A STUDY OF TIBETAN CULTURE AND RELIGION
AND OF POTENTIAL REDEMPTIVE ANALOGIES WHICH
WOULD HEIGHTEN THE TIBETAN'S RECEPTIVITY TO CHRISTIANITY
A THESIS
PRESENTED TO THE
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
MASTER OF ARTS IN CHRISTIAN MINISTRY
BY
CARIS FAITH SY
MAY 1987
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................................. 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... 5
"TIBET" ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 8
I. Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................................... 8
II. Preview of the Literature .................................................................................................................... 12
III. Design of the Study........................................................................................................................... 12
IV. Analysis ............................................................................................................................................ 13
V. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 13
VI. Schedule ............................................................................................................................................ 13
CHAPTER II. BREAKTHROUGH OF BUDDHISM IN TIBET.............................................................. 14
Development of Tibetan Buddhism ........................................................................................................ 14
Divisions of Tibetan Buddhism .............................................................................................................. 20
Distinctions of Tibetan Buddhism .......................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER III. POTENTIAL BREAKTHROUGHS FOR THE GOSPEL ............................................... 28
Existent Elements.................................................................................................................................... 28
Non-existent Element.............................................................................................................................. 29
Summary Statement ................................................................................................................................ 30
CHAPTER IV. BIBLICAL BASIS FOR POTENTIAL BREAKTHROUGHS ........................................ 31
The Sacrificial System ............................................................................................................................ 31
Great Day of Atonement ......................................................................................................................... 32
The Word Became Flesh ......................................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER V. BREAKTHROUGHS AND HEARTBREAKS IN TIBETAN CHURCH HISTORY ...... 36
Catholic Missions.................................................................................................................................... 36
Protestant Missions ................................................................................................................................. 39
Present State of the Church/Future Outlook ........................................................................................... 47
CHAPTER VI DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................... 48
Survey for Tibetan Believers .................................................................................................................. 48
Conducting the Survey............................................................................................................................ 49
Results of Question #5 ............................................................................................................................ 49
Results of Questions #6 and #7 ............................................................................................................... 49
Results of Question #8 ............................................................................................................................ 51
CHAPTER VII. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 53
Potential Redemptive Analogies ............................................................................................................. 53
Interviews Regarding Redemptive Analogies ........................................................................................ 53
Effective Avenues for Communicating the Gospel ................................................................................ 54
Key Redemptive Analogy: The Sacrificial System ................................................................................ 54
Prayer Focus............................................................................................................................................ 54
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................................. 55
A. BREAKTHROUGH IN UNDERSTANDING (Tibetan Life and Culture) ........................................... 55
Geography/Population ............................................................................................................................ 55
Ethnology/Language ............................................................................................................................... 55
Climate/Elevation ................................................................................................................................... 56
History..................................................................................................................................................... 56
Character/Personality .............................................................................................................................. 57
Family Structure...................................................................................................................................... 58
Society..................................................................................................................................................... 58
2
Education ................................................................................................................................................ 58
Transportation/Communication .............................................................................................................. 59
Economy ................................................................................................................................................. 60
Culture..................................................................................................................................................... 61
Festivals /Ceremonies ............................................................................................................................. 62
General Description of Life Since 1950 ................................................................................................. 66
B. BREAKTHROUGH OF A RELIGION ................................................................................................. 67
Buddhist Beginnings ............................................................................................................................... 67
Buddhist Beliefs and Practices................................................................................................................ 69
Buddhism's History ................................................................................................................................. 73
Buddhist Expansion ................................................................................................................................ 75
Buddhism Contrasted with Christianity .................................................................................................. 75
C. COMMON TIBETAN SYMBOLS ....................................................................................................... 77
Eight Sacred Emblems of Buddhism ...................................................................................................... 77
Other Common Symbols......................................................................................................................... 77
D. TESTIMONY OF ELIYAH THSETAN PHUNTSOG ......................................................................... 78
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................... 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 82
Bible ........................................................................................................................................................ 82
Books ...................................................................................................................................................... 82
Periodicals ............................................................................................................................................... 85
Journals ................................................................................................................................................... 85
Reports .................................................................................................................................................... 85
Letters ..................................................................................................................................................... 85
Unpublished Material.............................................................................................................................. 85
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
1. Graph A ............................................................................................................................................... 51
2. Graph B ............................................................................................................................................... 52
3. Graph C ............................................................................................................................................... 52
Map
1. Tibet ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
2. Tibetan-Gansu Border ......................................................................................................................... 42
DEDICATION
First of all, this thesis is dedicated to those multitudes of saints who have given their lives in bringing the Gospel of
Christ to the Tibetans. These seemingly died without receiving the promise of a fruitful harvest, but they have gained the
approval of God through their faith. And it is in honor of their faith that I dedicate this thesis. Also I would like to
dedicate it to the following significant people:
To my husband, Sy Chao Li, who is always an inspiration to me in his desire to know the Lord. Without his love
and encouragement I would never have completed this thesis. From the very start his attitude was a wonderful example
of servanthood, and his endless enthusiasm was a tremendous motivation.
3
He sacrificed in numerous ways to allow me time to work and gave me many valuable suggestions in writing. He
used his skills to help edit the manuscript, and in the end gave up a two-week vacation to type corrections on the final
copy. Most of all, his faithful prayers and love sustained me through each step of the way.
To my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Warren Bo, who have given endlessly in sacrificial love and support. Their example of
faithfulness and consistency is always a great inspiration to me. From the beginning, they too were enthusiastic about
this project; I am forever grateful for their continual prayers, servant hearts and ceaseless encouragement.
To my thesis advisor, Dr. Ananda Perera, and his lovely wife Edna. Dr. Perera motivated me, challenged me and
made research and writing fun with his good-natured wit and never-ending humor. From the onset he believed in me and
was conunitted to the project, determining that we would trust the Lord step by step.
Even when we were separated by thousands of miles, he was faithful to continue as my advisor and carry on
through correspondence. He and Edna and their daughter Tanya also made a home for me while I completed my thesis.
Most of all, I dedicate this thesis to my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Because of Him I do not fear rejection by the
gods and face an endless cycle of deaths and rebirths as do the Tibetan Buddhists. Instead He has given me his gift of
eternal life and the privilege of being His child.
Rather than dead rituals and ceaseless striving and sacrifices I can rest in His completed and once-for-all sacrifice
for my sin. Liberated from the guilt of my sin, I fall down in worship before him, not wallowing in the dust of endless
and meaningless prostrations, but in recognition of Him who reigns as King of Kings and Lord of Lords.
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To Mr. and Mrs. William Sy, my husband's parents. No one could ask for more loving, caring, encouraging and
supportive parents-in-law. Their faithful prayers and boundless love have been a great joy and positive force in
completing this thesis.
To Passang Angmo, my dear friend. She is not only a delightful friend but also a great inspiration to Chao and me
in her life-style and walk with the Lord. Passang introduced me to so many lovely Tibetan Christians and had the faith to
believe I could complete my empirical research, even when there were many odds against it, and others discouraged me.
To Lita Dumo, Dr. Perera's secretary who spent countless hours typing the rough drafts of the thesis and remained
patient and joyful throughout the entire time.
To Dr. Bob Shirock, professor of my Research Methods class. His patience and encouragement were a tremendous
boost at the onset of this endeavor.
To Rudy and Nora Visperas, and their daughters, Asunta Warren (Sun) and Antoinette Dipasupil (Nette), and all the
workers at Munsayac Inn, Baguio City. Their generosity, love and friendly ways provided another second home for me
as I completed this thesis.
To Lanie Fangonilo, Mercy Rapunut and Merlinda Sarnole, who kindly went Out of their way to cheerfully assist in
typing the first draft.
To Diane Lawrence who diligently typed the final copy of the thesis, not only consenting--but volunteering for the
task.
To Ann Bowman and Dr. Ted Sxnythe, who graciously sacrificed of their time to help edit the final draft.
5
6
"TIBET"*
Away in the dark heart of Asia,
Far from the Saviour's great love
No knowledge of sins all forgiven
No hope of a heaven above,
Surrounded by snowy white mountains
Traversed by her rivers so clear,
Tibet lives in shadows of darkness,
Tibet the forbidden and drear,
By prayer-flags and fast turning prayer-wheels
By journeys to shrines far away
By meaningless vain repetitions
They hope to reach heaven some day,
By false living Buddhas misguided
By red robed priests cheated each day,
Tibet waits for you to deliver
Oh brother why longer delay.
To hearts in the forest clad valleys,
Black tents on the open plateau,
To golden roofed temples resplendent
The Saviour now asks you to go.
Go tell of His blood that has bought us,
Go tell of His death on the tree
Any say that He saves to the utmost
From bondage and sin He sets free.
As white as the snow on her mountains
As pure as her clear crystal streams
The fountain that's flowing from Calvary
Still cleanses and from sin redeems
Though strong be the fortress of evil
By faith we shall break every chain
Though fierce be the rage of the tempter today
Through Jesus the victory we'll gain.
*A song sung by the early missionaries as they traveled into Tibet on donkeys, horses and yaks.
7
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
I. Statement of the Problem
A. Selection of the Problem
There are approximately four million Tibetans worldwide, and over half of these live in China's Tibetan
Autonomous Region (TAR).1 The remainders of the Tibetans live in surrounding provinces or have fled to neighboring
countries.2
Presently there are scarcely any Tibetan Christians in the entire world, and almost none living within the borders of
Tibet. One enormous barrier is the Tibetan's concept that Christianity belongs to another culture. Thus, they cannot
conceive of being a Tibetan and a Christian.3
B. Significance of the Problem
“To make converts in Tibet is similar to going into a cave and trying to rob a lioness of her cubs.”4
What kind of “wet blanket” or “weak-in-faith” person would offer such “encouragement” for two young men eager
to evangelize Tibet? Surprisingly, these words came from none other than the great and respected man of faith--Hudson
Taylor! He offered this “hope” in 1892 to a pair of young pioneer missionaries with the Christian and Missionary
Alliance.5 (Amplified in Chapter IV -- Section-Protestant Missions.)
But nearly one hundred years later, it is still humanly hopeless “to make converts in Tibet.” The light of the Gospel
has made almost no impact upon the spiritual darkness engulfing the Tibetan people.
Dr. Alton Olson, M.D., with The Evangelical Alliance Mission, works at the Doon Medical Project in Mussoorie,
northern India, and knows a number of Tibetan believers. He gives this tragic report: “We did find out a bit about the
Tibetans. They say there are only about fifty Christian Tibetans in the world.”6 I also talked with Miriam Mannevone
whose parents had spent most of their lives ministering to Tibetans in India. She told me confidently in a telephone
conversation that there may not be as many as thirty Tibetan Christians in the entire world.
Months later in a letter Miriam shared how she would be surprised if I could find even two genuine Tibetan
Christians (outside of Ladakhi Tibetans) who were born in Tibet. “There is such a strong bond about being born in Tibet.
