IMPACT OF FLASHCARDS ON PRESCHOOL LEARNERS’ ACQUISITION
OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE PRE-READING SKILLS IN KAPKESOSIO ZONE,
BOMET COUNTY
CHELIMO MARGARET
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN
EARLY
CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
IN
THE
DEPARTMENT
EDUCATIONAL, COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY.
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
2014
1
OF
2
DECLARATION
This is my original work and has not been presented for any academic award in any
other institution.
Chelimo Margaret
E45/3352/2010
Signature…………………………
Date ………………………………
This research project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the
University Supervisor
Mrs. Kazungu
Signature ………………………
Date ………………………………
Department of Education Communication and Technology
University of Nairobi
3
Table
of contents
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... 3
List of tables ....................................................................................................................... 8
List of abbreviations and acronyms...................................................................................... 9
ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................................................10
CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................11
1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................11
1.2 Background of the study ...................................................................................................11
1.3 Statement of the study ......................................................................................................15
1.4 Purpose of the study..........................................................................................................17
1.5 Research objectives ..........................................................................................................17
1.6 Research questions ...........................................................................................................17
1.7 Significance of the study...................................................................................................18
1.8 Limitation of the study ......................................................................................................18
1.9 Delimitation of the study ..................................................................................................18
1.10 Basic assumptions of the study .......................................................................................19
1.11 Definition of key word ....................................................................................................19
1.12 Organization of the study ................................................................................................20
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................21
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................21
2.2 Teaching pre-reading skills ...............................................................................................21
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2.3 How flashcards are used to teach pre-reading activity skills and how they are displayed. 23
2.4 Types and attractiveness of flashcards and learners acquisition of pre-reading skills .......24
2.5 Teacher’s characteristics in preparation of flashcards and teaching of pre-reading skills .25
2.6 Theoretical framework. .....................................................................................................27
Psycholinguistic model of reading ......................................................................................27
Schema theory ....................................................................................................................27
conceptual framework………………………………………………………………………………………………...30
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................30
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................30
3.2 Research design ................................................................................................................30
3.3 Target population ..............................................................................................................30
3.4 Sampling procedures and sample size ...............................................................................30
3.5 Research instruments ........................................................................................................31
3.5.1 Questionnaire .................................................................................................................31
3.5.2 Observation....................................................................................................................32
3.5.3 Test administered to preschool children .........................................................................32
3.6 Validity and reliability of research instruments ................................................................33
3.6.1 Validity ......................................................................................................................33
3.6.2 Reliability ......................................................................................................................33
3.7 Procedure for data collection ............................................................................................33
3.8 Data analysis .....................................................................................................................34
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3.9 Ethical concerns ................................................................................................................34
CHAPTER 4 .........................................................................................................................35
4.1 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ....................................................................................35
4.2 Analyses of data from questionnaires ...................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.1 Gender of the respondents .............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 2. Distribution by gender of pre-school teacher ............................................................35
4.2.2 Age of the respondents ......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 3. Distribution by age bracket ...........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.3 Level of qualification of the respondents .......................................................................37
4.2.4 Distribution by years of teaching experience .....................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3Data analysies on impact of flashcards on preschool learners’ acquisition of pre-reading
skills .......................................................................................................................................39
4.3.1 Distribution by availability of flashcards .......................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3.3 Distribution types of flashcard in the preschool .............................................................39
4.4 Analyses of data on display of flashcards .........................................................................40
4.4.1 Reading corner ...............................................................................................................41
4.4.2 Shelves...........................................................................................................................41
4.4.3 Class walls .....................................................................................................................42
4.4.4 Ceiling board .................................................................................................................42
4.5 Analysis of data from the observation guideline ...............................................................43
4.5.1 Distribution by opportunity to interact with flashcards during pre-reading lesson .........43
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4.5.2Distribution by the time when the flashcards are used during a pre-reading lesson ........44
4.6 Analyses of data from the test administered to preschool learners ....................................45
CHAPTER 5 .........................................................................................................................46
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................46
5.2 Summary ..........................................................................................................................46
5.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................46
5.4 Recommendation ..............................................................................................................47
5.5 Suggestions for further research .......................................................................................47
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................48
APPENDICES.......................................................................................................................51
Appendix 1: ............................................................................................................................51
Observation guideline .............................................................................................................55
Test administered to the child .................................................................................................57
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List of tables
Table 1.1 Language skills and instructional material used
Table 4.1- distribution by gender of the respondents
Table 4.2 distribution by age of the respondents
Table 4.3 ears of teaching experience
Table 4.4- level of qualification of the respondents
Table 4.5 distribution by availability of flashcards
Table 4.6 types of flashcards in preschools
Table 4.7 lashcards displayed in the reading corner
Table 4.8 -types of cards displayed in the shelves
Table 4.9 types of flashcards displayed in the class walls
Table 4.10 ypes of flashcards displayed in the ceiling board
Table 4.11 istribution by opportunity to interact with the flashcards
Table 13- time when flashcards are used during a pre-reading lesson
Table 14- analyses of data from test administered to preschool learners.
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List of abbreviations and acronyms
ECE - Early childhood education
ECDE -Early childhood development education
KICD -Kenya institute of curriculum Development
MoEST -Ministry of education science and technology.
NACECE -National centre for early childhood education.
UWESO - Ugandan Women’s Effort to Save Orphans
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to establish the impact of flashcards on pre-school
learner’s acquisition of English pre-reading skills in Kapkesosio zone, Bomet County.
The objectives of the study were; to establish if types of flashcards influence acquisition
of pre-reading skills, to determine if frequency of using flashcards influence preschool
learners acquisition of pre-reading skills and to establish if display of flashcards
influence learners’ acquisition of pre-reading skills. The literature review outlines
importance of teaching pre-reading skills, types of flashcards and frequency of using the
flashcards, display of flashcards. It also outlined the theories that the study was
grounded to and the conceptual framework which shows the relationship of the variables
of the study. The target population comprised of 15 preschool teachers from 8
preschools; 7 public and one private preschool and preschool children. The researcher
used simple random sampling method to get the schools to participate in the study. The
sample which comprised of 15 preschool teachers and 106 preschool children enhanced
easy management of data as a representative of the whole zone and to draw conclusions
from the information gathered. A case study research design was used to conduct the
study. Eight pre-schools were sampled using simple random sampling techniques and
the researcher administered questionnaires to 15 teachers, the researcher observed a prereading lesson and filled in the observation schedule to them. The questionnaire
consisted of open and closed ended questions. The researcher also sampled preschool
children to participate in the test administered to them to use in calculating the school
average score. The data collected was analyzed using frequencies and percentages and
presented in bar graphs, pie charts and tabular form. The study found out that those preschool children who used different types of flashcards while learning pre-reading skills
had their acquisition of English pre-reading skills reinforced. It was concluded that
teachers who used different types of flashcards improved the learners acquisition of
English pre-reading skills .The study recommended further research on impact of
flashcards on development of preschool learners vocabulary and teacher creativity in
development of flashcards.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This part entails the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the
study, research objectives, research questions, significance of the study, limitation and
delimitation of the study, basic assumptions, and definition of the key terms and
organization of the study.
1.1 Background of the study
ECD involves development period between 3-6 years of age which is very important
stage in a child’s life. It lays a foundation for a child’s holistic and integrated education
that meets the cognitive, social, moral, spiritual, emotional, physical and developmental
needs. It also lays a foundation for further education and character formation. It provides
children with a fairer and better start in life. According to the Kenya Institute of
Curriculum Studies (KIE) 2009 Early Childhood Care, Development and Education
(ECCDE) seek to develop the whole child. Pre-school plays a central role in establishing
quality development of an individual (Mwaura, 2009). Early Childhood Education
involves developmental experiences of young children before the start of the
compulsory schooling. It encompasses all the dimensions of growth and development,
which include the mental, affective and psychomotor aspects (Myers, 1998).
Educationists such as John Jacques Rousseau, Frobel and Pestalozzi first advanced the
importance of providing education at an early age. Later psychologists and sociologists
such as Piaget,Brunner, Montessori and Bloom in their theories of human development
emphasized the fact that the first six years are critical. In their contributions, they
emphasized that it is during the first six years when the fastest physical and mental
11
developments occur. In addition, basic social values and skills are also developed within
this time frame. According to KIE Syllabus (2008), the objectives of Early Childhood
Development and Education Should:

