 210).
illī: the snakes. The strong pause before illī, caused by the break
between the sentences and the caesura in the fourth foot, heightens the
contrast between the Trojans and the snakes.
agmine certō: 'in a straight line', 'in an unswerving advance'. agmen =
'movement' and is often used of an army on the march. The military
overtones convey the determination and menace of the serpents. certō
suggests decisiveness, deliberateness and premeditation.
213
Lāocoonta: Greek accusative form.
213-4 parva duōrum corpora nātōrum: this is the first mention of the
presence of Laocoon's sons. This is another example of Virgil's
economical narrative style; it also has the effect of increasing the shock
for the reader. The interlaced word order (adjective a, adjective b, noun
a, noun b) mirrors the twisting of the serpents.
214
amplexus: the perfect participle of deponent verbs sometimes has a
present meaning.
uterque: agrees with serpēns.
215
miserōs … artūs: separation of adjective and noun.
216
post: here the adverb, 'afterwards', 'next', 'then'. Students will probably
be more familiar with post used as a preposition and with the adverb
posteā.
ipsum: Laocoon himself.
auxiliō: predicative dative with subeuntem. Literally 'going for (as a
source of) help' = 'going to help'.
217
spīrīs … ingentibus: separation of noun and adjective. Note again the
emphasis on the size of the serpents. (See the Discussion of lines 199211.)
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218
bis … bis: either both serpents encircled Laocoon, or they each
encircled him twice.
medium: add eum, '[him] round the middle'. The WJEC translation,
'his torso', is neat.
218-9 collō squāmea circum terga datī: a complex phrase to explain
grammatically, but the picture is clear; the serpents coil their bodies
around Laocoon's neck. The best approach may be to guide students
towards the meaning with questions, before looking for a translation.
In deciding how much grammatical explanation to supply, teachers
should be guided by the ability and knowledge of their students.
Suitable questions would be:
Which two parts of the body are mentioned?
Which of these is described as 'scaly'? Would this belong to Laocoon or
the serpents?
The purpose of these questions is to establish that squāmea qualifies
terga, despite the word order, and that terga belong to the serpents.
This could be followed up with:
What were the serpents doing with their backs?
circum … datī: = the compound verb circumdatī; the prefix is split
from the verb, an example of tmesis. The perfect participle here has an
active meaning ('having wrapped [their backs] around') instead of the
usual passive ('having been put around'). This is because Virgil is
using a Greek construction, the middle voice (cf. the note on line 210).
terga (accusative plural) is the direct object of circumdatī. collō is
dative: compound verbs often take a dative.
219
superant: recalling 207 and again emphasising the size of the serpents.
capite: singular for plural, referring to the serpents.
220
ille: = 'he', Laocoon. The pronoun marks a change of subject.
220-2 simul … simul: 'now … now', indicating that two actions take place
simultaneously.
tendit: = 'exert oneself', 'struggle', 'try'.
221
perfūsus … vittās: vittās is an accusative of respect, defining the object
affected by perfūsus ('soaked'), 'soaked as to his headband', i.e. 'his
headband soaked'. Cf. the note on line 210. vittae were woollen or
linen headbands (fillets) worn by priests when performing their
religious duties. They were therefore sacred objects and were polluted
if in contact with dirt or blood.
223
quālis: add est. quālis ('like') introduces a simile.
fūgit cum: cum + perfect indicative = 'when'. cum is postponed to the
second word in the clause. The long first syllable shows that fūgit is
perfect, not present, tense.
224
incertam … secūrim: separation of adjective and noun. The effect is to
emphasise incertam.
incertam: here = 'badly-aimed'.
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cervīce: the ablative is dependent on excussit.
223-4 fūgit … securim: this was a bad omen. A sacrificial victim was
supposed to go to its death willingly.
This is the only simile the students meet in this selection. Elaborate
similes, often extended over several lines, are a feature of epic poetry:
sometimes they are known as epic similes. This particular example is
comparatively short and unelaborated, but deserves to be explored in
detail as an example of the way Virgil uses similes in his narrative. One
way to approach a simile is first of all to establish the main point of
comparison, then continue the exploration by looking for other
similarities and differences in the details. Here the main point of
comparison is the sound: Laocoon's cries are like the bellowing of a
bull. A further similarity is the situation: the context of both is sacrifice.