Being a Christian is not compatible with being truly Tibetan.” She added: “One young man, Donyo, told us that though
he wanted to believe, he could not because he was born in Tibet, but hoped that his children would believe.”7
Hester Withey with World Evangelization Crusade, who worked among Tibetans in India until about five years ago,
wrote:
Usually when we give the Gospel to Tibetans--in their own language usually--they politely listen, and even look glad
and say it is wonderful news. But that's as far as it usually goes. It is one of their courtesies to react to people the way
people would like them to react, so it is hard to get an honest answer, or to get a real discussion going. They just say,
“Laso” which is their polite honorific way of saying 'Yes', and that's as far as it goes. Some of our men have been able
to get some discussion with lamas. But it is all so very revolting or incomprehensible to them.8
Christian Communications Limited recently reported another heartbreaking statistic: “Of about one thousand people
questioned in Lhasa, only five had ever heard of the name of Jesus.”9
Finally, a Christian man who lived in Lhasa (the capital of Tibet) for four months in 1986 shared the following in a
letter:
As far as Christians in the Tibetan Autonomous Region go, to my knowledge there is only one old man who has
recently converted. During my four months in Lhasa, one lady came to Christ for salvation and died one-and-a-half
months later from cancer. There is no evidence of any existing Christian fellowships or house meetings whatever.10
1
Tibetan autonomous Region: The Chinese government claims that when minority nationalities inhabit sufficiently compact
communities, they possess autonomy. Tibet is one of five autonomous regions in China (equivalent to provinces). However,
this autonomy appears to be nominal, since in actuality China has administrative, political and economic control of Tibet.
2
Roberta Winter, ed., Global Prayer Digest (Pasadena: Frontier Fellowship, Incorporated, July 1985), Entry 22.
3
Edward R. Dayton and Samuel Wilson, eds., Unreached peoples '81 (Elgin: David C. Cook Publishing Company, 1981) .
4
William Carlsen, Tibet: In Search of a Miracle (Nyack: Nyack College, 1985), p. 37.
5
Ibid.
6
Alton Olson to Caris Faith Sy, 6 March 1986.
7
Miriam Mannevone to Caris Faith Sy, 12 February 1987.
8
Hester Withey to Caris Faith Sy, 6 March 1986.
9
Christian Communications Limited, “Minority Millions”, p. 4.
10
Li-an Ma to Caris Faith Sy, 2 August 1986.
8
C. Research Objectives
I would like this research to include the following areas:
1. Tibetan life and culture.
2. The Buddhist religion in general and Tibetan Buddhism specifically.
3. History of Christian ministry in Tibet.
4. Potential points of contact for the Gospel within the framework of Tibetan culture.
D. Hypothesis
1. Specific Statement
There are redemptive analogies within Tibetan culture/religion (such as religious observances, customs, folklore,
drama, family structure) which could serve as parallels to Biblical truth and which would heighten the Tibetan's
receptivity to Christianity.
When the Gospel is presented in the context of these qualities existing in the Tibetan culture, there will be a greater
receptivity to the Gospel among Tibetan Buddhists.
2. Definition of Term Redemptive Analogies
Redemptive Analogies -- Aspects of a people's own culture, which contribute to the redemption of that people by
facilitating their understanding of what redemption means.
3. Evaluation of the Proposed Hypothesis
There are a number of reasons why this hypothesis is plausible. First of all, when Buddhism was introduced in Tibet,
it became entwined with primitive indigenous folk religions which were a mixture of spiritism and shamanism. 11
(Shamanism is a religion based on a doctrine which states that the workings of good and evil spirits can be influenced
only by certain priests or medicine men called shamans.)12 Buddhism was also influenced by an existing religion of Tibet,
which was largely magical.13
In light of these facts, it is significant to consider that ninety percent of the world's folk religions acknowledge the
existence of God. Some even anticipate His redeeming concern for mankind.14
Don Richardson, in his book Eternity in Their Hearts, gives numerous examples of how folk religions throughout
the world are characteristically monotheistic in their past. In these extremely diverse cultures there are traditions of a
benign, omnipotent “sky-god” who was previously worshipped. However, for various reasons, in most folk religions this
“sky-god” is presently regarded as remote and more or less unreachable.
But Richardson adds: “One of the amazing characteristics of this.... ‘sky-god’ of mankind’s many folk religions is
His propensity to identify Himself with the God of Christianity.”15
4. Scriptural Justification
Jonah 3:2, 3a, 5 Arise, go to Nineveh the great city and proclaim to it the proclamation which I am going to tell you. So
Jonah arose and went to Nineveh according to the word of the Lord.... Then the people of Nineveh
believed in God; and they called a fast a put 'on sackcloth from the greatest to the least of them.16
Here the Lord sends salvation to a heathen Gentile people. The Word of God breaks through in the heart of the
missionary. Then as he responds in obedience and goes to this foreign people, there is a spiritual breakthrough among
them.
Acts 17:27b “...He is not far from each one of us;”17
God desires for us to know Him.
Romans 10:14, 15 How then shall they call upon Him in whom they have not believed? And how shall they believe in
Him whom they have not heard? And how shall they hear without a preacher? And how shall the preach
unless they are sent? Just as it is written, “How beautiful are the feet of those who bring glad tidings of
good things!”18
11
Donald Hoke, ed., The Church in Asia (Chicago: Moody Press, 1975), p. 649.
Webster's New World Dictionary, College ed. (1968), s.v. “Shaman” and “Shamanism”.
13
Grolier Universal Encyclopedia, 1966 ed., s.v. “Buddhism”.
14
Don Richardson, Eternity in Their Hearts (Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 1981), p. 54.
15
Ibid., p. 50.
16
NASB [NASB = New American Standard Bible]
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid.
12
9
Hebrews 4:12a “The word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, ...”19
5. Evaluation of Available Resources
I have found this problem amenable to research, both from an empirical and bibliographic standpoint. Regarding the
empirical aspect, there are large populations of Tibetans residing outside of Tibet.
This is an approximate breakdown:
India
- 90,000
Nepal
- 20,000
Bhutan
- 2,000
Switzerland - 1,000
In addition to the availability of Tibetans, there are also other persons who are valuable sources
of information. I have sent letters, or made direct contact with the following: (These names are listed according to the
approximate order in which they were contacted.)
a) Bob and Irene Nance
Coordinators of the Hidden Peoples Prayer Band; they research Hidden people
groups and have good contacts.
b) Don and Carol Richardson
Don wrote Eternity in Their Hearts and both have good contacts. Carol's brotherin-law is an authority on Buddhism.
c) William and Bonnie Carlsen
With the Christian and Missionary Alliance; he grew up on the borders of Tibet
where his parents were missionaries. Rev. Carlsen has recently written a book on
Tibet; also he was featured in the Global Prayer Digest for his travels in Tibet.
d) Overseas Missionary
May have had workers in or near Tibet.
Fellowship
e) H. Syvelle Phillips
President of Evangel Bible Translators, International, who have published the
book, God Spoke Tibetan.
f) Christian Communications
Have published materials on Tibet.
Limited
g) Linda Sommer
Worked in northern India with The Evangelical Alliance Mission (TEAM) for
thirteen years.
h) Jim Ziervogel
Director of the Institute of Chinese Studies at the U. S. Center for World Mission.
i) Theodore Wilde
On the Board of world Mission of the Moravian Church which has ministered to
Tibetans.
j) Ananda Perera
Dean of the International School of Theology-Asia; convert from Buddhism to
Christianity.
k) Larry Brooks
Director of Guidance and Counseling at St. Xavier School , Kathmandu, Nepal.
1) Elcho and Millie Redding
Served with The Evangelical Alliance Mission in India and have worked with the
Tibetans since 1959. They started a school for the Dalai Lama's bodyguards and
other young Tibetan men.
m) Ruth Stam Thiagardjan
Ruth worked closely with Tibetans for many years.
n) William Kerr
With the Christian and Missionary Alliance.
o) Missions Advanced Research Have information regarding Tibetans in Switzerland.
and Communications Center
(MARC)
p) James Broomhall
Referred by Overseas Missionary Fellowship (OMF); James has written a series
of books on China.
q) Paul Kauffman
Editor of Asian Report which had a special edition on Tibet in 1984. Paul's father
was a missionary in Tibet.
r) Wayne Persons
Worked on the Tibetan border with the Christian and Missionary Alliance.
s) Malcolm and Helen Sawyer
Worked in western China at the Gansu-Tibetan border with the Christian and
Missionary Alliance.
t) Hester Withey
Referred by World Evangelization Crusade (WEC) International; Hester worked
among Tibetans.
u) Joy Lankester
Daughter of James Broomhall; she now lives in northern India and may be able to
help with surveys.
v) Rosalie Thorson
Wrote a research paper on Tibet in 1980 for the Institute of Chinese Studies.
19
Ibid.
10
w) Passang Angmo
Personal friend who has ministered to Tibetans for nineteen years.
Also, I am encouraged by the amount of bibliographic material available. I have found a good number of sources in
the International School of Theology library as well as libraries at the Asian Theological Seminary, University of the
Philippines--Dilliman Ateneo de Manila, and the University of Santo Tomas.
It has been particularly helpful to have such excellent Catholic libraries available, especially because the first
missionaries to enter Tibet were from the Catholic Church.
Some of my contacts come through personal friendships. In addition, I have further associates in the ministry who
are very positive about helping me obtain needed data.
E. Limitation of the Research
1. This study will not seek to relate specific “how-to's” for presenting the Gospel to the Tibetans.
2. Within this particular study, I do not plan to utilize the findings to develop a series of Bible studies or message
outlines.
F. Assumptions
1. Tibetan Buddhism will not be destroyed by materialism or Communism.
In fact there is reportedly increasing freedom to practice traditional Buddhist observances. As an example of this,
for the first time in two decades, the traditional ten-day Tibetan prayer ceremony was held at Jokhang Monastery in
Lhasa.
Christian Communications Limited reports the following in its Pray for China bulletin: “The ceremony reached its
climax when more than 200,000 Tibetans took to the streets singing and dancing to celebrate.”20
2. The nation of Tibet will continue to be more open to foreigners.
The Chinese have concluded that tourism in Tibet can be very lucrative. Michael Bucicley and Robert Strauss who
have traveled extensively in Tibet and done a thorough study of Tibetan life and culture state; “There is little
infrastructure to support the projected influx of 40,000 tourists in 1986.”21 And this figure is expected to double by 1988:
They add that presently ten new hotels are being constructed in Tibet.22 Jeff Sommer, a newsman, writes:
In Lhasa we were shocked by the construction. Building sites were everywhere. Two big hotels were going up, one
was a giant structure where local authorities hope to have more than 1,000 tourists at a time.23
G. Significance of the Research
1. If a breakthrough for the Gospel occurred it could:
a. Lead to the potential salvation of four million people.
b. Affect the salvation of Buddhists in general; Buddhists are considered one of the five major groups of unreached
peoples in the world.
2. Information regarding potential breakthroughs would give Christians worldwide tangible ways to pray for
Buddhists, specifically Tibetan Buddhists.
3. Currently there are opportunities for Christians to live in Tibet.
In addition to Mr. Ma, William Carlsen, who wrote a book on Tibet, reports: “There is an American Christian
teaching English there [in Lhasa], and the authorities know his background.”24
Sy Chao Li, who visited Tibet in January 1987, met several Christian English teachers and reports that there are
numerous opportunities for native English speakers to teach English in various work units in Lhasa. He explained that
contracts can often be arranged within a week of arrival in Lhasa.
One Christian has even taught English to lamas in the Potala Palace, and apparently there is interest in learning
English in other monasteries around Lhasa. The organization English Language Institute/China is presently negotiating
for the rights to place a team of teachers at the University in Lhasa.
Furthermore, it seems probable there will be more opportunities for Christians in positions of hotel administration,
in response to the massive tourist industry which appears to be mushrooming.
4. The Tibetans are very positive about Christian literature (although this is usually because they assume it is Buddhist
teaching, or they are attracted to materials printed in Tibetan).