Provide education geared towards development of the child’s mental capabilities
and physical growth;

Enable the child enjoy living and learning through play;

Develop the child’s self-awareness, self-esteem and self-confidence

Enable the child to develop understanding and appreciation of his/her culture
and environment;

Foster the child’s exploration skills, creativity, self-expression and discovery;

Identify children with special needs and align them with existing services;

Enable the child build good habits and acquire acceptable values and behaviors
for effective living as an individual and a member of a group;

Foster the spiritual and moral growth of the child;

improve the status of the child’s health, care and nutritional needs, and link
him/her with health services such as immunization, health check-ups and growth
and monitoring;

Enrich the child’s experiences to enable him/her to cope better with primary
school life;

Develop the child’s aesthetic and artistic skills.
According to Good (1990), reading is a pleasurable activity and meaningful activity. It
involves an intellectual response on the parts of the reader. To learn and develop pre-
12
reading skills, children use their senses, repetition, trial and error method, and
instructional materials like flashcards.
Guidelines for KICD NACECE (1999) have laid a lot of emphasis on use of materials in
teaching language activity skills in preschool. For every language skill the book has
indicated the materials to be used as shown below;
Table 1.
Skill
Oral
Reading
Writing
Instructional Material
Seeds, sticks, papers, flowers, clothes, etc.
Utensils, flashcards, picture stories, letters
of alphabet etc.
Leaves, papers, pencils, seeds, crayons etc
Language is a means of communication. Through language children express their ideas,
desires excitement, amusement and disappointment. . According to Whitebread (2003)
language enables the children to express themselves and satisfy their needs. Through
language they communicate their feelings to others as they interact with them. A lot of
learning occurs in the process of interacting with the environment
According to KICD (1990) preschool language activities play an important role in the
development of child’s vocabulary, listening skills and communication skills.
According to KIE Handbook for ECE syllabus (2008), Language is dependent on three
skills namely oral, reading and writing skills. Development of pre-reading skills involve
looking at and differentiating details in pictures and objects and moving eyes according
to the accepted reading style, for example from right to left. Whitebread (2003) prereading skills activities include proper use of books, use of instructional materials like
flashcards, picture reading and describing objects.
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The study carried by UWESO (2011) in Kenyan schools revealed that some standard
seven pupils in Kenya could not read class two reader. This is because of poor
development in pre reading skills in their early years. Studies have shown that teachers
have been depending on excessive use of words to express and convey ideas or facts in
teaching learning process. Today advances in technology have made it possible to
produce instructional materials that could be used to minimize the excessive talking at
the same time the message is made clearer, more interesting and easier for learners to
assimilate Mezeiobi (2006).
According to Mysers (1992) instructional materials are educational inputs which are
important to the teaching of activity areas. It makes discovered facts glued firmly to the
memory of children. Therefore using flashcards during teaching of pre-reading skills
motivate children to develop the skills.
Stater (1991) says that a well-planned and imaginative use of visual aids like flashcards
in lessons do much to banish boredom. It arouses the interest of children by giving
them something practical to do and to train them figure themselves.
Research has also shown conclusively that preschoolers and early primary school pupils
should be taught systematically, directly, and explicitly in phonics decoding, fluent
sight-word vocabulary, and comprehension skills. (Adam and Engelmann, 1996)
demonstrated that direct instruction with an emphasis on phonics and sight word
vocabulary skills improves reading performance. Studies by Foorman, (1998);
Torgesen, (1992; 1997), have shown that systematic and explicit phonics instruction
leads to increased reading achievement when compared to other methods, and that those
exposed to systematic and direct instruction achieve measurable gains over the course of
14
the school year. Instructional programs that include a solid, explicit, systematic strand of
conventional phonics have shown to improve children’s reading skills. Adams, (1990);
Aukerman, (1972, 1984); Bond and Dykstra, (1967).
KICD through National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE) introduced a
language policy in ECE, which recommended the use of the language of the catchment
area in ECE centers. Use of mother tongue is encouraged in homogeneous communities.
Introduction of English as a subject in Kapkesosio zone is done in pre-unit class.
English is the second language and Kipsigis the first language in Kapkesosio zone. A
second language is any language other than the learner's native language or mother
tongue.
According to Mitchell and Myles (2004), there are factors which affect second language
acquisition (English). These include intelligence. They argue that above average
children on formal intelligence or general academic attainment tend to do well in second
language learning in a formal classroom setting. Another factor is language learning
strategies by teachers and children at different levels. Language attitude by children and
teachers affect learning of a second language. Motivation is another factor. It involves
how teachers motivate children by using proper learning methods and identifying
materials that need to be used in teaching and learning and which could motivate
children in learning a second language (Mitchell and Myles, 2004).
1.2 Statement of the study
All the pupils and teachers in the Kapkesosio Zone schools speak Kipsigis as their first
language and English and Kiswahili as their second languages. English is not the
15
language you hear on the street in small towns and villages in rural in Kenya. It is rarely
used by the pupils outside of class time. Occasionally, even the teacher uses the mother
tongue to explain challenging concepts (Muthwii, 2004). Based on the KCPE English
performance from the year 2000, the performance in Kapkesosio zone has been below
average. This could be because of poor foundation in the early years. The study will
investigate the influence of flashcards on acquisition of English pre- reading skills
among pre-school children in Kapkesosio zone in Bomet County. Bitter, Oday and
Socias,(2009) argue that helping children to become independent readers is a central
goal of all educators. It has been noted as a possibility that children become poorly
motivated to read because of failure to acquire pre-reading skills Compton, Cordray and
Morgan (2009). Failure to achieve the skill is caused by not using the right instructional
resources, poor motivation and inefficient instructional methods.
Reading is one of the most important skills in language activities that preschool children
should develop; but majority of learners fail to achieve the skill and this affects the
learners negatively even n the higher levels of learning.
Development of pre-reading skill in early years is influenced much by the child’s
immediate environment which should be organized in such a way that it offers rich and
valid experience that support and stimulate the development. Many teachers do not use
the flashcards during teaching of pre-reading skills or when they use them they
concentrate only on one type of the flashcards and ignore the others. Most teachers also
do not prepare enough flashcards and are not creative, since they are not creative and
innovative they face challenges like boredom.
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1.3 Purpose of the study
The purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of flashcards on preschool
learners’ acquisition of pre-reading skills in English language in preschools in
Kapkesosio zone, Bomet County.
1.4 Research objectives
The objectives of the study were to:
i.
Establish if types of flashcards influence preschool learners’ acquisition of prereading skills in English language in Kapkesosio zone, Bomet County.
ii.
Determine if frequency of using flashcards influence preschool learners
acquisition of pre-reading skills in English language in Kapkesosio zone, Bomet
County.
iii.
Investigate if display of flashcards influence preschool learners acquisition of
pre-reading skills in English language in Kapkesosio zone, Bomet County.
1.5 Research questions
The following specific questions formed a guideline for this research;
i.
How do types of flashcards influence preschool learners’ acquisition of prereading skills in English language in Kapkesosio zone, Bomet County.?