The simile, by comparing Laocoon with the bull, suggests that he is
now the victim rather than the officiator. Is there a suggestion that
Laocoon is being sacrificed to the gods for his impiety in throwing his
spear at the horse? Laocoon is drenched in blood, like the wounded
bull (saucius). He struggles to free the serpents from his neck, just as
the bull struggles to escape the blow of the axe to its neck. Laocoon,
however, is unsuccessful, whereas the bull manages to flee, at least
temporarily. The effect of the simile is heightened by the sound.
Students should hear these lines, and try reading them aloud
themselves, to appreciate the effects of sound and rhythm. The
assonance (repeated u sounds and internal rhyme in mūgītus, fūgit
cum) is onomatopoeic, imitating the bellowing of the bull. The heavy
spondees add to the feeling of doom. Line 224 has a jerky rhythm,
suggestive of struggle: there is a clash of ictus and accent in the second
and third feet. Austin suggests that the elision in incert(am) excussit
may imitate the blow of the axe missing its mark.
225
at: as often, at marks a transition. The description of the serpents'
attack on Laocoon is cut off before his death and attention returns to
the serpents.
geminī … dēlūbra ad summa dracōnēs: the word order of this line has
a pattern with which students should be becoming familiar. There are
two noun & adjective pairs, one enclosed within the other. The first
pair almost frames the line; the second is separated by a preposition.
lāpsū: the ablative expresses the way in which the serpents move, 'by
slithering', 'with a gliding motion'. In English this could be expressed
as a participle or a main verb, for example: 'the serpents escape, gliding
away…' or 'the serpents slither away and escape'.
dēlūbra ad summa: the temple of Minerva was on the citadel, the
highest point of the city. The temple of Apollo was probably there too.
See the note on line 41.
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226
227
saevaeque … Trītōnidis: separation of adjective and noun; the effect is
to stress saevae, which has an emphatic position, first word in its
clause and preceding its noun. Trītōnis is a title of Minerva (Greek:
Pallas Athene). The origin of the title is obscure, but is sometimes
explained as deriving from a river Triton in Boeotia or Lake Tritonis in
Africa, near which she is said to have been born. She is saeva here
because, in general, she has opposed the Trojans in the war, and, more
specifically, because she has caused the death of Laocoon and his sons.
(See the following note.)
sub … orbe: the reference is to the statue of Minerva, which would be
in her temple on the citadel. Minerva was a goddess of war and is often
depicted in art with a shield.
The chiastic word order (ablative, genitive, genitive, ablative) gives a
sense of finality.
teguntur: passive, so the literal translation is 'are hidden'. It could be
translated as 'they hide themselves'.
The dactyls give this line a rapid movement, suggesting the quickening
of the snakes as they reach their destination.
Discussion
This episode ends by hinting at the significance of the serpents. Virgil has so
far made no comment and provided no explanation. However, after
destroying Laocoon and his sons, the serpents find sanctuary in the temple of
Minerva, under the feet of her statue. Minerva supported the Greeks in the
Trojan War. Now we see that it is probably she who has sent the snakes to kill
Laocoon, who was suspicious of the horse, and to ensure that the Trojans take
it into the city. The Greeks had been helped in building the horse by
Minerva's skill (line 15). (We should bear in mind, however, that Virgil does
not state this explicitly, and still leaves open the possibility that the serpents
were sent by Neptune.) We can also recognise the significance of the fact that
the serpents come from Tenedos, the island where the Greeks were hiding
and will later sail from to destroy Troy finally. The significance of geminī can
also be appreciated: the two snakes can be seen as representing the two
leaders of the Greek force, the brothers Agamemnon and Menelaus.
Questions
1. What do you think the inclusion of Laocoon's sons adds to the story?
2. Look closely at the simile in lines 223-4. What is the point of comparison?
In what other ways does the simile contribute to the story?
3. What is the significance of the serpents and how is that significance hinted
at?
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Lines 228-233
The Trojans interpret the killing of Laocoon by the serpents as meaning that he is
being punished for throwing his spear at the horse. They decide to take the horse
inside the city.
Language and content
228-9 tremefacta novus per pectora … pavor: poetic word order. tremefacta
goes with pectora and novus with pavor. The effect is to emphasise the
adjectives. The Trojans were already terrified when they saw the
snakes; the realisation of what Laocoon's fate means adds a new fear.
They had come close to sharing Laocoon's distrust of the horse and his
apparent impiety.
228
cūnctīs: the dative can be interpreted in two ways. Either (i) it goes
with insinuat, expressing motion with a compound verb, poetic
alternative to in + accusative: 'creeps into everyone through their
hearts'; or (ii) dative of possession or reference dependent on pectora:
'creeps through the hearts of all'. (ii) seems more likely, and this is the
interpretation of the WJEC translation.