Christian Communications Limited reports that at this time, the people of Tibet are freely accepting Christian
Christian Communications Limited, “Minority Millions,” Pray for China 72 (May-June 1986):4.
Michael Buckley and Robert Strauss, Tibet-A Travel Survival Kit (South Yarra: Lonely Planet Publications, 1986), p. 104.
22
Ibid.
23
“Religion vs. Communism in Tibet,” Pacific Sunday, 15 December 1985, p. 14.
24
William Carlsen to Caris Faith Sy, 3 February 1986.
20
21
11
literature.25 Sy Chao Li also relates that a number of times he and his friend had Christian materials literally grabbed
from their hands by people who were extremely eager to receive it.
II. Preview of the Literature
The vast majority of information I have found indicates the following:
A. Extreme Disparity Between Buddhism and Christianity
For example, God gave our first parents, Adam and Eve, dominion over the animal kingdom, and there can be no
crossing over between man and the animal species, because each produces only after its own kind.
The Tibetan's belief that both mankind and animals can approach salvation through a series of rebirths has reduced
man to a very low common denominator and placed upon him a burden that he is incapable of bearing.26
B. Discouraging Reports from Christians
Paul Kauffman, whose father was a missionary in Tibet and who is editor of Asian Report, states:
Tibetans are perhaps the most religious people I have met. Their lives appear to be one long prayer meeting....
Religion is the focal point of their lives. Oh, if their gods could only hear and respond to their pathetic zeal.27
And a book presenting prayer requests for China relates the following information: “Due to the strong influence of
the Lama religion and strict control of the government, work of evangelism is very hard to develop.... work of
evangelism has not made much progress.”28
C. Bleak Reports from Missionaries
A case in point is the biography, Shelton of Tibet. It was written by Mrs. Shelton who had deep love for God and
appeared to live in close fellowship with the Savior. Respect for her husband, Dr. Shelton, and commitment to the
ministry were obviously very deep. The couple lived in Tibet and had close relationships with the Tibetan people; both of
their daughters were born in Tibet.
Yet, Mrs. Shelton writes: “Life seemed made up of small things. There was nothing great or wonderful; hard work
everyday, discouragement often.”29 In the entire book, I could see no evidence of any great breakthroughs.
In another text a great Catholic missionary expresses the same despondency. “Nevertheless,
Father Desideri laments the small results achieved by the Mission when compared with the sacrifices made.”30
D. Almost No Recorded Breakthroughs
Rev. William Carlsen's book, Tibet: In search of a Miracle, published in June 1985, records almost no tremendous
and lasting breakthroughs for the Gospel in this land. In the last paragraph he writes:
The people of Tibet are still searching for miracles. They look to priests, magicians, and prayer wheels, desperately
hoping that the gods will favor them.31
III. Design of the Study
A. Population
I plan to survey Tibetan believers who converted to Christianity after the age of ten.
B. Instruments
1. Survey (Refer to Data Analysis Chapter.)
2. I will use a bar graph to display my findings. (Refer to Data Analysis Chapter.)
C. Evaluation of instrument
The survey is worthwhile for the following reasons:
1. The survey contains only eight questions, and these are not difficult to answer.
Christian Communications Limited, “Tibet: Land of Darkness,” Pray for China 69 (November-December 1985): 3.
Carlsen, Tibet, p. 61.
27
Paul Kauffman, ed., “The Paralyzing Grip,” Asian Report vol. 17 No. 5 (October-November 1984): 9.
28
Chinese Coordination Center of World Evangelism, Prayer Adoption Plan for Chinese Around the World (Hong Kong
Chinese Church Research Center, 1984), p. 59.
29
Flora Beal Shelton, Shelton of Tibet (New York; George H. Doran Company, 1923), p. 189.
25
26
30
31
Ippolito Desideri, An Account of Tibet, ed. Filippo de Filippi (London: G. Routledge and Sons, 1937), p. 112.
Carlsen, Tibet, p. 65.
12
2. The survey has two questions (#6 and #7) which directly focus on information I am particularly seeking. These key
questions offer a variety of responses and allow space to write details. They should enhance my research--either to
confirm what I have studied, or open up new avenues for research.
3. Some of the options for questions #6 and #7 have been developed as a direct result of my research thus far.
4. In addition to questions #6 and #7, the other questions are also valuable, as they are designed to indicate the
presence of variables which could affect other significant responses.
5. Question #8 gives opportunity for people to respond who may have little to contribute to Question #6 or #7.
D. Potential Problems
1. There are extremely few Tibetan believers throughout the entire world.
2. If the surveys must be translated from English, the precise meaning may be lost in translation.
3. Tibetan believers may hesitate in responding for fear of potential persecution should the information not be kept
strictly confidential.
4. Tibetan believers may have difficulty focusing on the actual meaning of some questions because they normally
concentrate on the differences between Buddhism and Christianity, rather than seeking cultural parallels.
E. Handling Problems
First of all, I plan to survey as many Tibetan believers as possible, and I will send letters of reminder to those who
do not respond within an appropriate length of time. Furthermore, I will do my utmost to assure those completing the
survey that the sources of all information are confidential.
IV. Analysis
A. Bar Graphs Selected
I chose to use bar graphs because they display results clearly, and comparisons can be shown distinctly.
B. Graphs Display Responses to Questions #6, #7 and #8
These questions seek information regarding potential redemptive analogies, or other factors, which attracted (or
could have attracted) Tibetans to Christianity.
V. Conclusion
A. Sections
This study will first cover Tibetan life and culture and then seek to explain Buddhism in general and Tibetan
Buddhism specifically. In addition there will be a section on the history of the Christian Church in Tibet.
I also plan to present evidence for potential breakthroughs in the Tibetan's understanding of Christianity as a result
of redemptive analogies inherent in their culture. In addition, I will include a section on the Biblical basis for these
analogies.
B. New Ideas which the Research May Generate
First of all, I hope to discover some general principles for effectively communicating the Gospel to Tibetan
Buddhists worldwide. Also, I would like to arrange the findings into tangible and specific guidelines in praying for
spiritual breakthroughs among Tibetan Buddhists.
My prayer is that others who do research will also turn their discoveries into principles for prayer.
VI. Schedule
1. First Practical Ministry Course Check-out Completed -- March 15, 1986.
2. Second Practical Ministry Course Check-out Completed -- March 30, 1966.
3. First Chapter Approved -- April 1, 1986.
4. Second Chapter Approved -- April 15, 1986.
5. Third Practical Ministry Check-out Completed and Third Chapter Approved -- April 30, 1986.
6. Fourth Practical Ministry Check-out-Completed and Fourth Chapter Approved -- May 12, 1986.
7. Fifth Chapter Approved -- May 30, 1986.
8. Final Draft Approved -- March 1, 1987.
9. Edit Approval -- April 15, 1987.
13
CHAPTER II. BREAKTHROUGH OF BUDDHISM IN TIBET
Development of Tibetan Buddhism
During our stay in Tibet we were constantly reminded of the importance of the spiritual, and almost complete
rejection of things temporal. Throughout the country, religion is the strongest influence in the lives and thoughts of the
people. Yes, the very atmosphere of the land is permeated with religion.1
Thus wrote author and explorer Lowell Thomas, Jr. of his travel in Tibet.
In Tibet the word for history is Cho-jung, the "growth of religion." Only people, places and events related to
religion are considered worthy of a place in history.2
Religious Background of a People
The religion that an individual accepts and practices at a given point in his life cannot be accurately classified as his
religious background. Rather, the individual ' s religious background is the sum of his experiences and influences that
presently condition his religious thinking and responses. It not only consists of his previous religious experiences and
influences but the religious climate of his cultural heritage.
In the same way, the Mahayana form of Buddhism (sometimes called Lamaism) which is the present-day religion of
Tibet, cannot be designated as the religious background of the Tibetan people. It is now the religion of the land and
permeates all facets of life--but it is not native to Tibet.
It was an importation, and its coming coincided with--in fact, was the catalyst for--the adaptation and adoption of a
writing system; record keeping soon followed. In addition to these significant advances, there were also other notable
influences, for this was a period of intense and varied contact with China.3
Pre-Buddhist Belief Systems
Buddhism arrived in the snowbound land of Tibet in the seventh century. Previously, many efforts had been
undertaken to introduce Buddhism to the "Land of the Snow," but conditions were not favorable until the country was
united under a strong central authority, and the ancient religion, Bon, had declined.4
Bon Religion
The pre-Buddhist belief system of Tibet is classified as the Bon religion, although it is probable that Bon does not
refer to only one unified religion. Rather, sources suggest that it originally consisted of a loose aggregate of regional
tribal cults. And, though still enduring, the current beliefs and practices of the Bon religion are different from those
which existed before Buddhism was introduced to Tibet.5
Characteristics of the Bon Religion
Bon was a form of demonology and nature worship—a primitive shamanist faith, in which the wizard priest, or
shaman, was the principal figure. In6 the hands of the shaman lay the fate of the Tibetans; he was a priest and doctor,
respected and feared by everyone. The shaman employed all manner of magic charms and incantations, and the evil
spirits were propitiated and subjected to his power.7
The meager Tibetan and Chinese records available testify that the Bon world was pervaded with spirits, both helpful
and hostile. When these beings were propitiated, they tended to be friendly, but when annoyed, they became vicious,
flinging pestilence and illness at the people, sometimes even devouring children.
To pacify these spirits there was a group of exorcists and priests who, upon necessity, would attempt to
communicate with them. In addition, they sometimes resorted to sacrificing dogs, monkeys, horses, oxen, asses and even
human beings.8 Kenneth Ch'en, an authority on Buddhism and its roots in Tibet, gives this description:
The human victims were first seized by the hands and feet, then they were out open and their hearts torn out. After
this the blood and flesh were scattered to the four corners. At the oath of fealty, the participants were warned that if they
1
Lowell Thomas, Jr., Out of This World (New York: The Greystone Press, 1950), pp. 260-261.
Carlsen, Tibet, p. 12.
3
Robert Brainard Ekvall, Religious Observances in Tibet: Patterns and Function (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1964), p. 14.
4
Kenneth William Morgan, ed., The Path of Buddha (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1956), p. 237.
5
Ekvall, Religious Observances, p. 17.
2
6
7
Antoinette K. Gordon, Tibetan Religious Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 1952; reprint ed., New York: Paragon
Book Reprint Corporation, 1963), p. 5.
8
Kenneth Ch'en, Buddhism: Light of Asia (Woodbury: Barrons Educational Series, Incorporated, 1969); p. 189.
14
broke this oath, their bodies would be cut into pieces like those of the victims."9
Common Features of Bon and Buddhism
In order to more plainly depict how Bon and Buddhism interface, four salient features common to both will be
discussed.
First of all, each holds the concept of a pantheon of gods. However, in general, the Bon deities have darker, more
vengeful dispositions-'for they exist within the context of never-ending conflict, a sense of struggle that is all-embracing.
In contrast, the Buddhist gods tend to be less severe, having more benign characteristics.
A second element is t-he field of magic, which is significant in both religions. The difference lies in the manner in
which these services are offered and their uses. For example the practice of states of frenzy (known to the Tibetans as
"god-seized" or "goblin-seized") is admittedly a Bon specialist and occurs most often in the context of healing or
divination.
A third element, prayer, is equally a part of both religions. Much of the verbal expression of religion by Bon priests
and orthodox Buddhist monks and lamas are so similar that they could belong to either system. For example the
rhythmic repetition of syllables in a special tone and measured beat, accompanied by percussion and wind instruments-among which a flute constructed from a human thighbone may be found--belongs to both religions.
