Name ________________________
Belief Systems Readings
Animism – Traditional Societies (Africa, Asia, Australia, Americas)
Background: Animism is the oldest known type of belief system in the world.
Animism is not an organized, definable religion. Instead, it has developed
simultaneously in different parts of the world and is the label given to hundreds of
religions. It was developed during the earliest periods of human history and is practiced
in traditional societies of Africa, Asia Australia and the Americas. There is no one person
who is considered the founder of Animism.
Beliefs: Animists are polytheistic and generally share a belief in a supreme being that
regulates nature, but they also believe in thousands of lesser spirits found in all natural
things. Animists require people to love the positive forces of nature while fearing and
respecting the negative forces. Animists also believed that ancestors watch over the
living from the spirit world. This belief resulted in ancestor worship as a means of
communicating with and showing respect to their ancestors.
Practices: The religious leaders of the tribes communicate with the spirits in trees,
rocks, water, and even storms, pleading with them to meet the needs of the tribes, and
listening to them for messages to give their followers. This is exemplified by the practice
of ceremonies. Ceremonies are rituals or celebrations that are usually held to honor the
gods. Animist societies have an oral tradition of story-telling, rather than a developed
writing system. A Griot is a professional storyteller in a traditional African Animist
society.
Cultural and Historical Impact: The idea of the importance of nature has long made
Animists more resistant to materialism and industrialization. The predominate role of
nature in Animist religions has also affected the arts, rituals, and even the economic
development of these traditional societies.
Shintoism – Japan
Background: Shintoism developed over 2,000 years ago in Japan, and while the number
of followers is on the decline, it had an enormous impact on the development of Japanese
culture.
Beliefs: Central to Shintoism is the focus on the kami, a very vague term that refers to
anything that has the power to support life, including gods, ancestors, and natural things
such as weather patterns. Shintoism teaches that the gods created the Japanese islands as
a source of all other nations and as above all other nations.
Practices: Shintoism also encourages obedience and proper behavior, which has greatly
affected the cultural political development of Japan. The goal is to become a part of
nature through the right rituals and customs. These rituals include leaving shrines
dedicated to honoring the kami or ancestors. In this way, Shintoism is more of a custom
than a religion or a philosophy.
Cultural and Historical Impact: The Emperor and his family were considered direct
descendants of gods, and therefore divine. Many Shinto followers were willing to die for
the Emperor if he so required, which he did during World War II. After WWII,
however, the Emperor was required by the Allies to appear in public and deny his
divinity. Since then, Shintoism has lost many of its followers.
Hinduism – India
Background: Hinduism is a religion that was founded in India. It has no one founder
but rather has been formed through the traditions of the Aryans, a nomadic group from
central Asia and the customs of the early Indus River and Ganges River Valleys. Hindu
beliefs and practices have been passed down from generation to generation for the last
5,000 years through customs and traditions. Hindu religious texts include the Vedas and
Upanishads which are a collection of Hindu writings that contain prayers and verses
about creation and life as well as providing guidelines for proper ways of behavior.
Beliefs and Practices: Hinduism is generally considered a polytheistic religion.
Brahma is the Supreme Being in the Hindu religion. Hindus believe in millions of
different gods that are considered manifestations of Brahma. Other important gods or
deities are Vishnu, the preserver of life and Shiva, the destroyer and creator. It is
believed that these gods control the cycle of life, death and rebirth.
Hindus believe that life is a series of births, deaths and rebirths. It is believed that one’s
caste or station in life, is the result of how one behaved in a previous life and one’s future
station in life will be the result of how one behaved in the present life. These concepts
are known as reincarnation and karma. Reincarnation is the belief that your soul is
reborn into another body after death. Karma is a belief that a person’s deeds (actions,
thoughts, and words) affect their future. How one lives their life is critical because it
determines a person’s occupation and social status. It is the goal of all Hindus to break
the cycle of rebirths entirely, reaching the state of Moksha, which is a state of peace free
from suffering. In order to reach Moksha, Hindus believe they must live their lives
according to the concept known as dharma, or duties of one’s caste. They must make
offerings and pilgrimages, follow the rules of their caste, and pay proper respect to the
Hindu Gods. It is believed that if one leads a good life, with good karma and follows
their dharma, then they will be rewarded by being reincarnated as a person belonging to
the next highest level in the Caste System. However, if one has “bad karma” during their
life, they will be demoted, and possibly even removed from the Caste System altogether.