ii.
How does frequency of using flashcards influence preschool learners’
acquisition of pre-reading skills n English language in Kapkesosio zone, Bomet
County.?
iii.
How does display of flashcards influence preschool learners’ acquisition of prereading skills n English language in Kapkesosio zone, Bomet County.?
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1.6 Significance of the study
The aim of the study was to come up with recommendation on influence of using
flashcards in teaching pre-reading skills in preschools. The fundamental concept is that
the study shaded light on; Importance of flash cards on acquisition of pre-reading skills
for the benefits of pre- school children.
The research findings of the study was used to sensitize the pre-school teachers on
activities the teachers might also be importance of using variety attractive and
appropriate flash cards during reading sensitized to be creative and develop flash cards
locally.
1.7 Limitation of the study
The researcher faced a lot of challenges during the study; there were other kind of
instructional materials that the teacher used during pre-reading lesson apart from the
flashcards but the researcher did not put them into consideration. The researcher did not
put into consideration the parents of the preschool children and what they do to help
their children learn to read. All these factors have a possibility of having an influence on
the of preschool children acquisition of pre-reading skill.
1.8 Delimitation of the study
The study was carried out at Kapkesosio zone in Bomet County and looked at 8
preschools in the area out of 21. The researcher targeted preschool teachers and preschool children of 7 public schools and 1 private preschool in Kapkesosio zone, Bomet
County. In order to assure manageability of the data collected, the researcher used only
questionnaires and observation methods.
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1.9 Basic assumptions of the study
The study assumed that; all preschools in Kapkesosio zone used flashcards to teach prereading skills, the pre-school children cooperated in answering the test which the
researcher had administer to them and that the teachers had have a positive attitude
towards the questionnaire. Respondents were honest and truthful in answering the
questions asked by the researcher.
1.10 Definition of key words
Child- person between 3-9 years in Early Children Development
Flashcard- is a card that has something written or drawn in it. It is an instructional
material.
Instructional materials-the teaching/learning materials
Language activity – English as taught in ECE
Performance – meeting required expectation in carrying out a task.
Pre-school- an educational established centre which caters for needs of children before
they are admitted to primary school.
Pre-Reading activity skills- reading readiness skills that a learner acquires before
he/she knows how to read. They are the skills children need in order to help them to
become a reader.
Zone- educational administrative area which is under the zonal quality assurance
officer.
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1.11 Organization of the study
This study was organized into five chapters; chapter one gives the introduction which
entails background to the study, the statement of the problem and the objectives of the
study as well as the research questions. It also states the significance of the study,
assumptions, limitations and delimitations of the study. It also stated the definition of
the key terms used in the study and organization of the study. Chapter two gives the
literature review which consists of introduction, importance of flashcards, on reading
skills, teacher competence on use of the flashcards, types of flashcards used, and
flashcards. It also states the theoretical framework and conceptual framework. Chapter
three gives the research methodology which entails the description of the study area,
methods used in data collection, sample size and sampling procedures; study design,
method used in data collection and instruments. It also gives validity and reliability of
instruments and data analysis while chapter four presents data analysis, presentation and
interpretation. Chapter five of the study gives the summary of the study findings,
conclusions and recommendation.
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This reviewed literature on influence of flashcards on teaching of pre-reading skills. The
review examined literature related to: dependent variable teaching of pre-reading skills
and the independent variables; types, attractiveness, display of the flashcards, frequency
of using the flashcards and teacher competence on preparation of flashcard materials.
The reviewed also examined relevant theory to the study and conceptual framework.
2.2 Teaching pre-reading skills
Reading is an important gateway to personal development, and to social, economic and
Civic life (Holden, 2004).Inadequate teacher education (Start Early Finish Strong, 1999)
is a major factor of poor preparation to teach reading. Novice teachers receive little
formal education in reading instruction before entering the classroom Good (1990).
According to research by scholars, there are six pre-reading skills that children must
learn in order to learn to read. These are: - Narrative skills which being able to describe
things and events and tell stories. Vocabulary, which is knowing the names of things.
Print awareness is knowing how to handle a book and knowing how to follow the words
on a page. Letter knowledge is knowing that letters are different from each other,
knowing their names and sounds and recognizing letters everywhere. Phonological
awareness is being able to hear and play with the smaller sounds in words. Print
Motivation this is being interested in and enjoying books.
According to ECDE syllabus [2008] by KICD reading skills involve training children to
observe and interpret details in pictures, objects and symbols, it also entails
classification of objects by colour kind shape size and texture .Reading developments
21
varies considerably therefore the teacher should attend to children individually in order
to cater for their interest and abilities. Children begin to develop reading skills by
recognizing familiar words for example a child learns all words that he or she can see
like stop sign before he/she learns individual letters for reading activity skills children
can do the following activities, identifying colors, reading shapes, letters of alphabet,
group, sort and match object, have left to right eye orientation eye, read picture details
and recite vowels. According to San Fransisco School Language(1988) include areas of
reading, writing speech and drama reading is practices to reinforce the many skills
necessary to become fluent and
active reader and to strengthen phonic skills and
expanding sight word vocabulary of both phonetic and non-phonetic words to increase
fluency reading involves comprehending written texts. According to Anderson (2012)
children should be immersed in language rich environment in order to develop reading
awareness it would be difficult to master the ABC without lots of exposure he also say
when children develop reading skills early they improve their later literacy, children
who fall behind in reading activity skills development in pre-school are less to be
successful readers and their reading fluency is likely to persist throughout the primary
school and even beyond. Teachers have a role in supporting children to develop reading
skills they need to apply their knowledge and skills in teaching/learning process and
develop beautiful flashcards which arouses and motivate children. According to Maier
(1976) Pre-school curriculum is designed to develop the children’s ability to both form
and express their own ideas through reading, discussion and writing. The activities
range from whole class instruction to one-on-one teaching and support. Reading is
practiced to reinforce the many skills necessary to become fluent, active reader.
Strengthening decoding/ phonic skills and expanding sight word vocabulary of both
22
phonetic and non-phonetic words to increase fluency. Reading involves comprehending
written texts. What children bring to a text influences the understandings they take away
and the use they make of what is read. Learning to read and write is ongoing process
from infancy. English is an alphabetic language, which means that the letters we use to
write represent the sounds of the language of the alphabet that we speak knowledge of
the alphabet letters and the phonological awareness (the ability to distinguish the sounds
within words) from the basis of early decoding and spelling ability, and are corrected
with later reading and spelling achievement. Young children can learn to name letters
and to distinguish them from each other. They can also begin to develop an awareness
of the constituent sounds within words such as syllables, rhymes and phonemes. (Maier,
1976)
2.3 How flashcards are used to teach pre-reading activity skills and how
they are displayed.