Finally, in the systems of offerings, much is shared by Buddhism and Bonism; however, some offerings
conspicuously belong to Buddhism, and others retain the characteristics of pre-Buddhist sacrifices.10 (An examination of
the sacrificial system will be given later in this chapter.)
Difference Between the Two Religions
Both religions seek assurance concerning the after-life, and both seek protection and aid to success in this present
world. But the difference between them is evident when a comparison of their religious goals is made. Robert Ekvall,
anthropologist, presents these details:
The goal of Buddhist observances are more concerned with other worldly matters: with deliverance from the
sufferings of the wheel of life, from the bondage of ignorance and desire, and from the evils of existence…. The Bon Po,
on the other hand, seek success, health, and protection in this life primarily with only a secondary or belated interest in
some sort of a final escape into heaven.11
Folk Religions
The pre-Buddhist or non-Buddhist folk religions of neighboring peoples, and others who probably had contact with
the Tibetans, furnish suggestions regarding the religious observances of these ancient Tibetans.
On both the eastern and southern borders of Tibet, there were many fragmentary groupings of primitive peoples
who resisted Buddhism. They worshipped heavenly bodies, sacred trees and stones, and practiced a sort of shamanism
characterized by exorcism and the propitiation of spirit beings.12
Ch'iang
The Ch'iang are somewhat representative being once a strong people in control of considerable territory between
the Tibetans and the Chinese. Their religious beliefs and practices have been studied and described. Ekvail states: "They
worship many gods, which are divided into two categories: the five greater and the twelve lesser ones. One among the
greater gods is called the sky god."13 (Refer to Chapter l--Section-Statement of the Problem: Hypothesis)
The Ch'iang religion also included a priesthood which was non-celibate and whose role was typically shamanistic.
Also ancestor worship and the veneration of trees and white stones were characteristic of Ch'iang religious beliefs and
practices.14
Mongols
The religion of the Mongols prior to their acceptance of Buddhism suggests some of the distinctive characteristics
of the pre-Buddhist religion of the Tibetans. Ekvall explains: "Their religion was a combination of the worship and
veneration of a high god related to or identified with the 'Blue Sky' and a shamanism that had a wide distribution among
Siberian peoples."15
Summary
9
Ibid.
Ekvall, Religious Observances, pp. 25-28.
11
Ibid., pp. 29-30.
12
Ibid., p. 33.
13
Ibid.
14
Ibid., p. 34.
15
Ibid., pp. 35-36.
10
15
Buddhism has not eliminated either Bon or any popular folk religion, but has endeavored to absorb
them. Where it has not succeeded in doing so, it has shaped them into its own pattern.
Although the native Bon worship was supplanted by Buddhism, it was never uprooted.16 For
example, the burning of incense and hoisting of prayer flags, which are so much a part of Tibetan
Buddhism, are not real Buddhist activities, but remnants of Bon.17 Therefore, the three currents-Buddhism, folk religions and Bon--are found side by side, and often within one another.18
Characteristics of the Pre-Buddhist Religion Research suggests with a fair degree of certainty that
the pre-Buddhist religion of the Tibetans was characterized by the following:
1. The belief in the existence of a supreme or high god who transcended all other spirit beings and
was closely associated, or identified, with the blue sky.
2. The acceptance of a vast pantheon of swarming spirit beings who, in consonance with a basic
concept of the dualism of good and evil, negative and positive, and the continuing conflict between the
two, were characterized as lHa ("god"), good, and aDre ("goblins"), bad. Many of these spirits were of a
jealous or spiteful disposition and had to be propitiated by worship and sacrifice or coerced by the
exercise of power.
3. The practice of offering bloody sacrifices of animals and also human beings. The gSHen
("shaman"), who carried the knife, was the killer. Some of the sacrifices were imputative, but others were
made in connection with burial rites or divination.
4. The practice of magic to control gods and demons, provide ghosts with guidance in the hereafter,
heal the sick, control the elements, foretell the future, and by malediction, injure or destroy enemies.
5. The occurrence of states of frenzy, or trance, which were ascribed to possession or guidance by
either the lHa ("god[s]") or the aDre ("Goblin[s]") of a dualistic spirit world. The individuals subject to
such seizures, or purposely seeking them, were regarded as possessors of extraordinary powers essential
to the function of the shaman.
6. The existence of a class of wizards--both male and female--possessing the powers mentioned in
No. 4, who resembled the shamans of the Mongols and other northern Asiatic peoples and who
functioned severally: as priests officiating at funerals; as sacrifices, healers, and diviners; and as those
able to use the black magic of malediction.
7. The practice of a ritual in which incantations and special regalia--including drums, weapons,
staves of power, masks, he addresses , and special costumes--were used.
8. The ascription of supernatural powers to certain beasts, birds, and reptiles--such as eagles, argali,
yak, bears, wolves, tigers, waterfowl, and snakes--thus making them objects of veneration and accessories
in the practice of magic.
9. The belief in an afterlife wherein ghosts were recognized and feared. This belief was probably
linked with rudimentary forms of ancestor worship. It was also believed that the dead might attain
directly to an existence of bliss in the heavens. Certain individuals--the early kings, for example--were
believed to have reached heaven directly as visitors from this life. A similar achievement was not
considered beyond the range of possibility for great magicians. This belief was linked to the concept of a
rope, or passage device, that connected earth to heaven and to the achievement of "opening the heavenly
gate" ascribed to gSBen Rabs.19
These characteristics not only existed as religious background for the Tibetans, but many carry into
the present. Later in this chapter (Section--Universal Religious Observances of the Present) repeated
evidences will verify the pressure and compelling force of these influences.20
16
Giuseppe Tucci, Land of Snows (New York: Stein and Day Publishers, 1967), p.71
Rinchen Dolma Taring, Daughter of Tibet (New Delhi: Allied Publishers Private Limited, 1970; reprint ed., London: John
Murray Publishers, Limited, 1983), p. 152.
18
Tucci, Land of Snows, p. 71.
19
Ekvall, Religious Observances, pp. 33, 38-39.
20
Ibid., p. 39.
17
16
Influential Kings and Religious Leaders
To more fully understand how Tibetan Buddhism continued to develop chronologically, some
significant personalities will be discussed. Some amplifications will be presented regarding the teachings
they introduced.
Songtsen Gampo
Buddhism was first welcomed under the rulership of King Songtsen Gampo, in the seventh century.
During his reign the Tibetan kingdom expanded to include all of Tibet plus areas of Nepal, Sikkim, India
and China. Songtsen Gampo married a Nepalese as well as a Chinese princess; both princesses were
Buddhist and brought their religion into the kingdom. (Further details in Appendix A--Section-History.)
King Trisong petsen/Teacher Santarakshita
The next great sovereign who reinforced the foundation of Buddhism in Tibet was King Trisong
Detsen (742-797), who ca-rne to the throne in 765. He sent an envoy to China in search of scriptures and
brought from India the great Indian teacher Santarakshita. However, before Santarakshita could establish
a strong foothold for Buddhism, an epidemic broke out in Tibet. Seizing this advantage, the Bonists
agitated the people against Buddhism, alleging that the importation of this foreign religion and foreign
teacher had provoked wrath from the gods.21
After the accusations subsided, the king determined to invite a famous teacher from the Buddhist
University at Nalanda, India. This prestigious master was the great tan-trie sage Padmasambhava; King
Trisong Detsen surmised that he would make a strong appeal to the ritual-loving Tibetans.22
Padmasambhava
Padmasambhava is undoubtedly a historical individual, although the Tibetans have constructed a
host of legends about him that cannot be validated. In his youth he was adopted by the King of Udyama
in northwest India, who later entrusted his kingdom to the rule of this adopted son.
However, Padmasambhava had no desire to reign and deserted his home and kingdom to become a
Buddhist monk. He concentrated on tantric Buddhism and quickly assimilated the secret doctrines and
mysterious powers associated with tantrism. (See amplification on page 35.) After Padmasarobhava's
arrival in Tibet, he utilized these powers to subdue the Bon demons who were hostile to his mission of
spreading Buddhism in Tibet. An example was his triumph over the Bon mountain spirit.
Padmasambhava seized the demon (who had taken the form of a white yak) by the mouth with an iron
hook, and then bound him with a noose and iron shackles. The demon was then forced to swear an oath of
allegiance to the tantric master.23
After being subjugated, these local demons were included in the Tibetan-Buddhist pantheon and
became protectors of the religion. During the time Padmasambhava remained in Tibet he had the Sarnye
monastery built between 763 and 775, just thirty miles from Lhasa.24
Shortly after the Sarnye Monastery was founded, the first Tibetan monks were ordained. Following
this was an age of great activity, the formative period of Tibetan Buddhism. Numerous temples were
constructed, prominent Indian scholars and Buddhist missionaries were invited, a Tibetan script was
created, and many scriptures were translated into the Tibetan language.25
Meaning of Tantrism
It is impossible to ascertain exactly what Padmasambhava believed and taught, but the fact that he
introduced a tantric Buddhism gives a clue. Tantrism refers to an esoteric Buddhism, derived from the
Sanskrit word tantric. This term literally means "a hidden groundwork," like the strands underneath a
woven tapestry. Thus tantric designates a religious observance whose purpose is to carry the human mind
21
Morgan, The Path, pp. 239-240.
Ibid., p. 240.
23
Ch'en, Light of Asia, pp. 191-192.
24
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 150; Morgan, The Path, p. 240.
25
E. Zurchar, Buddhism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962), p. 67.
22
17
from the surface of natural existence to the "hidden groundwork," or underlying essence of the reality
beyond.
Therefore, the use of mantras (recitations of mystic or symbolic gestures of hands and fingers), the
practice of yoga, and other practices, are all conducive to acquiring supernatural powers, and ultimately to
assimilate the true groundwork of reality.26 These practices supposedly have certain supernatural effects
which range from the quelling of demons to the attainment of Buddhahood in the highest forms of
existence.
Tantric Buddhism also enveloped the doctrine that passion can be exhausted by passion (the craving
for food, drink or sex can best be overcome by rising above it while it is being satisfied). Tantrists add
that, as revealed by nature, all the great natural forces are a union of male and female elements. This is
true of deity as well. Each god has a complement in the form of an active spouse; the god's highest power
is attained from union with her, for she rouses and draws it forth.27
Implications of Tantrism
The new and strange faith had some striking features; one of these related to the Bodhisattvas. This
term refers to saintly people who have reached the edge of Nirvana, but out of compassion for their
fellowmen, return to earth to assist others on their way to enlightenment.28 (Italics mine.) In this form of
Buddhism, the various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were provided with spouses or consorts. These spouses
were the taras or savioresses who were the active aspects of each Buddha being.
Secondly, a new genealogy of the gods was now possible. There were five celestial Dhyna Buddhas,
all supposedly fathered by the Adi-Buddha (the originative Buddha-essence), who is the single eternal
living principle of the complete Universe. The five Dhyani Buddhas in turn gave rise to the great
Bodhisattvas, and these, stirred by their taras, produced and sent down males and females to earth. Noss,
author of Man's Religions, explains:
The human devotee mean while, was believed able to identify himself with any of the celestial
Buddhas or their consorts by a period of fasting and prayer, climaxed by the utterance of powerful
mystic syllables, full of magic, and the visual evocation of the divine personage followed by a merging
of identities. This was a Tibetan version of entering Nirvana.29
Thus, Buddhism in Tibet partakes of a complex collection of gods, saints and spiritual beings which
have become grafted into the original teaching. Descending from the Adi-Buddha, hierarchy operates
through the five Buddhas. These five, unlike Gautama, were Buddhas from the beginning and have never
existed in any other form.