Untouchables or outcasts, are members of Hindu society thought to have been removed
from the Caste System, with no hope of returning to it, due to their misdeeds in previous
lives. Hindus also believe that they must show regard for their ancestors and for all life
(including animals), since all parts of nature, both past and present, are part of the cycle
of rebirth. This respect for all living things is called ahimsa.
Cultural and Historical Impacts: The belief in reincarnation has affected the social,
political, and economic development of India enormously since 80% of their population
is Hindu. The caste system was outlawed when India became an independent nation, but
millions still practice it as part of their religion fearing that they will obtain bad karma.
The people of the lowest caste (the untouchables) cannot socially mingle or even work
side by side with the people of the highest caste. This has led not only to social
discrimination, but widespread employment discrimination as well. The untouchables do
all the dirty jobs that nobody else will do. Many Hindus do not challenge discrimination,
because they want to be rewarded with a higher caste in a later life. Social mobility is
therefore greatly hindered. Nevertheless, as more people have moved to the cities, they
have begun to disassociate themselves form the caste system. In fact, recently,
untouchables have risen to positions of political authority. Women have also faced
hardships as they have been traditionally treated as the property of men. One practice
that has exemplified this is the practice sati, the ritual burning of a man’s wife during his
cremation. This practice has been outlawed but is still found in traditional India farming
villages However, Hinduism remains a tremendous influence in the lives of millions of
Indians today.
Buddhism – East and Southeast Asia
Background: Buddhism is a belief system that was founded in India by Siddhartha
Gautama around 500 BCE. Siddhartha was a prince born into the Brahmin caste, and led
a luxurious lifestyle. However, he was troubled by the human misery that he saw around
him everyday (death, illness and poverty). After meditating under a Bodhi tree, he awoke
as the Buddha or Enlightened One and concluded that desire was the root that caused
suffering.
Beliefs and Practices: Buddhism might be better described as a life philosophy than a
religion, since the practitioners do not believe in an all-powerful god or gods that can
grant them salvation. Buddhism focuses on achieving enlightenment or Nirvana by
having the proper mindset and behavior. Siddhartha Gautama's philosophy, known as the
Four Noble Truths states that human suffering is linked to human desire and can
explained by these four statements: (1) Life is full of pain and suffering; (2) Human
desire causes this suffering; (3) By putting an end to one’s desire, humans can end
suffering and (4) Humans can end desire by following the Eight-fold Path. Buddhists
generally believe that it is up to the individual to acquire wisdom and to break free of
materialism (owning luxury items) in order to achieve Nirvana. Similar to Hindus,
Buddhists also believe in an endless cycle of samsara or reincarnation and concept of
karma. However, Buddhists do not believe that deities are responsible for the
phenomenon. In addition, the Caste System is rejected by Buddhists. Buddhists believe
that the way to break free of this materialism and endless cycle of life, death and rebirth
is to follow the Noble Eight-Fold Path, or the “middle way” to achieve Nirvana. This
path of behavior focuses on having the (1) Right Views, (2) Right Aspirations, (3) Right
Speech, (4) Right Conduct, (5) Right Livelihood, (6) Right Effort, (7) Right Mindfulness
and (8) Right Contemplation.
Cultural and Historical Impacts: Although Buddhism was founded in India, it is
predominately practiced in East Asia and Southeast Asia due to trade, migrations and
missionary work. Buddhism has affected the cultural and social development of these
regions. In general, the Buddhist philosophy of rejecting material wealth and
possessions has contributed to the region’s relative isolation and general subsistence
living for centuries. Even as the region industrializes, many people in the region do not
desire many of the material gains that industrialization and modernization promises them.
Confucianism - China
Background: Confucianism is a life philosophy that was started by a philosopher
Confucius in China around 500 BCE. Confucius lived in China during the Zhou Dynasty,
when there was mass disorder and degrading moral standards. Confucius was appalled by
what appeared to be the fracturing of Chinese society. He believed that the only cure was
to stress a sense of social order and mutual respect, a philosophy that later became known
as Confucianism.