Rawlin (1976) indicates that reading is more than seeing words clearly and more than
pronouncing printed words. He indicated that the importance of reading competence is
acknowledge together with the need for the counting extension of pre- reading skills
throughout the early years.
According to Glenn.D. (2008) reading is one of the most importance skills a teacher can
give to a child. Many children who only know the alphabet letters when beginning
school struggle with reading, therefore both sound and alphabet flashcards should be
used.
Flashcards are used to teach new vocabulary and concepts according to Gunning (2013)
a teacher should introduce a concept for example myself then lets the children discus
23
about it then later show the children pictures of parts of the body with their names to
read. As children are learning about concept of words they are building upon the
foundations in the developmental progression of reading (Mbae, 2005).
According to Glenn (2008) flashcards are used to help learners distinguish letters since
many letters look similar for children, letter flashcards are used to distinguish between
similarly shaped letters for example C/ O, P/R , L/J. Flashcards are used to help children
identify sounds in words as well as matching that sound to the corresponding letter
.Flashcards are also used to help children identify simple words like three letter words
CAT, DOG. They are also used to help children recognize two-letter diagraphs that
according to NACECE guidelines in Kenya (2003) states that material should be
displayed in a manner that the child will be interested in them and have an access to
them easily.
Physical arrangement of materials in class, promotes self-direction and increases the joy
of reading. Children are likely to become more self-directed if they make decisions
about reading material to use. Make single sound without sounding the letters out.
2.4 Types of flashcards and learners acquisition of pre-reading skills
ECDE Handbook by KICD (2008) categorizes instructional materials into different
types; visual, tangible and audio. According to Androga A.(1998) different instructional
materials should be used to teach pre-reading skills. Preschool children must see, touch,
and feel the teaching materials. The use of different types of flashcards has a lot of
significance in teaching of pre-reading skills. There different types of flashcards that
should be used to teach pre-reading skills; sound, color, shape, picture, diagraph and
24
simple word flashcards. Using different type’s o flashcards minimizes boredom and
motivates children; it also increases the concentration of the learner towards learning.
According to a Symposium Report of 28th May -22nd June (1990) held at Mombasa
beach hotel, instructional materials should be attractive to arouse the interest of the
learners to use it. Therefore preschool teachers should prepare attractive flashcards of
different colors and of different designs. Preschool children appreciate beautiful
classrooms and the beauty lies in the instructional materials and how they are displayed.
Flashcards should be attractive and inviting. Young children’s curiosity is usually
aroused when they come into contact with colorful flashcards. The use of primary
colors; red, yellow, and blue was highly recommended during the conference, though
tertiary colors such as green, violet and orange are also attractive to the children and can
be accommodated. Therefore teachers should use different attractive colors to develop
the flashcards and should be variety in texture, shape, and design to promote ease of
manipulation. Attractive flashcards ensure that children’s attention is sustained.
2.5 Teacher’s characteristics in preparation of flashcards and teaching of
pre-reading skills
The professional role of a teacher is a demanding one; it starts from classroom teaching,
instructional materials preparation and evaluation.
According to Collier (1995), a study carried out in Kenyan schools indicated that
academic qualification of teachers is one of the most important factors that determine
achievement of learners. Therefore teachers in preschools are supposed to undergo
training available in Kenya. There are ECDE colleges training at different levels;
certificate, diploma degree and masters.
25
According to Harbet and Frankel (1999) if teachers have insufficient subject knowledge
or an inadequate level of training, the quality of output will be low. According to Maier,
(1976) the academic and professional qualifications of teachers are crucial factors
influencing teaching/learning process and performance. Inadequate teacher education
(Start Early Finish Strong, 1999) is a major factor of poor preparation to teach reading.
Teachers receive little formal education in reading instruction before entering the
classroom; most have taken only one course in the subject as undergraduates (Good,
1990). Teachers in teacher education programs report that professors do not demonstrate
the most effective instructional reading techniques, and that they rarely get supervised
practice time to develop as effective reading teachers (Lyons, 1989). The need for better
training, preparation, and use of reading strategies by preschool teachers is important.
According to Maier, (1976) the academic and professional qualifications of teachers are
crucial factor in influencing performance. The difference in teaching affects the
performance and those schools with best qualified teachers tended to be the most
successful in examinations. Spokek, (1989) adds that language does merely involve the
learning of facts but learning communication skills and use of language that improve
performance. These are oral, reading and writing.
According to Anderson (2002) Children should be immersed in language rich
environments in order to develop phonological awareness and similarity, it would be
difficult to master the ABCs without lots of exposure to the alphabet.(In books on
blocks among others).Knowledge of the ABCs and phonological awareness do not
usually just happen from exposure for most children, however. Parents, teachers, and
older siblings often intentionally teach children the alphabet, and studies have shown
that it is possible to teach phonological, awareness to preschoolers and kindergarten
26
children in ways that they do not rich curriculum focus but do improve later literacy.
Teaching to apply their knowledge and skills in meaningful situations has a significantly
greater effect on their ability to learn to read
2.6 Theoretical framework.
The study was based on psycholinguistic model of reading and schematic theory.
Psycholinguistic model of reading
According to Nunan, Dubin and Bycina, (1991), "psycholinguistic model of reading
began to assert that contrary to this view of reading as a sequence of skills which one
could teach, reading is in actuality a process of predicting meaning based on the reader's
knowledge of oral language syntax, semantics, and phonological cues. In other words,
based on the reader's store of information about how language works from his
knowledge of oral language, a reader already knows something about how words are
ordered and what kinds of meaning words possess in certain contexts. In this view,
while the reader is processing features, letters, spelling pat terns, etc., at the same time
he or she is also attending to general context, syntax, and the semantic and syntactic
environment in which the words occur and from which an interpretation of meaning is
made.
Schema theory
It is a more recent theory of reading comprehension it also called “schema perspective
by psychologist R. C. Anderson(1973). The goal of schema theory is to describe
interaction between what is in the text and how that information is shaped and stored by
the reader. (Adams and Collins, 1977). The underlying assumption is that meaning does
not lie solely in the print itself, but interacts with the cognitive Structure or schemata
27
already present in the reader's mind. Thus the reader has present in cognitive structure
schemata which constitute a cognitive filter through which one views the world and
from which one predicts or makes inferences about what is read. Schemata, according to
Rummelhart and Ortony(1977) represent generic concepts which are stored in memory.
The way in which a particular concept is stored is not by remembering that isolated
event in its totality down to its most basic components, but by identifying those aspects
of the event related to other concepts already stored. We make connections between the
information in the text and what we already know. A particular schema would be
analogous to a play with its integral structure corresponding to the script of the play
(Rummelhart and Ortony (1997).We can see that schema theory has placed new
emphasis on various parts of the teaching process, particularly the importance of
utilizing preexisting knowledge and experience of the reader, setting purposes for
reading, and asking appropriate questions before and after reading.
28
2.7 Conceptual framework
Dependent variables cannot take place without being manipulated by the independent
variables;
figure 1