Throughout the period of evolution they produce a number of Bodhisattvas of varying degrees of
advancement. One of these manifested himself in human form and became known as the Buddha. They
believe the next human Buddha, who will come to earth in hundreds of thousands of years, is Maitreya,
and he is continually worshipped along with Avolokiteshavara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion.30
Further doctrines were involved in tantric Buddhism. One stated the human being is the universe in
microcosm, and just as nature is pervaded by hidden stores of energy (shakti), so the human being has
secret energy coiled up in him at the base of his spine. Followers of tantric Buddhism also claim that
certain sounds and the manifestation of groups of letters and images, accompanied by bodily movements,
arose as if it were a thunder clap.
Vajrayana Buddhism
Therefore, it is better understood why this system of religion, usually called Lamaism, coming from
bla-ma, (Tibetan for monk or superior one) has been named the Vajrayana, "Vehicle of the Thunderbolt."
26
Alfonso Verdu, The Philosophy of Buddhism (The Hague: Matinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1981), p. 115.
John B. Noss, Man's Religions (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1969), pp. 242-243.
28
Carlsen, Tibet, p. 13.
29
Noss, Man's Religions, p. 243.
30
William Macquitty, Buddha (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Limited, 1969), p. 80.
27
18
This is to distinguish it from Hinayana and Mahayana, the two main branches of Buddhism (See
Appendix B--Section-Buddhist Branches.) Vajrayana Buddhism is associated with the Mahayana School
because it recognizes Nirvana (the release from the endless cycle of lives and rebirths) as taught in the
Mahayana tradition.31
Another translation of Vajrayana is "Vehicle of the Diamond." The diamond flashes miniature
lightning and maybe said to carry a flash as the thunderbolt does. Both are associated with the Bodhi or
enlightenment which comes like a lightning flash, and magic is involved in the process.32 Simply stated,
Vajrayana Buddhism could be described as life in the fast lane r because unlike other forms of Buddhism,
it has the objective of attaining Nirvana within a single lifetime, instead of enduring countless rebirths.
King Repachen
The third king who made memorable efforts to fur-ther consolidate Buddhism in Tibet was King
Repachen, who ruled from 817-836. During the first year of his reign he sanctioned a great council,
attended by Indian and Tibetan scholars who discussed avenues to propagate Buddhism in Tibet.
King Repachen encouraged the spread of Buddhism through various methods: preaching; the
establishment of temples, monasteries, libraries; and by supporting Buddhist art and image making. But
as the spread of Buddhism climaxed, the outreach received a terrible and unexpected set-back; as a result
of a Bonist controversy. King Repachen was assassinated.33
However, this was only a temporary setback. In approximately 1000, Tibet experienced a revival of
Buddhism, initiated by a few enthusiasts who lived in the utmost east and west, where the pressure of
persecution had been slightest.
Priest Atisha
Of decisive consequence was the coming of the Hindu priest Atisha in 1042 at the invitation of the
King of western Tibet.34 He had authored numerous well-known texts on Buddhism and had founded the
Kadampa sect which stressed meditation and discipline in the monasteries.35
Not only did he strive actively to restore Buddhism throughout the length and breadth of the country,
but he sought diligently to maintain a proper balance between religious discipline, mysticism, and tantrie
practices.36 In addition to these contributions, he created a systemof chronology which still is utilized in
Tibet. It defined each year by its position in a cycle of sixty years. Without this chronological system, the
work of the historians would have been impossible.
Because Buddhism is enormously complex, a classification of its teachings and methods is desirable.
Atisha provided this as he differentiated the religious practices according to three levels of spiritual
development. The lowest are those who seek happiness in this world, considering only their own interests.
The second are also self-seeking but, in addition, they desire to lead a virtuous life and attain purification.
The highest level are those who have the salvation of all at heart. Atisha provides this classification in his
text, Lamp Illuminating the Road to Enlightenment. The full fruits of this manual came one hundred years
later with Tsongkhapa.37
Tsongkhapa
Born in 1357, Tsongkhapa was both a follower of Atisha and a great reformer.38 He entered the
monastic order at the age of seven and at sixteen began the systematic study of the writings of the Indian
31
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 39.
Noss, Man's Religions, p. 243.
33
Morgan, The Path, p. 242.
34
Edward Conze, A Short History of Buddhism (London: George Alien and Unwin Limited, 1980), p. 116.
35
Gordon, Iconography, p. 106.
36
Ch'en, Light of Asia, p. 195.
37
Conze, Short History, pp. 116-117.
38
Gordon, Iconography, p. 107.
32
19
masters. Tsongkhapa's studies led him to a keen awareness of the state of decay and laxity into which the
Tibetan clergy had degenerated, and prompted him to promote re form.
By the time of his ordination at the age of twenty-five, he was a master of the different spheres of
Buddhist learning, as well as of the secular fields of medicine and mathematics. Of his great writings, the
most famous is entitled Steps to Enlightenment, completed in 1403.39 His great scholarship and pure
religious life soon attracted large numbers of disciples, who assembled together and formed a new school,
the Gelugkpa (Virtuous) School.40
Divisions of Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism can be described as a tree with 40 numerous branches.41 As Buddhism developed
in Tibet, sects began to form, founded by Tibetans themselves. Each of these excelled in a particular area
of Buddhist spiritual life. The sects differed in their monastic organization, doctrines, methods of
meditation, dress, and in other areas. But they also interfaced, and a great deal of mutual borrowing took
place.42
In Tibet it is difficult to differentiate the course of religion, politics and history. Buckley and Strauss
note: "In real religious terms there is little sectarian conflict, but when religion is combined with politics,
there is."43 Fierce rivalry did exist, but it was rooted in political, not religious differences.
Although Tibetan Buddhism has many branches, generally two principal schools have emerged.
These are denoted as "Red" and "Yellow"--referring to the colors of the hats they wear on ceremonial
occasions. The most significant sects are Nyingmapa, Sakyapa, Kagyupa and Gelukpa. The first three
sects are classified as Red Hats, arid are non-reformed sects. Gelukpa is a reformed sect and is known as
the Yellow Hat Sect.44
Red Hat Sects
The Nyingmapa is one of the oldest sects and combines various earlier sects and traditions. Although
founded around the eleventh century, it actually dates back to the time of Padmasambhava, who hid
writings containing secret doctrines in various locations during his wanderings in Tibet.45
The Nyingroapa were distinct--accepting what other sects generally discarded, such as anger, lust
and the human body. They believed that a well-rounded personality did not suppress lust, anger, and other
strong passions; instead, the person placed these into their proper perspective.46
According to Conze, an authority on the Buddhist religion, "The Nyingmapa concentrated on
esoteric teaching and personal realization, and preferred intuitive insight to communicable knowledge."47
Also, this sect encompassed more of the Bonist ideas and superstitions than did the later reformed sects.
Although the Nyingmapa perpetually struggled for power, and attempted to take control of the country, it
has never succeeded.48
The Sakyapa sect was founded by Drokmi, who set up a monastery in Sakya as early as the eleventh
century; by the thirteenth century it had risen to power. The Sakyapa sect emphasized magic and sorcery,
and in addition, permitted their abbots to marry and to drink intoxicating beverages. This led to a
39
Ch'en, Light of Asia, p. 199
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 43.
41
Tucci, Land of Snows, p. 64.
42
Conze, Short History, p. 117.
43
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, pp. 41, 252.
44
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 41; Tucci, Land of Snows, p. 64.
45
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, pp. 41, 252.
46
Conze, Short History, p. 120.
47
Ibid., p. 121.
48
Conze, Short History, p. 121; Morgan, The Path, p. 239.
40
20
reputation for worldliness among the monks. Under Mongol overlordship, the Sakyapa governed Tibet
from approximately 1200 to 1350 and then their power declined from 1350 to 1400.49
The Kagyupa sect was founded by Marpa (1012-1093), who was born in southern Tibet. Marpa's
chief disciple was Milarepa (1040-1123), the most loved and revered of the Tibetan poets.50 The tantric
master Marpa taught a Yoga system of physical and mental training in four phases, and he attached little
value to scriptural studies or to the observation of the monastic rules (including the rule of celibacy).51
In the course of time, this became the most Tibetan of all the sects, and its aim was not so much
theoretical knowledge as the practical outworkings of such knowledge. Biographies of the Kagyupa sect
reveal no stock saints, but human beings as they actually are, with all their imperfections and frailties.52
Yellow Hat Sect
The origins of the Gelukpa Sect can be traced to the Kadampa Sect which was founded by Atisha.
Later, Tsongkhapa was responsible for reforms which led to the actual founding of the Gelukpa, which
means "the virtuous."53 This reformed sect required adherence to monastic discipline. Tsongkhapa
prescribed a return to the traditional Buddhist way of life as outlined in the Vinaya (Rules of Discipline
governing the Order of Bhikkhus). He endorsed practices such as celibacy, prohibition of wine and meat
and rigid monastic discipline. In addition, he desired to modify some of the tantric practices.
Although antagonizing some of the older sects, he won wide and immediate endorsement from the
populace who were exasperated at the laxity and corruption prevalent among Buddhist sects. His
followers were inspired by the fresh innovative ideas and religious zeal of this new school.54
Incarnation
At his death in 1419, leadership of the sect passed on to one of his great disciples. The third in the
line of succession was Gedun Drub, a nephew of Tsongkhapa, who became the abbot of Ganden in 1438,
and thus the supreme head of Gelukpa. He assumed a significant role in consolidating the hierarchy of the
Yellow Sect. And he initially developed the incarnation theory as a rigid dogma to be strictly heeded.
This theory states that after the leader of a sect died, he will be reincarnated in the body of a newly
born baby. Henceforth, the assigned duty of the leadership is to locate and identify the child. The dogma
further declares that the Grand Lama (or leader of the sect) is the reincarnation of Avalokitesvara (the
Compassionate One), the protective deity of Tibet.55
Grand Lamas
At the head of Tsongkhapa's reformed Tibetan Buddhism are two Grand Lamas (lama means "the
chief"), who are regarded as incarnations of the Buddha. One is the Dalai Larna ("Ocean of Wisdom")
who is to reside in Lhasa and who is known as Gyalpo. The other, the Parichen Lama Rimpoche ("great
Gem of Majesty" or Tashi), is to reside in the Tashilhunpo Monastery, located in Shigatse. The Dalai
Lama at Lhasa rules on earth, the other is more occupied with spiritual things.56
Tibet was a theocratic state, and its ruler, both civil and ecclesiastical, was the Dalai Lama. Until the
Communists took power, he theoretically enjoyed absolute powers; he appointed and dismissed officials,
and his judgment was invoked in all significant cases whether civil, criminal, or administrative.57
49
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 170.
Ibid.
51
Gordon, Religious Art, p. 243.
52
Conze, Short History, p. 117.
53
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 43.
54
Ch'en, Light of Asia, pp. 199-200.
55
Ibid., pp. 200-201.
56
Albert Schweitzer, Indian Thought and Its Development, trans, Mrs. Charles E. Russel (London: Hodder and Stoughton
Limited, 1936), p. 148.
57
Frank Moraes, The Revolt in Tibet (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960), pp. 44-45.