229
īnsinuat: sinus means 'curve' and sinuare 'to bend', so īnsinuare
recalls the snakes. Cf. sinuatque, line 208. A translation that preserves
the imagery is 'worms its way into'.
229-30 scelus … ferunt: scelus expendisse … Lāocoonta is an accusative and
infinitive (indirect statement) dependent on ferunt ('they say').
Lāocoonta is the subject of the perfect infinitive expendisse. The
subject of ferunt is the crowd (cūnctīs, line 228).
merentem: the present participle could be translated here as an adverb
'deservedly'.
230
sacrum … rōbur: rōbur is literally ‘oak’, but here means ‘an object
made of wood’, i.e. ‘the wooden horse’. In line 16 the horse was said to
be made of fir, in line 112 the horse is maple, in line 258 the bolts are
pine, and in line 260 it is oak again. Virgil varies his vocabulary by
using the names of specific woods to denote wood in general. sacrum
is stressed by being placed first word in the clause (quī is postponed),
before its noun and separated from its noun by two words. It is
because the horse is sacred that Laocoon has been punished.
230-1 quī … laeserit … intorserit: the perfect subjunctive verbs in the
relative clause probably express cause ('since he …', 'seeing that he …'),
although all the verbs in subordinate clauses in indirect speech are
subjunctive.
231
tergō: dative, equivalent to in tergum. Virgil often uses the dative case
to express the idea of motion towards, especially with compound
verbs; a poetic usage. Cf. line 19.
scelerātam … hastam: the adjective is stressed by its position, before its
noun and separated from it by another word.
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229-31 scelus … sacrum … scelerātam: the diction emphasises Laocoon's
wrongdoing. Further emphasis is achieved by the similarity of sound
and the placing of the words: each comes after the pause in the line at
the third foot caesura.
231-2 These two lines contain three elisions. The effect may be, as Austin
says, to express the violent excitement of the crowd.
232
ducendum … ōrandaque: add esse in both clauses. These are two
indirect statements dependent on conclāmant.
sēdēs: = sēdēs dīvae, the temple of Minerva on the acropolis. The
temple was regarded as the home of the goddess.
232-3 dīvae nūmina: dīvae is genitive, with nūmina. nūmen has a wide
range of meanings. Here it can be translated as '(divine) power' or
'(divine) favour'. There are several half-lines in the Aeneid. The most
likely explanation is that Virgil died before revising the poem and
these lines are unfinished.
Discussion
Now the Trojans realise the significance of what they have just witnessed.
Before the attack on Laocoon by the serpents they have already believed
Sinon's claim that the horse is an offering by the Greeks to Minerva and if
they violate it Troy will be destroyed. Now they unhesitatingly assume that
the fate of Laocoon confirms Sinon's story. The language emphasises the
contrast between Laocoon's crime (scelus, merentem (229), scelerātam (231))
and the sanctity of the horse (sacrum (230)).
Question
How does Virgil's language emphasise the Trojans' interpretation that the
horse is sacred and Laocoon is guilty?
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Lines 234-240
The Trojans take the horse into the city.
Language and content
234
dīvidimus mūrōs et moenia pandimus: mūrōs are the walls of the city
and moenia the buildings. What is probably being described in
dīvidimus mūrōs is a breach in the section of the city wall above the
gate. Notice the chiastic word order and alliteration and assonance in
this line.
235
accingunt: here = 'get (themselves) ready'.
operī: dative, 'for the task'.
pedibusque: with subiciunt. The dative case is often used with
compound verbs.
235-6 rotārum … lāpsūs: lāpsūs is a 4th declension noun (accusative plural).
The literal meaning of this elaborate phrase is 'glidings of wheels', i.e.
'gliding wheels'.
236
collō: either dative or ablative with intendunt. The ropes were drawn
tightly over the horse's neck.
237
fātālis māchina: the horse is described here as an engine of war which
will bring death to the Trojans. The phrase echoes Laocoon's
description of the horse in line 46. See the note there on māchina.
scandit adds to the image of an armed assault on the city, in particular
the use of scaling ladders; it also suggests the size of the horse looming
over the buildings and the walls. There is some discrepancy between
scandit and the information that a breach has been made in the walls
for the entry of the horse, but we should not expect exactness of
description; the emotional impact is at the forefront.
The heavy spondees suggest the effort required to drag the horse into
the city and the slowness of its movement. They may also give this line
a grim sense of foreboding.