Children participation in pre-reading activities

Preparation of pre-reading activity lessons, and instructional materials


Provision of instructional materials
Teaching strategies
Acquisition of English pre-reading skills

Types of flashcards

Frequency of using flashcards

Display areas
The diagram above shows the relationships that exist between variables for this study.
The diagram shows that the learning resources available(flashcards), the
teaching/instructional strategies, interaction between the flashcards and learners during
pre-reading lesson all contribute towards reading performance for the preschooler.
29
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter outlined the methodology which was used in this study. The areas under
consideration included; research design, research instruments, instruments validity and
reliability, procedure for data collection, data analysis techniques and ethical concerns.
3.2 Research design
Ogula (1995) defines research design as a frame work of planning and conducting a
study. The study was carried out using case study research design.
3.3 Target population
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) population is an entire group of
individuals, events or objects having common characteristics; it is the sum of the total of
all that conforms to a given specification.
The population for this study comprised of preschool children and teachers in
KapkesosioZone. The population of the study was public pre-schools of 5-7 years and
public pre-school teachers of Kapkesosio zone.
According to Kapkesosio zonal education office 2014, Kapkesosio zone has 21 preschools with 37 pre-school teachers and 450 preschool children. 19 of the schools are
private while 3 are private.
3.4 Sampling procedures and sample size
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) sample size depends on factors, such as
number of variables. The schools were selected using simple random sampling
technique. This is a sampling method that allows the researcher to get a representative
30
sample. All the selected schools participated in giving information. The researcher
sampled eight preschools in the zone, seven public and one private preschool. All the
preschool teachers in the selected preschools took part in giving the information. The
preschool children were randomly selected from the selected schools and the test was
administered to them.
3.5 Research instruments
The researchers used questionnaires and observation to collect data in the study.
Sampled questionnaires and observation were prepared by the researcher and based on
objectives which the researcher sought to achieve. The questionnaires were administered
by the researcher within the time frame. The questionnaire was structured to have both
open and closed ended questions.
3.5.1 Questionnaire
According to Kombo and Tromp, (2006), a questionnaire is a research instrument that
gathers data over a large sample. It can reach a large number of subjects who are able to
read and write independently. A questionnaire enhances anonymity of respondents and
uniformity of questions, thus, allowing comparability. The use of closed ended
questionnaires was easier to analyze, administer, and economic in terms of time and
money Mugenda and Mugenda, (1999). The questionnaires were administered to the
preschool teachers. The researcher intended to collect information about the
qualification of the teacher, if the teacher uses flashcards during teaching of pre-reading
skills, challenges the teacher faces when using flashcards and how they know if the
learner has acquired the pre-reading skills.
31
3.5.2 Observation
The observation method involved human or mechanical observation of what people
actually do or what events take place during a buying or consumption situation.
“Information is collected by observing process at work.” Kombo and Tromp, (2006)
Observational techniques are an important aspect of many survey research studies and
of case studies whether undertaken by participants or outsiders. Observation of human
behavior provides an opportunity to come to conclusions based on our observation, to
generate explanations and understandings and even to come up with predictions
If the researcher observes and record events, it is not necessary to rely on the
willingness and ability of respondents to report accurately (Mugenda and Mugenda,
1999). The biasing effect of interviewers is either eliminated or reduced.
Data collected by observation are, thus, more objective and generally more accurate.
The most limiting factor in the use of observation method is the inability to observe
such things such as attitudes and motivations. It also takes time for the investigator to
wait for a particular action to take place. The researcher observed a teacher teaching
using flashcards during a pre-reading lesson. So that the researcher knew the time the
teacher used the flashcards; when introducing the lesson, middle of the lesson or when
concluding the lesson, the researcher noted if the learners were given an opportunity to
interact with the materials and at what time.
A sample questionnaire is attached as appendix 1, and observation as appendix 2.
3.5.3 Test administered to preschool children
A test was administered to 106 preschool learners who were randomly for the researcher
to know the reading skills children had acquired through use of flashcards. The test
32
consisted of reading pictures, shapes, sounds, diagraphs and letters as shown in
appendix 3.
3.6 Validity and reliability of research instruments