50
21
The first Dalai Lama was Gedun Drub, who founded the monastery at Tashilhunpo in the fifteenth
century. When Geduri Drub died in 1474, his spirit supposedly entered the body of a baby born two years
later. This boy became his successor, and thus commenced a system of priestly incarnation in which the
individuals were known as Incarnate Lamas. Although the Dalai Lama is the first and greatest of these,
the Tibetans acknowledge reincarnation in other lamas, who number approximately one thousand.58
The succession of the Dalai Lama and of the Pantchen Lama is determined by special conditions and
by the oracles. Upon the Dalai Lama's "retirement to the heavenly fields" (euphemism for death), the
Lama's astrologers consult the official government astrologer for information concerning the locality in
which the new incarnation may be found. Frequently, the Dalai Lama himself, before dying, may give
indication of the locality. Antoinette Gordon in Tibetan Religious Art presents these details:
All the male children who were born at the time of the Dalai Lama's death and who possess certain
physical characteristics that are believed to indicate a reincarnation are examined, and circumstances at
the time of their birth are investigated. The potential applicant is confronted with various personal
belongings, among which are articles which belonged to the late Dalai Lama. If he selects and
recognizes those which belong to him, that is another auspicious sign. When the identity of the newly
incarnated Dalai Lama is finally determined, the child is brought to Lhasa in state. He lives in the
palace under tutelage of the Regent until he becomes of age, when he assumes full control.59
Distinctions of Tibetan Buddhism
Despite Chinese efforts to transform Tibetan culture, Tibetan Buddhism remains strongly entrenched.
There are still altars everywhere: in nomads' tents, private homes, and temples. Whether the altars are
simple or complex--they are all draped with scarves and other offerings. And each altar has at least one
butter lamp whose flame is never to die out.60
Universal Religious Observances of the Present
There are six basic attitudes and activities which can accurately be classified as Tibetan universal
religious observances and are practiced by all Tibetans, clergy and laity alike. In order of religious
importance, these are:
1. The attitude of Dad Pa (faith)
2. The practice of Clios aDon (religion expressed, or verbalization of religion
3. The making of CHod Pa (offerings)
4. The performance of PHyag (salutations)
5. The performance of bsKor Ba (circumambulation)
6. The recourse to Mo (divination)
The first observance, the attitude of Dad Pa (faith), is the most important, and it stands apart from all
others, because it is an attitude rather than an activity. It plays a role in setting ethical ideals; it influences
interpersonal and intergroup relationships; and it is a determining factor in establishing social, political,
and even international attitudes.
The second, the practice of CHos aDon (expressed verbalized religion), is an activity linked with
communication. It is the expression of religion through speech, writing and reading. In addition, it
involves the multiplication or amplification of these by every possible device- -from printing blocks to
prayer wheels powered by wind and water.61
The third observance is the making of mCHod Pa ("offerings"). This practice is based on ideals of
sacrifice and devotion, leading to the renouncing of the self and its interests.
58
Ibid., pp. 45-46.
Gordon, Religious Art, p. 6.
60
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 55.
61
Ibid., pp. 55-56.
59
22
The fourth and fifth observances are similar in many respects, because both performances, PHyag
(salutation) and bsKor Ba (circumambulation), are the physical expressions of reverence and worship.
Both activities are manifestations of bodily effort, and some activities may be quite lengthy and taxing.
This is especially true since some circumambulation is done completely while in a prostrate position.
Korlam, or circumambulation of sacred locations in a clockwise direction, expresses the belief that man
revolves around Buddha as the planets rotate around the sun.
The sixth is the most controversial of the observances. Mo (divination) involves the telescoping of
time and space for the purpose of forecasting events.62
Potential Redemptive Analogies
Two of these six observances will be discussed in greater detail because of their relation to potential
redemptive analogies.
Expressed Verbalized Religion
First is the practice of Expressed Verbalized Religion. Man, "the talking animal," because of his
primal need to communicate with his fellowman (or his God), became the possessor of speech. A
statement which aptly summarizes the linguistic difference between the culture of the Tibetans and the
Chinese is: "The seal indeed for the Chinese; the mouth indeed for the Tibetans." Even among present
day Tibetans who are highly literate, dependence on the certainty and clarity of the spoken word has
persisted.
Author Sir Charles Bell has noted that in official communications of the Tibetans, there was
perpetually a spoken message that accompanied the written message, and that invariably this word of
mouth portion was the most important feature, frequently modifying the term of the letter. In this frame of
reference verbalization of religion takes on added and varied significance.
The phrase which summarizes this verbalization is "mouth speech" or "religion speech." It is the
term most commonly used to comprehend the entire range of formal chanting, the pronouncement of
incantations, the offering of prayers and the endlessly muttered repetition of the six-syllable formula, Om
mani padme hum, which means, "Hail, thou jewel in the lotus."63
Offerings/Sacrifices
Since Tibetan Buddhism has preserved the Bon shamanic tradition almost in its entirety, its
sacrificial system is a reflection of this.64
Categories of Offerings
The gTor Ma or Torma (broken-up) offerings, although employed by Buddhists and Bonists alike,
point back to earlier forms of sacrifice. Ekvall points out that it "seems reasonably certain from aspects of
the ceremony today, that the gTor Ma is a vestigal survival of earlier forms of bloody sacrifice."65 The
gTor Ma class of offerings are divided into three subcategories, each having different incantations, ritual
and final disposal. They are classified as:
1. "The broken-up mediated toward god."
2. "The broken-up offering presentation."
3. "The broken-up toward perfect food."
The first of these involves the creation of a god--the embodiment of a god within the gTor Ma--who
is then worshipped. Contrary to the meaning, the offering is not broken up or disposed of, but it is
worshipped. This "god-making" presumption derives from some pre-Buddhist practice, but its origin has
not been clearly identified.
62
Ibid., pp. 55-56.
Ibid., pp. 98, 101-103.
64
Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, trans, Willard R. Trask (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1964; reprint ed., Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 434.
65
Ekvall, Religious Observance, pp. 28-29.
63
23
The second form is the most typical and most commonly utilized. The figures which constitute the
offering are broken up and later tossed out, scattered, or sometimes burned.
The final form is designated for the specific purpose of eventually being eaten by the participant and by him alone.
It is a kind of ingested sacrament, and is respected as a remedy for, or prevention of, sickness. It is not clear whether this
is related to any pre-Buddhist ritual or not.66
In addition to these, there are numerous other types of offerings and sacrifices which are shamanic in structure. For
example there is one tantric rite named chod which involves the offerer giving of his own flesh to be eaten by demons.67
Bloody Sacrifices/Substitution
Regarding the second form, these gTor Ma offerings usually consisted of images or emblems shaped from clay,
dough, butter, or similar substances--most frequently dyed red. These became the bearers of retribution or bad luck. In
some of the more dramatic ceremonies the gTor Ma was ritualistically attacked with symbolic weapons, such as a dagger
or ax, and then cut to pieces.68
Various sources cite evidence of animals being cut up and their blood utilized; other texts ascertain that human
sacrifices ("the great red offering") were made in divination, in rites of healing and in honoring or propitiating royal
ancestral spirits. Therefore, essentially these are more accurately classified as sacrifices than offerings.
"The great red offerings," were bloody sacrifices and involved taking life; they were linked with concepts of
propitiation, substitution, soothsaying and commissioning human beings (and animals) to the world of the dead. (This
was in order to serve and comfort the dead.) It should be noted that all these concepts, including those beings fran the
world of the dead, are completely foreign to Buddhism.69
The Glud ritual additionally confirms the existence of this practice of selective killing. This sacrifice is closely
related to the gTor Ma and also appears to have its roots in past forms of bloody sacrifice. It combines the concept of
substitution and the concept of a representative who will bear away adversities and disaster, by assuming guilt for the sin
which caused them.
There are other forms of this substitution or representation. Sometimes domesticated animals--particularly yak,
sheep, and goats--are symbolically laden with guilt and sent on their way to be killed by anyone who finds them, or to
become the prey of wild animals. Another procedure is to send out messengers on horses, carrying substitute figurines
and emblems, which they discard in remote places.
Also, an individual (or individuals) is sometimes selected to act as a sort of demon scapegoat in the Glud ceremony.
He is appropriately burdened with the communal ill luck of the year and is given a sporting chance to escape from abuse
and, at times, actual attempts to kill him. Although he tries his utmost to escape, the demon scapegoat occasionally does
not get away, or at least does not survive the ill treatment. In such cases, the realism of human sacrifice has persisted into
modern times.70
Tibetan Worship
A lively and constant fear of evil spirits and a dread of the hereafter contributed to the formation of a system of
superstitious worship, consisting mainly in the recitation of the canon, turning of the prayer wheel and the universal use
of amulets and charms. A continual repetition of the magic formula, Om mani padme hum is regarded as of great
efficacy against all pernicious influences.71
The severe life of the Tibetans on the wind-torn plateaus ten thousand feet above sea level, encircled by icy
mountains, constrained them to revere the demonic in nature. They craved the supernatural. This demonophobia
predisposed them to adopt a religion well-calculated to meet their needs. C.A.S. Williams, author of Outlines of Chinese
Symbolism and Art Motives, gives these details:
The demonic in nature colored even their conception of benevolent divine beings. Not only had they pictured in
imagination numerous evil powers with distorted and hideous faces, they portrayed even the mild and beneficent
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas as though they were in a towering rage. The Buddha images seemed designed to frighten
the wits out of the devout who approached them. But then the fearsome visage had after all this good effect: it scared
off the evi1 demons, while it merely chastened the worshipper.72
66
Ibid., pp. 164-165.
Eliade, Shamanism, p. 456.
68
Ekvall, Religious Observances, pp. 28-29.
69
Ibid., pp. 160-161.
70
Ibid., pp. 29, 165.
71
C.A.S. Williams, Outlines of Chinese Symbolism and Art Motives (New York: Dover Publications, Incorporated, 1976), p.
246.
72
Ibid
67
24
The following section is a presentation of various procedures in worship which the Tibetans believe will serve as
protection from these fears.
Iconography in Worship
Prayer-Wheel (Manichorkor)
The prayer-wheel or manichorkor is an example of the union of magic and religion, a specialty of Tibetan
Buddhism. Whether the Tibetans invented the prayer-wheel or not is debatable, but they are distinguished for making
universal use of it. Not strictly wheel-like, it can be described as a barrel revolving on its axis. It contains written prayers
and books of sacred writing and may be turned by hand, water, wind or hot air.
Tibetans believe that as they spin these cylinders several million petitions are released to the heavens, gaining merit
for the wielder. It is also intended to give assurance to the Buddhas that the worshipper's heart is in the right place.
Prayer-Flags
In Tibetan communities, prayer-flags are also seen in abundance, fluttering from bridges, tents, roofs, or virtually
any high point. Prayers are inscribed on the cloth, and these supposedly flutter to the heavens.73
Rosaries
Rosaries normally contain 108 beads, the holy number, and are used to recite the name of Buddha one hundred
times. (There are extra beads in case the worshipper is forgetful or has lost some beads.) Rosaries are made from a
variety of materials: turquoise, amber, coral, wood, seeds and bone.74
Water
Water also has a fundamental place within Buddhism. In Tibet, all lakes are believed sacred, being the habitation of
Lu (water spirits). Those who make offerings or present a khata (ceremonial scarf) receive water in their cupped hands,
which they imbibe and also rub on their foreheads.