238
fēta armīs: the recurrent metaphor of the horse pregnant with armed
men. See the note on lines 19-20.
puerī … innūptaeque puellae: by picking out the boys and girls in the
procession Virgil makes the reader think of their imminent fate, death
and slavery. innūptae suggests the future of which the girls have been
deprived. The sadness of premature death is a recurrent theme in
Virgil's poetry. The effect is to produce pathos. For the Roman reader,
the picture may recall Roman festivals in which young people played a
prominent part, singing songs and taking part in processions.
circum: an adverb here = 'around' .
239
sacra: the neuter plural of the adjective is used as a noun. Literally,
'sacred things', i.e. 'sacred songs'.
240
illa: refers to māchina.
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subit … inlābitur: the second verb repeats the idea of the first, an
example of theme and variation. It is characteristic of Virgil's style to
repeat an idea in different words; the effect is often emphatic. Cf. lines
19-20. inlābitur, as well as recalling the wheels (rotārum … lāpsūs,
lines 235-6), suggests the ease with which the horse eventually entered
the city, after the initial effort. The word may also recall the movement
of the serpents (lāpsū, line 225). This is mirrored in the quick, smooth
dactylic rhythm.
mediaeque … urbī: dative, a poetic alternative to in mediam urbem.
Virgil often uses the dative case to express the idea of motion towards,
especially with compound verbs. Cf. line 19.
mediaeque … mināns: the alliteration of m emphasises both words, the
threat in their midst. The context exploits the dual meaning of minor,
'project' and 'threaten'. Both senses are present here.
Discussion
Lines 234-7 (dīvidimus … intendunt) present a scene of busy activity; there
are five main verbs describing the actions of the Trojans. The actual entry of
the horse into Troy is expressed as if the city is being captured by an engine of
war, and there is an ominous sense of doom in the adjective fātālis (237). This
foreboding is underlined by the heavy spondees of line 237. The feeling of
menace is repeated in line 240, mināns. Sandwiched between these ominous
descriptions of the entry of the horse is the contrasting picture of the young
Trojans, a scene of joy (gaudent, line 239). There is irony in the detail of the
young people touching the rope, which Romans regarded as a sign of luck,
and pathos in the reminder that these young people are fated to die or be
enslaved. This picture of youth and innocence (innūptae) contrasts sharply
with the looming deadliness of the horse.
Questions
Examine the way Virgil evokes mood in lines 237-40. How does the mood
change?
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Lines 241-249
The horse stumbles at the gate, but nevertheless the Trojans press on and install it on
the citadel. Cassandra's prophecy is not believed.
Language and content
241-2 ō patria … Dardanidum: Aeneas addresses the city of Troy thrice, each
time more elaborately. This is an example of apostrophe, an address to
an inanimate object. See line 56 and note. The emotional force of the
words is heightened by the alliteration of d (dīvum domus …
Dardanidum) and the tricolon crescendo.
241
dīvum: genitive plural, alternative to dīvōrum.
Īlium: Troy.
242
Dardanidum: genitive plural of Dardanidae. The Trojans, descendants
of Dardanus. See note on line 59.
242-3 ipsō in līmine portae … substitit: the Romans regarded stumbling on
the threshold as a sign of bad luck.
243
uterō: the ablative without a preposition expresses 'in' or 'from' a place.
For the metaphor see lines 19-20 and note.
dedēre: alternative for dedērunt.
245
mōnstrum: the root meaning of the word is apparent here (from
moneō, 'I warn'). mōnstrum refers not just to the huge size and
unusual appearance of the horse but to the fact that it is a warning or
portent.
mōnstrum īnfēlīx sacrātā … arce: notice the chiastic word order. The
juxtaposition of the two adjectives highlights the contrast between the
ill-omened and the sacred and thus intensifies the dreadfulness of the
action. The sibilance may remind the reader of the snakes, already
settled in Minerva's temple.
The spondees slow down the pace as the horse reaches the citadel.
arce: the ablative without a preposition expresses place (in/on).
246
fātīs … futūrīs: futūrus is the future participle of esse, 'about to be'.
Here it can be translated as an adjective, 'future' or 'destined'. The
phrase can be interpreted either as ablative ('with future fortunes') or
as dative expressing purpose ('for future fortunes'). Possible
translations in more natural English would be, 'in a prophecy of the
fate that is to come' or 'to utter future fortunes'.
Cassandra: prophetess, one of the daughters of Priam, King of Troy,
and Queen Hecuba. Apollo fell in love with her, but when she rejected
his advances he punished her by giving her the gift of prophecy, but
with the curse that her prophecies would not be believed.