3.6.1 Validity
Validity is establishing whether the instrument is measuring what is supposed to
measure (Orodho 2006, Mugenda 1999). After preparation, the instruments were
subjected to the supervisor to establish the instruments content validity. After which the
instruments were piloted to check how the respondents reacted to the issues in the
instrument.
3.6.2 Reliability
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) reliability is the degree of consistency that
the instrument demonstrates. To test for reliability of the items in questionnaire, the
researcher used the test-retest technique. That is whereby the researcher developed the
instruments; the instruments were then administered to some participants. After period
of about two weeks the same instruments were administered to the same participants.
Results from the administration were compared with the results of the second
administration. The results had a tendency of agreement; the instrument was taken to be
reliable.
3.7 Procedure for data collection
The data was collected by a questionnaire whereby the researchers visited the selected
schools and administered the questionnaires to teachers and test to the children. The
researcher collected the completed questionnaire at agreed time. The researcher carried
out the observation at the point of action that is during a pre-reading lesson. The
33
researcher also gave a test to the children to assess whether they had acquired the skill.
The researchers chose learners randomly and administer the test to them.
3.8 Data analysis
Data analysis is the process of bringing orderly structure and meaning to the mass of
Information collected. It involves examining what has been collected and making
deductions and inferences Kombo and Tromp, (2006); Mugenda and Mugenda, (1999).
The study was be treated to both quantitative and qualitative approach. The qualitative
data from the open ended questions was handled to enable quantitative analysis. The
quantitative data was analyzed using statistics computed to percentages and presented in
tables and graphs and pie charts.
3.9 Ethical concerns
The response from the respondents was treated with a lot of confidentiality by
withholding the names of the respondents and grouping the data.
34
CHAPTER 4
4.1 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
This chapter discusses the findings of the study. Data obtained using the tools were
verified and tallied. The study was done with the view of establishing impact of
flashcards on preschool learner’s acquisition of English pre-reading skills. The obtained
information from the respondents was analyzed as presented below.
4.2 information about the teachers
Table 4.1 teachers personal information
Scl
Male
A
B
Cate
gory
P
P
Teaching
experience
16-above
-
female
1
0
Age
bracket
36-45
-
C
P
0
-
-
2
D
P
0
-
-
2
E
F
P
P
1
0
36-45
-
11-15
-
1
2
G
H
P
Pr.
0
0
-
-
1
2
F
%
2
13.3
1
2
13
86.7
35
Age
bracket
26-35
2635/25&be
ow
25below/3645
36-45/46above
25-below
36-45/46above
26-35
26-35/3645
Teaching
experience
6-10 yrs
16above/5below yrs
6-10/1115 yrs
11-15/1115 yrs
6-10 yrs
16above/16above yrs
16-above
16above/16above
Data in table 4.1 indicates that 13(86.7%) of the teachers at Kapkesosio zone are female
whereas 2(13.3%) are male. The results of this analysis indicate that preschools in
Kapkesosio zone have employed more female teachers who are entrusted with the
preschool learners. Majority of teachers 6(40%) are the age bracket 36-40, whereas
4(26.7%) fall under age bracket 26-35, 25&below were 3(20%) and 46 & above were
2(13.3%). The data above shows that most teachers in Kapkesosio zone (46.6%) have
16 above years of experience, whereas those with 11-15 yrs fall under 26.7%. The
teachers with the least years of experience are 6.7%.
36
4.2.1 Level of qualification of the respondents
Table 4.2 teacher’s level of qualification
Scl
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
F
%
Level of qualification
category Certificate Diploma
Public
1
1
P
2
0
P
1
1
P
2
0
P
2
0
P
1
1
P
1
0
Private
1
1
11
4
73.3
26.7
Degree
-
Masters
-
The data above shows that most teachers73.3% are qualified to certificate level whereas
26.7% have diplomas. No teacher in the zone has a degree. This means there is need for
the zone administration to encourage teachers to further their studies.
Analyses of data from the test administered to preschool learners
Table 4.3 results of preschoolers who performed in the test
School Category Number Number
of pupils of pupils
sampled able to do
the test
A
Public
14
10
B
P
13
2
C
P
13
D
P
13
E
P
12
1
F
P
14
12
G
P
13
H
Private
14
13
Number
of pupils
who can
attempt
2
10
12
12
4
2
5
1
37
Number of Average
pupils not score per
able
scl %
2
1
1
1
7
8
-
61
44
45
42
45
53
48
79
The researcher discovered that most preschool learners were not able do the test. In
school A, 10 pupils were able to do the test out of 14. In school B 2 pupils were able to
do the test, 10 attempted and 1 was not able. In school C no pupil was able to do the
test, 12 attempted and 1 was not able at all. In school D and E no pupil was able to do
the test. In school F 12 pupils were able to do the test and 2 attempted the test. In school
G no pupil was able to do the test, 4 attempted while 8 were not able. In school H 13
pupils were able to do the test while 1 attempted.
38
4.3 analyses of data on types of flashcards
Table 4.4 types of flashcards and average score per school in pre-reading skill test
school
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Category Types of flashcards
C
S
L
Public