Beliefs: Confucianism is considered a philosophy more than a religion because it is
concerned with daily conduct in the here and now and not with salvation or the afterlife.
Confucianism focused on individual relationships and the duties that individuals owe to
one another within their families and society. Confucianism teaches that there is a
natural social order to society. It is believed that political and social stability can be
achieved if everyone knew their role in their family and society through the Five
Relationships. These relationships include: (1) ruler to subject, (2) father to son, (3) older
brother to younger brother, (4) husband to wife and (5) friend to friend. In these
relationships, the first role is considered superior to the second role and the second role is
considered inferior or subordinate to the first.
Practices: Confucian philosophy assumes a social structure where the inferior classes
owe respect to superior classes and most importantly the ruling classes owe fairness and
kindness to the inferior classes. The same is true in family relationships. The younger
generations must be respectful and dutiful to the older generations, including generations
that have already passed away. For example, the ruler must provide leadership, guidance
and discipline to the subjects, while the subjects must show loyalty, love and compliance
to the leader. This would be the same for fathers and sons, husbands and wives and older
brothers to younger brothers. The only relationship that is equal to one another is friend
to friend. It was taught that if everyone knew their place in society, then order would
prevail. There are several concepts which needed to be practiced in order to achieve an
orderly society, the most important being filial piety or showing respect to the superiors
in society. Other important concepts are: Jen which means showing kindness towards
others and Li, which means using proper etiquette to achieve perfect virtue.
Cultural and Historical Impacts: Confucianism has affected Chinese culture
enormously. Confucianism stressed the importance of education for the upper class or
scholar gentry to have a well run system of government. The Han Dynasty created Civil
Service Exams, exams based on Confucian principles that Chinese officials must pass in
order to work for the government. This created a government positions for people based
on ability, rather than social status. However, for centuries, Confucian principles also
reinforced the class system and repressed new ideas from younger generations and have
contributed to the subordinate or inferior position of women in society. Today,
Confucianism is still practiced by more than 150 million followers in China and in
Southeast Asia even though Communist China is officially atheist and officially classless.
Daoism – China
Background: The founder of Daoism is believed by many religious historians to be
Lao-Tzu (604-531 BCE), whose life overlapped that of Confucius (551-479 BCE). He
was searching for a way that would avoid the constant feudal warfare and other conflicts
that disrupted society during his lifetime. The result was his book: Tao-Te-Ching.
Beliefs and Practices: Central to Daoism is the concept of the Dao, or the way. It
refers to a power which surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living. It
is a philosophy which teaches that nature has a “way” in which it moves, and that people
should accept the “way” rather than resist it. The Dao regulates natural processes and
nourishes balance in the Universe. The yin and yang is the harmony of opposites and is a
well known Daoist symbol. It represents the balance of opposites in the universe (i.e.
there would be no love without hate, no light without dark, and no male without female).
When they are equally present, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is
confusion and disarray. It is a force that flows through all life. The Dao surrounds
everyone and therefore everyone must listen to find enlightenment. Each believer's goal
is to harmonize themselves with the Dao. Taoism has provided an alternative to the
Confucian tradition in China. The two traditions have coexisted in the country, region,
and generally within the same individual. They seek answers to life's problems through
inner meditation and outer observation. Daoists follow the art of "wu wei," which is to let
nature take its course. For example, one should allow a river to flow towards the sea
unimpeded; do not erect a dam which would interfere with its natural flow. Daoists
viewed governments as “unnatural” and believed that the best governments are the ones
that govern the least. Daoism teaches that lessened the need for rules and order, and
leads one to a better understanding of the world.
Cultural and Historical Impacts: Daoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism,
became one of the three great religions or philosophies of China. With the end of the
Ch’ing Dynasty in 1911, state support for Daoism ended. Much of the Daoist heritage
was destroyed during the next period of warlordism. After the Communist victory in
1949, religious freedom was severely restricted. The new government put monks to
manual labor, confiscated temples, and plundered treasures. Several million monks were
reduced to less than 50,000 by 1960. During the Cultural Revolution in China from 1966
to 1976, much of the remaining Daoist heritage was destroyed.