247
ōra: plural for singular, as often in poetry.
crēdita: either (i) nominative singular feminine agreeing with
Cassandra or (ii) accusative plural neuter agreeing with ōra. The WJEC
translation and Explore the Story opt for (i).
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248
249
Teucrīs: dative to express the agent. This is an alternative to ā/ab +
ablative.
deum: alternative for deōrum.
miserī, quibus ultimus esset: the subjunctive verb in the relative
clause probably expresses the reason why the Trojans are miserī ('since
that day would be for us the last'). Alternatively, it may be interpreted
as concessive ('although …'). miserī is Aeneas' retrospective comment;
at the time the Trojans were not aware of their misery.
esset: add futūrus, 'was going to be', 'would be'.
fēstā … fronde: separation of adjective and noun; poetic word order.
Discussion
The apostrophe is an emotional interruption in the narrative, as if Aeneas
temporarily breaks down and cannot continue the story as he remembers this
moment. Aeneas’ personal involvement intensifies the pathos and the
interruption increases the tension. There are ominous overtones and an
undercurrent of warning: the horse stumbling on the threshold, the clatter of
weapons in its belly, Cassandra’s prophecy. But the Trojans ignore the
warnings and the pathos of their situation is intensified by the juxtaposition
of joy and sorrow. Aeneas’ account is coloured by comments that could only
be made with hindsight, increasing even more the pitiable presentation of
Trojans.
Questions
1. What indications are there here that the story is being told from the point
of view of a survivor? What does this add to the effect of the story?
2. Do you think the Trojans are presented as victims or as partly responsible
for their own destruction?
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Lines 250-267
During the night the Greek fleet returns from Tenedos. In response to their signal,
Sinon releases the Greeks from inside the horse. They kill the Trojan guards and join
forces with the rest of the Greeks who now enter the city.
Language and content
250-1 These two lines are a good example of Virgil's variation of rhythm. Line
250 is predominantly dactylic, and this may suggest the swift onset of
night. In contrast, line 251 has a series of slow spondees as night settles.
The emphasis on the two main verbs in line 250 adds to the sense of rapid
movement. Also, the unusual monosyllabic ending produces a jerky
effect, again appropriate for the sudden fall of night.
250
vertitur: the passive voice is used as an intransitive, 'turns'.
ruit: 'rushes up' or 'rushes in'.
Ōceanō: the ablative without a preposition denotes the place from
which something comes. Oceanus was the river which, in Greek
mythology, encircled the earth; the ocean.
251
umbrā magnā: ablative with involvēns, 'wrapping (in)'.
polumque: the axis or pole; here = 'the sky' or 'heaven'.
251-2 que … que … que: [both] … and … and.
252
Myrmidonumque: strictly the Myrmidons, from Thessaly in northern
Greece, were the soldiers of Achilles. Here Myrmidonēs is used to
refer to the Greeks in general.
fūsī: here = 'sprawled', 'stretched out'.
moenia: usually denotes the city walls but is sometimes used to refer to
a fortified town or to the buildings in the town (cf. line 234). It could be
translated here as 'town' or 'city' or 'houses'.
253
conticuēre: alternative for conticuērunt. The perfect tense expresses
the suddenness of the silence.
fessōs … artūs: separation of adjective and noun; poetic word order.
254-9 Before reading this long sentence it would be useful to check that
students remember that the Greek fleet is hiding on the island of
Tenedos (see lines 21-4) and that the Greek prisoner Sinon has been
freed by the Trojans (see the summary of lines 63-194).
254
Argīva: strictly 'Argive', but here = 'Greek'. Argos was a city in
southern Greece.
phalanx: a Greek word for a body of soldiers drawn up in close
formation. Here it can be translated as 'army' or 'fleet'. The word
suggests a force ready to attack.
ībat: the imperfect tense can have an inceptive sense which is
appropriate here, 'began to move'.
255
tacitae per amīca silentia lūnae: poetic word order; two noun & adjective
pairs, one enclosed within the other. The diction presents a picture of
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calm and stillness which favours the Greeks. tacitae is a transferred
epithet: logically it describes silentia.
silentia: plural for singular, as often in poetry.
256
flammās: the flames are torches used to signal to Sinon. Suitable
translations would be 'fire-signals' or 'beacons'. Notice the word order.
flammās is emphasised by its position in the clause. Although it is the
object, it is the first word in the clause, before the subject puppis, and it
comes before the postponed conjunction cum. It is further stressed by
its position in the line, after the pause at the caesura.