P

x
P
x
x
P

x
P

x
P


P
x
x
Private


W
















Average
score per scl
P

61
x
44
x
45
x
42
x
45

53
x
48

79
Key
C-colour
L-letter
S-shape
W-word
P-picture
The researcher discovered school H preschool which is private and A a public preschool
had all types of flashcards. The data shows that the most common types of flashcards
are word and letter because all schools had letter and word flashcards very few public
preschools do have picture and shape flashcards. The data shows that the schools which
had all types of flashcards performed very well in test and had a higher average score.
School A and F which had all types of performed above average while the schools with
less types performed below average. This implies that usage of flashcards during
teaching pre-reading skills reinforce the acquisition of pre-reading skills.
39
4.4 analysis of data on frequency of using flashcards
Table 4.5 frequency of using flashcards and average score per school
school
A
B
C
Category Frequency of using flashcards
always
Sometimes
Public

P

P

D
E
F
G
P
P
P
P


H
Private



Average
score per scl
61
44
45
42
45
53
48
79
Table 4.6 shows that school A, E, F and H used flashcards always during pre-reading lessons.
Schools A, F and H were able to perform above average as shown by the school average score.
The score was 61, 53 and 79% respectively. This implies that using flashcards always during
pre-reading lessons reinforce learners’ acquisition of pre-reading skills. School B, C, D and G
used the flashcards sometimes during pre-reading lessons and as shown by data above, their
average score is below average; 44, 45, 42and 48% respectively which imply that the learners
performed the test administered below average since they have not acquired the pre-reading
skills.
40
4.5 analysis of data on display areas
4.5.1 Reading corner
Table 4.6flashcards displayed in the reading corner
School
Category
Flashcard
Average score per
displayed
scl %
A
Public
L, C, S, P, W
61
B
P
C, W, S
44
C
P
L, W
45
D
P
W
42
E
P
L
45
F
P
L, W
53
G
P
L
48
H
Private
W, L,S,
79
The data above indicates that different schools displayed different types of flashcards in
the reading corner; mostly word and letter flashcards are displayed to enable children
learn by themselves when the teachers are not around. The schools that had different
types of flashcards displayed on the reading corner performed well; school H performed
very well since the class was well equipped with flashcards.
4.4.2 Shelves
Table 4.7 flashcards displayed in the shelves
School
Category
Flashcard displayed
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Public
P
P
P
P
P
P
Private
_
_
_
Colour,
_
Colour
Letter,
_
41
Average score per
scl %
61
44
45
42
45
53
48
79
The researcher learnt that most schools do not have shelves where they can display
the cards from. Apart from D, F and G the rest did not have shelves.
4.4.3 Flashcards displayed on Class walls
Table 4.7 flashcards displayed on the class walls
School
category
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Public
P
P
P
P
P
P
Private
Flashcard displayed
P, L W, L
P
P
P
P
S, P, W
P
W, L, S, P,
Average score per scl
%
61
44
45
42
45
53
48
79
From the data above it indicates that, schools B, C, D and E display picture flashcards
on the class walls. H display word, letter, word and shape flashcards on the class walls
whereas A displayed picture, letter, word and shape flashcards on the walls. Data
showed that schools that displayed many flashcards performed very well in the test
administered to their learners.
42
4.6 Analysis of data from the observation guideline
4.6.1 Distribution by opportunity to interact with flashcards during prereading lesson
Table 4.8 children interaction with flashcards during pre-reading lesson
School Category Teacher
guides
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Public
P
P
P
P
P
P
Private
Teacher
control
Work
freely








Not all
Average
score
per scl
%
61
44
45
42
45
53
48
79
The researcher observed that in all the public school, the teacher controls the use of
flashcards and children do not access the flashcards during a pre-reading lesson. At H
preschool the teacher guides the children during a pre-reading lesson and allows the
learners to use the cards freely. In schools where learners worked freely as teacher
guides, the average score is high.
43
4.6.2Distribution by the time when the flashcards are used during a prereading lesson
Table 4.9 time when flashcards are used during pre-reading lesson
School Category
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Public
P
P
P
P
P
P
Private
When
Middle
of At the end Average
introducing a the lesson
of the lesson score per scl
lesson
%