Mani-walls
Mani-walls are generally a meter high and can vary in length from a meter to several kilometers. Their stones are
carved or painted with inscriptions and images of deities. These walls are considered to be holy, and pilgrims walk
around them or prostrate before them.75
Thangkas
Thangkas are religious paintings, normally done on cotton or linen. They are usually rectangular in shape, with red
or yellow silk serving as a border. Sometimes at the bottom of the mount there is a small, rectangular patch called the
thang-so, which serves as an "entrance" so that one may pass into the subject of the painting. These paintings can be
rolled up and easily transported. According to Buckley and Strauss, it is probable that the Buddhist monks utilized
thangkas as mobile illustrations of their religion.
Chortens
Chortens (Sanskrit: stupa) are small temples which are striking symbols of Buddhism. Their origin was the death
and cremation of Buddha. The Buddha's ashes were divided among eight lords who each constructed a chorten to house
these relics. In Tibetan Buddhism, a chorten usually symbolizes the mind of Buddha, and these structures vary in design
and size from a meter high to a many-storied construction.76
Tsa tsa
Tsa tsa are votive plaques, originally made of clay. The earliest forms were stamped with magic formulas and used
to consecrate chortens. These are still common and often found on altars and chortens; they may also be carried in
portable shrines.
Spirit Traps
Finally, spirit traps are used to protect buildings from evil spirits or demons. Usually the trap is made from the skull
of a dog, sheep or goat supported by a willow-rod structure which is interwoven with straw and woolen threads in a
certain pattern. When the demons are supposedly caught in the threads, they are destroyed by burning the entire trap.77
Symbols
There are numerous symbols utilized within Tibetan Buddhism. These are listed in Appendix C.
Public Worship
73
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 56; Noss, Man's Religions, p. 245.
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 56.
75
Ibid., pp. 56-57.
76
Ibid., p. 57.
77
Ibid pp. 56-57.
74
25
Public Ceremonies
Public ceremonies gradually evolved and appealed most strongly to the common people of Tibet. Four ritual
components came to be characteristic of a complete ceremony: (l) the mandala or frame (in picture form, or described in
the air and imagined), (2) the mantras, (3) the puja, or offering of one or more of the following: prayers; confession of
Sins; sacrifices of flowers, lights, incense, perfumes and ointments, and (4) the mudras or hand positions, which were
believed to establish "actual contact with the gods."78
These mudras were directed to thirty-five or more Tantric deities, great and minor, and ran in sequences which often
required thirty to fifty hand patterns in each sequence. They not only attracted the presence of the benevolent powers
but also drove off the evil ones. By describing with the hands certain cabalistic patterns in the air and uttering at the
same time the proper Sanskrit formulas it was believed that goblins and demons could be exorcised and by the same
means ferocious animals, robbers, madmen, souls of the unburied or of enemies, demons of the storm, spirits of bad
dreams, or devils of disease and nervous ailments could be kept away.79
Mandalas have many functions, although they are primarily used in meditation and are to symbolize the universe.
They contain geometric forms and usually depict deities or symbols encircling a central figure. Some of the circular
boundaries of the mandala include flames, thunderbolts and lotus petals.
The person meditating usually continues his contemplation of the mandala until he visualizes himself temporarily
occupying the place of the central figure. This, he believes, will result in his acquisition of some of its qualities and
powers.80
Pilgrimages
Pilgrimages are still very common in the expression of religious devotion. Many pilgrims who come to Lhasa still
travel enormous distances, performing kjangchag, which involves prostrating themselves the entire journey. It is difficult
to imagine, but the body is thrust forward on the ground with hands outstretched. Then the pilgrim arises out of the dust
and proceeds with the next prostration from where his hands last touched the ground. Such pilgrimages are especially
popular during the fourth month of the year (May), when Buddha's birth is celebrated.81
Personal Worship
Temple Worship
In Tibetan Buddhism there is no fixed time for going to the temple, and people do not attend as a congregation.
Individuals can go whenever and as frequently as they wish. When a Tibetan goes to the temple, he takes along butter,
tsamba and incense. The butter is melted at the Gompa (monastery), poured into burners of silver or copper or
earthenware, and lit. Of the tsamba the lamas make chopa, small figures shaped like spires, and these are placed on the
altar. Then the incense sticks are lit and placed in the incense urns.
Following, the worshipper places a khata (ceremonial scarf) on the Buddha and prostrates himself. Simultaneously
the lamas intone general prayers as they desire, or specific prayers for certain occasions. Upon leaving he makes a round
of the korlo (prayer cylinders) which surround the temple. He turns each cylinder while repeating the prayer-formula,
Om mans padme hum. It is up to the individual's preference whether he makes the round once or twice, or more. Then he
is finished.82
Devotions
Devotions are also individual rather than congregational, and the lamas hold services in homes. For these services,
the Tibetans will generally have three lamas come, a leader and two assistants. They may stay a few hours or a few days,
depending on the desires of the household. Chopa are made, butter is burned, and the lamas intone prayers suitable for
the occasion.
The family provides the lamas with food and lodging, and, at the end of their visit, present them with a gift of
money, or its equivalent. There are no fixed charges, and the household decides on their own contribution. But whatever
they bestow belongs to the lamas personally, not to the Gompa.
Wealthy people may have prayers intoned on a much larger scale, requesting fifty or more lamas at one time. They
may hold full choral services with huge copper trumpets, clarionettes, bugles, drums and cymbals. As with temple visits,
78
Noss, Man's Religions, p. 244.
Ibid.
80
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, pp. 56-57.
81
Ibid pp. 55-56
82
Rinchen Lhamo, We Tibetans (London: Seeley Service Company, 1926; reprint ed., New York: Potala Publications, 1985),
pp. 173-174.
79
26
these services can be held at any time. However, they are usually in connection with some difficulty, such as sickness, or
something else which has gone wrong.83
83
Ibid., pp. 173-175.
27
CHAPTER III. POTENTIAL BREAKTHROUGHS FOR THE GOSPEL
Existent Elements
Tibetan culture and religious beliefs appear to possess several points of contact which could serve either as
redemptive analogies or as qualities which would heighten an individual's interest in the Gospel. Any one of these could
enable the Tibetan people to comprehend more fully and internalize appropriately God's message to mankind.
Sacrificial System and Spoken Word
First, there is the sacrificial system which still carries influence among the Tibetans. The vicarious atonement of
Jesus Christ can be depicted in their religious belief system. Related to the sacrificial system is the scapegoat ceremony;
this special event displays the Tibetans' realization of their personal sin and need for removal. (Amplified in Appendix
A--Section-Festivals/Ceremonies) Another element which holds great potential for enhancing the spiritual understanding
of the Tibetan people is their reverence for the spoken word.
Evidence in Ekvall's Poems
Robert Ekvall, anthropologist, writer and missionary to Tibet, makes reference to some potential contact points for
the Gospel in Tibetan Voices. In this volume he poetically expresses possible attitudes and perplexities of the Tibetans as
they confront Christianity.
His initial poem reflects the questioning mind of the "Devil Dancer:"
Thus I dance the Black Hat dance
But my heart's afraid
Death still follows red and white,
Demons haunt me in the night,
Yama rules in hell's red light,
And I'm captive by sin's might.
"Dorma"1 frees me not.
In that book read,
"Christ our 'dorma' now is sacrificed for us,
Therefore let us keep the festival."
Now my heart will answer,
"Let that offering even now be mine,
And forever I will keep that feast."
I dance the dance of gods and demons
Nevermore.
I follow Christ.
He is the "dorma" most complete;
He alone can bring defeat
To death and demons, hell and sin.
I trust in Him, I enter in
To peace I have not known.2
Later Ekvall reveals the possible contemplations of the "Idle Monk" as he pens these lines:
What do you have to give?
Do I know how to read? Sure as I live,
I read
The creed,
And utter all the prayers within our books,
But not your foreign letters. This looks
Like ours.
What powers
Print smoothly and so well? I read it straight.
"Salvation's way--God's Word is living--great."
But let
1
2
Dorma = gTor Ma or torma.
Robert Brainard Ekvall, Tibetan Voices (Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1946), p. 13.
28
Me see
My hands on that with covers bright and
green.
I read it too. Don't ask, "What does it Mean?"
The sound
I've found.
"In the beginning was the Word."
"Where was this Word which you say is sublime,
Before that early misty birth of time?
How strange
The range
Of truth itself from that time to this hour.
"With God… was God… made flesh..."
such words of power.
Perchance
I'll glance
Within this book again whene'er I can,
But not today, for I'm a busy man,
And so
Must go,
Since there is nothing more now to be seen.3
Non-existent Element
Paradoxically, what may attract an individual to the Gospel is not always an element within his culture or religious
belief system, but an element which is blatantly absent. Thus far, the sacrificial system has been discussed several times.
The Bible recounts numerous sacrifices, but Genesis, Chapter 22, records an especially significant one. There Abraham,
as a type of God the Father, is commanded to sacrifice his son Isaac, a type of Jesus Christ. Related to this dramatic
communication of the Father heart of God is an interesting fact. In verse 2 of this chapter, a profound word is used for
the first time in Scripture--the word love.
Gladys Aylward, courageous and renowned missionary to China, shares a fascinating story in one of her
biographies which exemplifies the hunger in man's heart for love. Gladys and a companion, Dr. Huang, were traveling
on a short ministry excursion. She relates that on the eleventh day, out of desperation, the doctor prayed, "Oh God... We
have witnessed to no one today, but you have sent us here for some special purpose. Show us where to find the man you
intend to bless."4
When the prayer time ended, the two began to sing choruses. A few minutes later, they joyously sighted a Tibetan
lama priest who, to their surprise, cordially invited them both to spend the night in the lamasery. They were extremely
curious, because lamas are supposed to have nothing to do with women.
But, another, even greater surprise awaited them. Suddenly, the lama stated clearly, "We have waited long for you
to tell us about the God who loves." 5 Gladys reports how her heart jumped when their new guide led them to a
compound and invited them to speak to five hundred lamas! They sang and also spoke of the baby who was born in the
stable and of the Savior who died on Calvary.
Speaking on and on, interspersed with singing, they continued until well past the point of exhaustion. Finally, upon
the verge of collapse, they both arose and left the great hail to retire for the night. However, rest was not yet to come. For
upon retiring, Gladys was disturbed by lama after lama coming to her room, two by two.
She describes the situation: "A few minutes later, two more came, and so it went on all night. Always the same
question, 'Will you explain how and why He died? Will you explain how it is He could love me?'"6 Then she amplifies:
These men never questioned that God was the Creator of the World, they never doubted the fact of the virgin birth,
and they did not consider any of the miracles incredible. To them it was the wonder of God's love which obsessed
them. The story of Christ's death on Calvary filled their minds with awe and reverence.7
3
Ibid., pp. 30-31.
Christine Hunter, The Small Woman of the Inn of the Sixth Happiness (Chicago: Moody Press, 1970), p. 113.
5
Ibid., p. 117.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid.
4
29
When Gladys spoke with Dr. Huang the next morning, she found that the same occurrence had taken place in his
room. These lamas were thirsting for the old story of God's loving plan of salvation. So the two decided to remain at the
monastery a while longer, which eventually turned into a full week. During this time, they continued to receive inquiries
regularly. Finally, Gladys gathered enough courage to ask her big question: "Why did you let me--a foreign woman
come to your lamasery? Why did you allow me to speak to your priests?"8
And she received the most astonishing reply.
It is a long story. Out on our mountainside grows a licorice herb which my lamas collect and sell in the cities.