256-9 cum … extulerat … laxat: cum + indicative = 'when'. cum usually takes
the subjunctive when referring to the past, the indicative when
referring to the present. This is an example of inverse cum; when the
main idea is in the subordinate (cum) clause, the verb is indicative.
extulerat: the pluperfect tense is odd here, but could be seen as adding
to the dramatic impact, as action suddenly breaks the calm, 'the fleet
was sailing … the ship had given the signal … Sinon releases the
Greeks'.
256
rēgia puppis: the leading ship, carrying the supreme commander of
the Greeks, Agamemnon, King of Mycenae. Strictly puppis denotes the
'stern' of a ship, but the word is often used in poetry for 'ship', an
example of synecdoche (the use of part of a thing to represent the
whole).
257
fātīsque … inīquīs: separation of noun and adjective; poetic word
order.
deum: alternative for deōrum.
The gods were unfair or hostile to the Trojans.
257-9 dēfēnsus: this refers to Sinōn (line 259). The effect of delaying the
subject of the clause is to create suspense. Jordan suggests that another
effect is to emphasise Aeneas' hatred of Sinon.
258
uterō: ablative without a preposition, dependent on inclūsōs. Notice
again the metaphor of the pregnant horse. See the note on lines 19-20.
Danaōs: the Greeks. See the note on line 14.
258-9 pīnea … claustra: separation of adjective and noun; poetic word order.
259
laxat: the verb has two object phrases, inclūsōs uterō Danaōs and
pīnea fūrtim … claustra. With each object laxat has a slightly different
meaning: 'he releases the Greeks' and 'he undoes the bolts'. This is an
example of zeugma. It would be appropriate to use two different verbs
in an English translation. The two actions are reported as parallel, but
the order in which they occurred is reversed; the second action
explains the first. The effect is to emphasise the more important action,
the release of the Greeks.
illōs: 'them', i.e. the Greeks.
aurās: literally 'the breezes', i.e 'the open air'.
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260
laetīque: describing the men listed in lines 261-4. The adjective is used
predicatively here; an adverb is more natural in English, ‘happily’.
cavō ... rōbore: the ablative without a preposition denotes the place from
which (ē, ex). rōbur is literally ‘oak’, but here means ‘wood’ in general.
See the note on line 230.
sē ... prōmunt: the reflexive use of the verb is rare. Literally, ‘bring
themselves out of concealment’. It could be translated as ‘emerge’.
261-4 Nine Greek warriors emerge from the horse. Three of them (Ulysses,
Neoptolemus and Menelaus) are leading heroes; the rest are obscure,
and there is no apparent significance in their inclusion.
Thessandrus: nothing is definitely known about him. He may have
been the son of Polynices, who was one of the sons of Oedipus, King of
Thebes.
Sthenelus: a friend of one of the most prominent of the Greek heroes,
Diomedes.
Ulixēs: Ulysses, the Roman name for Odysseus. See the note on line 44.
Acamās: one of the sons of Theseus, King of Athens.
Thoās: a hero mentioned in Homer’s Iliad.
Pēlīdēsque Neoptolemus: Neoptolemus was the son of Achilles, and
grandson of Peleus; he was also called Pyrrhus. Pēlīdēs is a
patronymic, that is a name derived from the name of a father or
ancestor. In Greek the suffix -īdēs denotes 'son of' or ‘descendant of’. In
Greek epic poetry, in particular the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, the
heroes are often called by their patronymics; Virgil adopted this feature
of epic style in the Aeneid. See the note on line 59.
Machāōn: the surgeon of the Greek army.
Menelāus: the King of Sparta, brother of Agamemnon and husband of
Helen. The Trojan War started because the Trojan Paris made off with
Helen.
Epēos: the Greek who built the wooden horse. Apart from this he is not
well-known.
262
dēmissum ... fūnem: separation of participle and noun; poetic word
order.
lāpsī: the perfect participle of deponent verbs sometimes has a present
meaning.
per: here = ‘down’.
263
prīmusque: as Machaon is not the first one named it is unlikely this
means that he was the first out of the horse. It probably means
‘chieftain’ or ‘preeminent’.
265-7 invādunt ... caeduntur ... accipiunt ... iungunt: the verbs are in
prominent positions at the beginning and ends of lines. The effect is to
emphasise the activity of the Greeks. Austin suggests that the passive
verb caeduntur reflects the inertia of the guards.
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265
somnō vīnōque sepultam: the ablatives without a preposition depend
on sepultam, ‘buried in’ or ‘buried under’. somnō vīnōque is a
hendiadys for ‘drunken sleep’.