61
44
45
42
45
53
48
79
The researcher observed that most teachers use flashcards to introduce a pre-reading
lesson. In schools A, the teacher used the cards throughout the lesson. Schools D, G &E
used the flashcards in the middle and at the end of the lesson. Using flashcards
throughout the lesson reinforce learners’ acquisition of pre-reading skills.
44
45
CHAPTER 5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the findings of the study and presents the summary, conclusion,
recommendation and suggestion for further research.
5.2 Summary of the findings.
The study findings show that flashcards are effective in reinforcing acquisition of prereading skills development that is pronunciation, letter recognition, vocabulary
acquisition and picture reading. The schools that had the flashcards and used them
during pre-reading lessons had more children attempting the test administered to them.
This shows that using flashcards reinforce acquisition of pre-reading skills. The study
established that most schools have flashcards but do not use them. The study also
established that the schools that used the cards performed well in pre-reading skills.
Apart from teaching English language flashcards can be used to teach subjects like
mathematics and science. Flashcards promote acquisition of pre-reading skill. Literature
was reviewed on importance of teaching pre-reading skills, types of flashcards used,
frequency of using flashcards, display of flashcards and attractiveness of the flashcards.
The study was based on psycholinguistic theory and schema theory. The study applied
survey design
5.3 Conclusion
Based on the findings it is evident that majority of the preschool teachers do not use
flashcards during pre-reading lessons. The commonly used type is the letter flashcards
and word flashcards. The use of learning resources in the teaching of reading to
preschoolers is a vital
46
component in enhancing capability and understanding in a reading lesson. As revealed
by the data, the lessons in which flashcards were provided, the learners showed not
Only interest but increased performance in their reading ability.
5.4 Recommendation
Based on study findings the study makes the following recommendation
Kapkesosio zone administration should focus on provision of materials for making
flashcards like manila papers for use in pre-reading lessons. Also there is need for the
school administration to encourage teachers to use all types of flashcards to enhance
acquisition of pre-reading skills. Teachers should also be encouraged to further their
studies to enhance their teaching skills and therefore enhance performance.
Teachers should use other types of flashcards like colour, picture and shape flashcards
to reinforce acquisition of pre-reading skills. Preschool teachers should make prereading lessons child-centred rather than teacher centred. This will result in more
interaction between children and flashcards thus reinforcing acquisition of pre-reading
skills
5.5 Suggestions for further research
The study suggests that:
A study to be carried out on influence of flashcards on the development of the preschool
learners’ vocabulary.
A study to be done on teacher creativity in development of flashcards.
47
REFERENCES
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Herbert, L & Frankel, J. (1999) A Practical guide to activities for young children.
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50
APPENDICES
Appendix 1:
A questionnaire for the pre-school teachers.
Dear respondent,
Kindly answer the following questions by ticking the box corresponding to the most
suitable response. Give a brief explanation where necessary. The information will be
treated with a lot of confidentiality.
1. What is the name of your school……………………private( ) or public( )
2.
How many preschool teachers do you have in your preschool? …….
3.
What is your gender?
Male ( )
female ( )
4. What is your age bracket?
25 and below ( ) 26-35 ( ) 36-45 ( )
46 and above ( )
5. Professional qualification: untrained
Certificate
Diploma
Degree
Masters
51
Any
other
specify……………………………………………………
6. What is teaching experience in years?
5 years &below ( ) 6-10 years ( )
11-15 years( )
16 and above ( )
SECTION B: Impact of flashcards on preschool learners’ acquisition of prereading skill
1. Do you use flashcards when teaching pre-reading skills?
Yes
No
2. If yes what types do you use? ......................
……………………., ……………………..………………
3. The following table shows the types of flashcards, please tick if they are available in
your preschool or not and state how they help children to acquire pre-reading skills.
Table 4.0
Type of flashcard
Do you have them in
If yes how do they help
Your preschool
learners’ to acquire prereading skills?
YES
NO
Colour flashcard
Shape flashcard
52
Letter flashcard
Word flashcard
Picture flashcard
4. Do you display your flashcards?
………………………………….
5. If ‘yes’ Why do you display them?
……………………………………………………….
6. The following table shows display areas indicate the type of flashcard you display
there and give reasons.
Table 5.0
Display area
Type of flashcard
Reading corner
Shelves
Ceiling board
Class walls
7. Do you display the flash cards after a reading lesson?
Yes
No
53
If yes why……………………………………………
8. How often do you use flash card when teaching reading skills?
Always
some times
Give reasons ……………………………………………………
9. Do you provide flash cards to your to class when teaching pre-reading skills?
Yes
No
Give reasons ……………………………………………….
10. How would you compare flash cards in reading skills with other materials that you
use?
Excellent
Good
Fair
Give reasons ……………………………………………………
11. What are some of the challenges you experience when using flash cards in reading
skills?
……………………………………………………………………...............................
12. Give any general comment on usage of flash cards in teaching pre-reading skills and
how it help learners to acquire pre-reading skills.
……………………………………………………………………
THANK YOU
54
Appendix 2:
Observation guideline
1. Name of the school
………………………..
2. Types of flashcards available in class.
Table 6.0
Type
Available
Not Available
Color flashcard
Shape flashcards
Letter flashcards
Simple
word
flashcards
3. Are there storage facilities in the class
Yes
No
4. Are the flashcards displayed in the walls?
Yes
No
5. Are children given an opportunity to interact with the flashcards?
Teacher guides
work freely
55
Child recognition
Teacher control
not all
6. What times are the flashcards used?
When introducing lesson
In the middle of the lesson
At the end of the lesson
56
Appendix 3
Test administered to the child
1. Reading sounds
a, b, c, d, m, o, p
2. Reading of diagraphs
oo, ee
3. Reading shapes
4. Reading letters
M, N, A, R, U, V
5. Reading simple words
Book, boy, pen
6. Reading colour
57