Judaism
Background: Judaism is an ancient religion that originated in Palestine (Israel) around
2000 BCE. Judaism is the oldest known monotheistic religion still practiced in the world
today. Its fundamental teachings have been influential and are the basis for more recently
developed religions such as Christianity and Islam.
Beliefs and Practices: Jews are monotheistic, which means they believe and worship
one god. They believe that they are God’s chosen people due to the covenant, or
agreement made between God and Abraham. Jews believe that conduct should be
consistent with the qualities of God and this means they should be merciful, just,
compassionate and tolerant. They believe that the worship of God, whether it is at a
synagogue, a place of worship or in all aspects of their daily life, should be based on love
as opposed to fear. To help them in this quest, Jews follow the teachings of the Torah,
the sacred book of Judaism that describes the creation of the world, the history of ancient
Israel, the Ten Commandments, and contains the Psalms and the prophetic books. Jews
must also abide by the Talmud, the collection of Jewish writings that is the basis of
Jewish religious law. Jews believe that life should be spent living the will of God, as told
by Moses through the Ten Commandments, or guidelines that Jews follow. The Torah
also establishes rites and ceremonies, including observance of the Sabbath or holy day
and Passover, the story of Moses freeing the Hebrew people from bondage in Egypt.
Jews also believe that life should be a constant pursuit of knowledge, since the very
essence of God is knowledge or truth. Education has traditionally been extremely
important in Jewish communities. The word rabbi, means teacher, for example. The love
of learning, Jews believe, does not at all interfere with the worship of God, but rather is
the worship of God, since it is the only way to achieve and understanding of truth. Jews
believe that they not only achieve the will of God by following specific mandates of the
Torah, but also by keeping oneself occupied in a constant pursuit of truth.
Cultural and Historical Impacts: There are many subgroups within Judaism and
these divisions center around how strictly and literally the Torah should be followed.
However, they are united by the belief that they are the chosen people of God is central to
their faith. It is this belief that has bonded them together even as they were dispersed
around the world during the Diaspora, or the scattering of the Jewish population.
Throughout the Middle Ages and since, Jews have been persecuted (exiled, jailed, and
executed because of their beliefs) and separated from primarily Christian groups in
Europe, North America, and North Africa. Yet, many of them never lost touch with their
faith. If anything, the persecution and atrocities like the Holocaust, the extermination of
6 million Jews by the Nazis, made them stronger in their faith and determined that they
should have a homeland of their own where they can be reunited with all Jews. The
Zionist movement built on the creation of a Jewish homeland in Israel, the land that was
promised to Abraham and Moses by God. As a result, the modern nation of Israel was
established in 1947 as a Jewish state surrounded by Muslim nations. The creation of the
state of Israel has led to persistent violence between Jews and Muslims. As a result of
persecution and the Diaspora, Judaism is practiced worldwide, but the greatest majority
of Jews reside in Israel, the United States, Eastern Europe and Russia.
Christianity
Background: Christianity is a monotheistic religion that was founded by Jesus of
Nazareth around 30CE in Judea or modern Jerusalem. Christianity is the largest religion
in the world with nearly 2 billion followers.
Beliefs and Practices: There are many subdivisions of Christianity, but in general,
Christians are called upon to live their lives according to these prescriptions: First, Jesus
is believed to be the son of God. Second, Jesus is believed to be the messiah or the savior
sent by God to rid the world of sin. Third, Christians believe in that one can earn
salvation through faith in Jesus Christ and that God will forgive them from their sins.
Christians believe that they need atonement or forgiveness from God, who will readily
grant forgiveness to those who have faith in him. Fourth, Christians believe that Jesus
died to forgive our sins. This has led the Christian faith to proclaim that there is a Holy
Trinity, formed by the Creator, Redeemer, and Sustainer (Father, Son and Holy Spirit).