266
portīsque patentibus: the ablative without a preposition denotes the
route by which something goes, ‘through the open gates’.
266-7 omnēs ... sociōs: separation of adjective and noun; poetic word order.
Grammatically omnēs could be nominative plural, referring to the subject
of the sentence, but the sense suggests it goes with sociōs, and the word
order is common in poetry.
267
agmina cōnscia iungunt: agmina cōnscia could be grammatically either
nominative or accusative plural. It is accusative here because iungō is a
transitive verb so requires an object; also it makes better sense in the
context. The men from the horse join the troops coming through the
gates: ‘they unite the conspiring forces’.
Discussion
Again, Virgil’s economical narrative style is noteworthy. He does not describe
in any detail the celebrations of the Trojans, but these can be inferred from the
picture of them sprawled out in an exhausted sleep (lines 252-3) and from line
265, somnō vīnōque sepultam. Instead, he moves the narrative on in time
and switches scene. The approach of the ships from Tenedos recalls the
snakes, e.g. the flames may echo the blood-red crest of the snakes.
Questions
Look back at the description of the approach of the serpents (lines 203-213). In
what ways could the approach of the Greek ships (lines 254-257) be said to
recall the serpents? What do you think is the effect of this echo?
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Glossary of literary terms and techniques
Please note: a knowledge of literary terms is not required for the examinations.
However, teachers, and some students, may find an awareness of the more common
terms useful in lessons when discussing the literature.
Alliteration
Repetition of the same letter or sound at the beginning of two or more words near to
each other or closely connected.
frāctī bellō fātīsque repulsī
(line 13)
The effect may be to link words together, to stress them or to imitate the sound.
See also lines: 26, 27, 28, 36, 44, 50, 55, 199-200, 206-8, 234, 240, 241-2
Apostrophe
An address to a dead or absent person or an inanimate object.
ō patria, ō dīvum domus Īlium et incluta bellō
moenia Dardanidum!
(lines 241-2)
The effect is often to heighten the emotion.
See also line: 56
Apposition
A noun or noun + adjective phrase which adds further information to another noun
adjacent or close to it; both nouns are in the same case.
īnstar montis equum
(line 15)
See also line: 59
Archaic form (archaism)
An obsolete form of a word or expression.
Danaum (for Danaōrum)
The effect may be to add solemnity or grandeur.
(line 14)
Assonance
Repetition of vowels or of similar sounds.
ergō omnis longō solvit sē Teucria lūctū
(line 26)
The effect may be emphasis or musicality or imitation of the sound.
See also lines: 47, 52-3, 206, 223, 234
Chiasmus (chiastic word order)
An arrangement of words in which the second phrase reverses the order of the first. In
its simplest form, there are two pairs of words (e.g. a noun and an adjective) arranged
in the order abba
a
b
b
a
frāctī bellō fātīsque repulsī
(line 13)
See also lines: 26, 28, 227, 234, 245
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Compound verb
A verb formed by combining words of more than one root, usually by adding a prefix
in the form of a proposition.
subiciunt
(line 236)
See also lines: 218-9, 240
Dactyl, dactylic line
A dactyl is a metrical foot composed of a long element followed by two short
elements: - u u . A dactylic line is one which has a predominance of dactyls.
- u u/ - u u/ - u u/- u u / - u u/ - sub pedibusque deae clipeīque sub orbe teguntur
(line 227)
An accumulation of dactyls has the effect of giving a light, quick sound to the verse.
See also lines: 16, 27-30, 240, 250
Elision
Metrical term to denote a vowel sound (or a vowel + m) at the end of a word being
assimilated to a vowel sound at the beginning of the following word.
- - /
- u u/ - /u u/ - u u / - hoc ips(um) ut strueret Trōiamq(ue) aperīret Achīvīs (line 60)
See also lines: 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 223-4, 231-2
End-stopped line
A line of verse which has a strong pause at the end. In contrast, the running over of
the sense from one line of verse to the next without a pause is enjambement.
See lines: 24-6, 39, 45-9
Enjambement
The running over of the sense from one line of verse to the next without a pause. In
contrast, a line of verse with a pause at the end is 'end-stopped'.
See lines: 43-4
Epic
A long poem narrating the deeds of heroes or the history of a nation. Vergil's Aeneid
is an epic poem, influenced by its Greek forerunners the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer.
See lines: 14, 197, 223-4, 261-4
Hendiadys
A single idea expressed as if it were two separate ideas.
somnō vīnōque sepultam
(line 265)
'buried in wine and sleep' for 'buried in drunken sleep'.
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Historic present tense
A present tense used to refer to actions that happen in the past. The historic present is
often used by Roman writers and is often best translated as a past tense in English.
The effect of using the historic present tense is to make events more vivid or
immediate.
See lines: 16 etc.
Hyperbole
Exaggeration.
īnstar montis equum
The effect is often to give emphasis.
(line 15)
Metaphor
One thing, idea or action is referred to by a word normally referring to another thing,
idea or action.
uterumque armātō mīlite complent
(line 20)
See also lines: 16, 41, 51-3, 238, 243, 258
Metonymy
A word or expression is replaced by one closely associated with it.
alta
(line 203)
'the depths' for 'the sea'.
Onomatopoeia
The use of words that seem to imitate the sound of the thing that is being described.
mūgītus, fūgit cum
(line 223)
Pathos
The quality in a piece of literature that produces pity or sadness in the reader.
See lines: 56, 238, 234-40, 241-9
Patronymic
A name derived from the name of a father or ancestor. In Greek the ending -ides
denotes 'son of' or 'descendant of'.
Dardanidae
(line 59)
descendants of Dardanus = the Trojans
See also lines: 197, 261-4
Periphrasis
A roundabout way of saying something by using several words rather than naming the
thing directly.
dēlēcta virum corpora
(line 18)
'chosen bodies of men' = 'chosen men'.
The effect is often to elevate the tone by avoiding common words and names.
Sometimes, the author displays his learning in an obscure periphrasis.
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Plural for singular
The use of a plural form to refer to a single thing; it is often used with parts of the
body.
terga
(line 57)
See also lines: 19-20, 22, 44, 202, 205, 247, 255
Prefix
An addition to the beginning of a word to adjust its meaning. Often the prefix is a
preposition.
incumbunt
(line 205)
Rhetoric
The art of speaking or writing persuasively. The Greeks and Romans regarded
rhetoric as a very important aspect of education and public life.
See lines 40-49 (Discussion)
Rhetorical question
A question that does not expect an answer.
ō miserī, quae tanta īnsānia, cīvēs?
crēditis āvectōs hostēs? aut ulla putātis
dōna carēre dolīs Danaum? sīc nōtus Ulixēs?
(lines 42-44)
The question is asked for persuasive effect, the speaker implying that the answer is
obvious.
Sibilance
A kind of assonance in which letters which have a hissing sound are repeated close
together.
sonitus spūmante salō
(line 209)
The effect is sometimes onomatopoeic.
See also lines: 207-211, 245
Simile
The comparison of one thing with another. Elaborate similes, often extended over
several lines, are a feature of epic (epic simile).
clāmōrēs simul horrendōs ad sīdera tollit:
quālis mūgītus, fūgit cum saucius āram
taurus et incertam excussit cervīce secūrim
(lines 222-4)
Singular for plural
The use of a singular form to refer to a plural thing.
capite et cervīcibus altīs
See also lines: 19, 55
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(line 219)
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Spondee, Spondaic line
A metrical foot composed of two long elements: - - . A spondaic line has a
predominance of spondees.
- / - - / - - / - - / - uu/ - erg(ō) omnis longō solvit sē Teucria lūctū
(line 26)
An accumulation of spondees has the effect of giving a heavy, slow sound to the
verse.
See also lines: 45-6, 58, 197, 202, 223, 237, 245, 251
Suffix
An addition at the end of a word to adjust its meaning.
Pēlīdēs
See also line: 59
(line 263)
Synecdoche
The use of part of a thing to represent the whole, or vice versa.
carīnīs
(lines 23 and 198)
'keels' for 'ships'.
See also line: 256
Theme and variation
The repetition of an idea in different words.
dēsertōsque ... locōs lītusque relictum
The effect is sometimes emphatic.
See also line: 19-20, 36, 51, 240
(line 28)
Tmesis
Splitting a compound word into its two components, separated by other words.
circum ... datī
(lines 218-9)
Transferred eptithet
An adjective (or other descriptive phrase) is transferred from the noun it goes with
logically to another noun in the sentence.
tacitae per amīca silentia lūnae
(line 255)
See also line: 51
Tricolon
A sentence or part of a sentence composed of three units; the unit may be a word,
phrase or clause. Often the units are successively longer: a tricolon crescendo.
ō patria, ō dīvum domus Īlium et incluta bellō
moenia Dardanidum!
(lines 241-2)
Zeugma (syllepsis)
One kind of zeugma is when a verb governs two objects, and has a different meaning
with each.
inclūsōs ... Danaōs et pīnea ...
laxat claustra
(lines 258-9)
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