Christians believe that these three entities are all part of a single higher power. Lastly,
Christians believe that they should live their lives according to God’s will. It is not
enough that they confess their past sins, but they must genuinely try to improve their lives
and refrain from repeating those sins. Christians believe that the Bible (both the Old and
New Testaments) gives the fundamental will of God regarding how Christians should live
their lives. The foundation of religious duty comes from the Ten Commandments, as
outlined in the Old Testament in the book of Exodus along with Gospel from the New
Testament that elevates the importance of compassion, restraint, and humility. The Bible
calls upon Christians to love their neighbors as themselves and reserve the final judgment
to God.
Cultural and Historical Impacts: Often Christians interpret the Bible differently, and
these interpretations often are at the heart of the various divisions within Christianity.
Disputes include the practice of sacraments or ceremonies and the authority of the Pope.
The first major split within Christianity occurred in 1054 CE, and this split is known as
the Great Schism. This split divided the Christian world geographically and created two
distinct Christian sects, the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Eastern Orthodoxy has greatly influenced the lives of Eastern Europeans and Russians.
This split occurred because of disagreements over the authority of the Pope and the use of
icons or holy images.
Roman Catholicism was a stabilizing and unifying force in Western Europe during the
Middle Ages when chaos and disorder ensued after the fall of the Roman Empire.
Roman Catholicism was also the dominant religion in of Latin America due to the
Spanish conquests of the Americas. It has served as a unifying force, linking the cultures
of Latin America in a common thread. Roman Catholicism is the largest branch of
Christianity with over 1 billion adherents.
The second major split within Christianity occurred in 1517 and is called the Protestant
Reformation. The Reformation was a protest against perceived scandals and abuses
within the Catholic Church and as a result divided Western Europe religiously. These
religious disputes erupted into wars between Catholics and Protestants. There are several
Protestant branches of Christianity, including: Lutheran, Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist,
etc. Protestant Christianity is mainly practiced in Western Europe and the United States.
Islam
Background: Islam is a monotheistic religion that was founded by Muhammad in the
city of Mecca in 622 CE. Muslims do not worship Muhammad as God, but worship God
through the message brought to them by Muhammad. Islam means “submission to the
will of Allah, or god” and a Muslim is a follower of Islam or “one who submits to Allah’s
will.”
Beliefs and Practices: Muslims believe that salvation is won through submission to the
will of God, and this can be accomplished by following the Qur’an, the holy book for
Muslims and following the Five Pillars of Islam. The Qur’an is extremely important
since Muslims are focused on submitting to God’s will, and the Qur’an gives them an
understanding of what that will is. The Five Pillars of Islam (Faith) are guidelines that
Muslims must follow. The pillars include: 1) A confession of faith, “there is no God but
Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet. 2) Prayer five times a day, bowing towards the
holy city of Mecca. 3) Giving Alms or charity to the needy. 4) Fasting during the holy
month of Ramadan and 5) making the hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca. The Hejira, or
Muhammad’s journey from Mecca to Medina marks the establishment or first year of the
Muslim calendar.
Cultural and Historical Impacts: Islam has spread from Mecca to nearly all areas of
the Middle East as well as nations in North Africa, Central Asia and areas within
Southeast Asia through trade, migration, warfare and cultural diffusion. Islam has also
affected the social and political development of the Middle East enormously. Since many
nations are Islamic states, the Sharia or official law of the land, is based on Islamic
teachings. The Sharia regulates everything from women’s rights to dietary laws to
clothing is dictated by the Islamic faith and enforced by law.
In nations with a strong Islamic fundamentalist or (strict followers of the Qur’an)
presence, attempts to modernize or westernize the economy and social customs of a
nation often have been denounced as heresy (speaking out against God). For example,
Iran reversed its westernization attempts after the Iranian Revolution of 1979 made the
Qur’an the law of the land. Throughout the Middle East, Islamic fundamentalism is on
the rise, because so many Muslims do not want their societal changes to result in their
failure to adhere to their Islamic faith. As a result, many Islamic fundamentalists target
Western nations as enemies to Islam and have waged wars against them. This has led to
strained relations with the West, especially the United States.
Islam has also had many conflicts with other religions as well. Disputes over the land of
Palestine (Israel) have caused warfare with Jews since 1947, the year Israel became a
Jewish state. Border conflicts have also occurred between Muslims and Hindus
concerning the land of Pakistan and India after gaining their independence from Great
Britain.