One year the men who had taken the herb harvest down on the mules were passing through a village when they saw a
man waving a paper while he called out, "Who wants one? Salvation free and for nothing. He who believes gets
salvation and lives forever. If you want to learn more of this, come to the gospel hall."
The lamas, utterly astonished at such a doctrine, took the tract and brought it back to the lamasery. I was shown
the tract, now worn and in pieces, stuck on the wall. It was a perfectly ordinary tract, simply quoting John 3:16, "For
God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but
have everlasting life."
That was all, but from it they had learned that somewhere there was a "God who loved." Everybody read it and
reread it or had it read to them.
The head lama continued the story after I had read that important scrap of paper.
The next year, when our men took the herb down to the cities they were told to find out where "The God who
loved" lived, but for five years they could learn nothing more.
Then the men who had first received the tract vowed they would not come back until they learned more about this
God. They went on and on until they came to Len Chow. There they saw an important looking man on the street, and
asked their usual question, "Can you tell us where the God who loves lives?"
"Oh, yes," he said. "Go down that street, and you will come to a large gateway with three signs over it, 'Faith, Hope,
Charity.' Go in there; they will tell you about God."
Jubilantly they approached the small China Inland Mission station and asked the same question of the Chinese
evangelist. He told them all he could, then gave them each a copy of the Gospels.
Eagerly they hurried back to the lamasery and reread the accounts of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. We believed
all that it contained, though there was much we could not understand. But one verse seemed of special importance.
Christ had said, "Go ye into all the world and preach the gospel," so obviously one day someone would come to tell us
more about this wonderful God. All we had to do was to wait and, when God sent a messenger, to be ready to receive
him. For another three years we waited. Then two lamas, out on the hillside gathering sticks, heard someone singing.
"Those are the messengers we are waiting for," they said. "Only people who know God will sing."
While one went back to tell the rest of us to prepare for the long expected guests, the other came down to meet you
on the hillside.
That was why everything was done for our comfort, why they gladly clamored down and brought up our bundles,
why they received us with hungry hearts.9
Summary Statement
It is evident that the Tibetan culture possesses some striking potential redemptive analogies, as well as other points
of contact for the Gospel. God has uniquely prepared the hearts of the Tibetan people to comprehend His message. In
His love and wisdom, He has sovereignly heightened their interest in the Gospel through inherent cultural elements, as
well as through qualities lacking in their religious system.
8
9
Ibid., p118
Ibid., pp. 118-119.
30
CHAPTER IV. BIBLICAL BASIS FOR POTENTIAL BREAKTHROUGHS
Drawing from the summary in Chapter III, these potential points of contact for the Gospel will be examined in
further detail from a Biblical standpoint.
The Sacrificial System
The word sacrifice in the Greek language is designated thusia, which primarily denotes the act of offering. It may
refer to:
1. An idolatrous sacrifice, such as denoted in Acts 7:41.
2. An animal or other sacrifice, offered under the Law, described in detail in Leviticus 1-7.
3. Of Christ in His sacrifice on the cross, expressed in such passages as Ephesians 5:2 and Hebrews 9:23, where
Christ's sacrifice antitypically comprehends the various forms of the Levitical sacrifices.1
An examination of the offerings is a profound study as well as a protection against an unclear view of holiness,
sanctification and sin. Ada Habershon, author of the book The Study of Types, expresses: "It is impossible to have a low
estimate of what sin really is, as we study God's requirements, and the provision He has made."2
The order of the offerings in Leviticus is from a Godward perspective. First the burnt offering is presented. Next
comes the meat or meal offering. This is followed by the peace offering, the sin offering, and the trespass offering.
Ironically, when a man approaches God, it is usually in the opposite order (of the above listing) in which he
eventually grasps an understanding of Christ's work. Normally, he first realizes his need of forgiveness as a result of
definite acts of sin which he has committed. And this need is met by the trespass offering.
Then he learns of his evil sin nature, and how God has made provision for this in the sin offering. Next he is taught
to enter into a meaning of the peace offering and meal offering and to feast upon the presence of God.
Finally, the offerer comes to visualize the burnt offering aspect of Christ and His work, and he comprehends
something of his personal standing in Christ--as accepted by God.3
Almost one-half of the sacrifices described in Leviticus Chapters 1-7 concern those classified as expiatory, whose
purpose it is to re-establish the covenant with God which has been broken by sin.4
Role of the Blood
Although libations of wine and cereal played a significant role in the rituals, the most prominent sacrifices were
those of the animals. The surrender of a living being was the prevalent factor in nearly every kind of sacrificial ritual; life
was forfeited, as signified by the shedding of the animal's blood.5 "For the life of the flesh is in the blood, and I have
given it to you on the altar to make atonement for your souls; for it is the blood by reason of the life that makes
atonement."6
The role of the blood in the various rituals is one of the unifying features of the Israelite sacrificial system.7 The
sprinkling of blood was the most sacred part of the entire sacrifice, because it signified the life and soul of the victim
being surrendered to God. Patrick Fairbairn explains in his book The Typology of Scripture: "For what was placed upon
the altar of God was supposed, according to the religion of the Old Testament, to be rendered to Him."8
In the sin offering the purpose of the blood was to expiate or purify. It was carried to the meeting tent in a small
quantity, and then it was sprinkled seven times before Yahweh (Leviticus 4:6); after this it was applied to the horns of the
altar.9
Additional Factors
Although the blood should be of chief consideration, two other major aspects should be recognized. One aspect is
the selection of the victim; the other is the position of the offerer's hand on the victim's head. First, only clean animals
1
W. E. Vine, Vine's Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words (McLean: MacDonald Publishing Company, n. d.),
p. 995.
2
Ada R. Habershon, The Study of Types (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 1957), p. 85.
3
Ibid., pp. 85, 87.
4
Stanislas Lyonet and Leopold Sabouriri, Sin, Redemption and Sacrifice (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1970) , p. 248.
5
Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, 1975 ed., s. v. "Sacrifice and Offerings," by A. F. Rainey.
6
Leviticus 17:11 (NASB). [NASB= New American Standard Bible.]
7
Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia, "Sacrifice and Offerings."
8
Patrick Fairbairn, The Typology of Scripture (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House), p. 275.
9
Lyonet and Sabourin, Sin, Redemption, and Sacrifice, p. 260.
31
qualified for offering. This expressed a significant gratitude to God, for the offering could have been withheld to support
the offerer's own life.
Second, it is impossible to separate the positioning of the hands on the head of the victim from the expression of
transference of guilt. The position of the hands is a demonstration of the desire to find deliverance from this burden of
transgression and to experience acceptance from God. And by the positioning of his hands, the sinner's sacrifice
symbolically became a personification of iniquity. Therefore, the animal endured the penalty of sin-- which was death.
Thus the guilt-ridden offererer was himself liberated from sin and its consequences. And in turn his just God was
symbolically satisfied. Fairbairn goes on to state that through the blood of the victim, the offerer was "re-established in
communion with God and solemnly recognized as received back to divine favor and fellowship."10
The fat which was burned on the altar and the meat of sacrifices which were offered for the iniquities of private
individuals was ingested by the priests "as a most holy thing" (Leviticus 6:22). The victim, too, was pleasing to God and,
as a result, God eradicated the sin. It is in this sense that Paul writes in II Corinthians 5:21: "Christ, who had not known
sin, God made sin (a victim for sin), in order that we might become in Him, God s Justice."11
In the New Testament Jesus is designated as the "Lamb of God" twice in John's Gospel (John 1:29, 36), and more
than thirty times in the Book of the Revelation.12 Also, in I Peter there is a remarkable statement about Christ, the Lamb
of God:
You know that you were ransomed from the futile ways inherited from your fathers, not with perishable things such
as silver or gold, but with the precious blood of Christ, like that of a lamb without blemish or spot. He was destined
before the foundation of the world but was made manifest at the end of the times for your sake.13
Great Day of Atonement
God desired that His chosen people come to understand His absolute holiness and realize how much He abhors sin.
The Day of Atonement not only provided an opportunity for the Israelites to reflect on the holiness of their covenant God,
but it also demonstrated the universality and omnipresence of sin. Held in the seventh month, the Great Day of
Atonement took place when the early rains fell, and the land was ploughed, ready for sowing in the following months.
The ceremonies of that day made abundantly clear how much God detested sin, which, if continued, would result in
death (Romans 6:23). High priest and layman alike had offended God's holiness, and therefore atonement was necessary
for everyone. As well as stressing the contagious nature and permeation of sin, the rituals graphically demonstrated the
inability of anyone to make atonement for his own sins; the shedding of blood was required (Hebrews 9:22).14
This solemn day represented the anticipation of a human being who would bear the sins of the world (Isaiah 53:6)
as the Lamb of God (John 1:29, 36), because the blood of bulls and goats could never eradicate sin (Hebrews 10:4). The
avenue into the most holy presence of God was opened for the sinner by the blood of Christ (Hebrews 10:20)15
One of the notable deficiencies of the Levitical system was that it could make no provision for complete and final
forgiveness; therefore the rituals had to be repeated regularly. But unlike the Hebrew priests, Jesus made the ultimate
sacrifice, by offering Himself (Hebrews 7:27), therefore making a once-for-all sacrifice for the wickedness of
humanity.16
It is evident from Scripture that Aaron as High Priest foreshadowed Christ.
Now of the things we have spoken this is the sum: we have such a high priest, who is set at the right hand of the
throne of the Majesty in the heavens. (Hebrews 8:1)
Aaron was a priest after the order of mortal man. Christ was a priest after the order of Meichizedek, the deathless,
immortal man.
Meichizedek was king of righteousness and king of peace. He was without father or mother and had neither beginning
of days nor end of life. (Hebrews 7:1-4)
Aaron was a priest on earth of an earthly Tabernacle. Christ was never a priest on earth; as it is written: For if he were
on earth, he should not be a priest, seeing that there are priests that offer gifts according to the law. (Hebrews 8:4)
10
Fairbairn, Typology, p. 175.
Lyonet and Sabourin, Sin, Redemption, and Sacrifice, p. 251, quoting Ancient Israel (London, 1965), p. 4198 and
Studies in Old Testament Sacrifice (Cardiff, 1964), p. 94.
12
Ibid., p. 261.
13
I Peter 1:18-20 (RSV). [RSV = Revised Standard Version.)
14
R. K. Harrison, Leviticus: An Introduction and Commentary (Downers Grove: Inter Varsity Press, 1980), pp. 174-176.
15
Ibid., p. 176.
16
Ibid., p. 177.
11
32
Aaron ceased to be a priest when he died. Christ became a priest only after He died. He became a priest by and
through resurrection; as it is written: Christ glorified not himself to be made an high priest; but he that said unto him,
Thou art my Son, today have I begotten thee.17
Scapegoat Ritual
One significant observance during the Day of Atonement was the rite of the scapegoat. This unique ceremony was
intended for purification of the entire population.18
5 And he shall take from the congregation of the Sons of Israel two male goats for a sin offering and one ram for a
burnt offering.
6 Then Aaron shall offer the bull for the sin offering which is for himself, that he make atonement for himself and for
his household.
7 And he shall take the two goats and present them before the Lord at the doorway of the tent of meeting.
8 And Aaron shall cast lots for the two goats, one lot for the Lord and the other lot for the scapegoat.19
9 Then Aaron shall offer the goat on which the lot for the Lord fell, and make it a sin offering.
10 But the goat on which the lot for the scapegoat fell, shall be presented alive before the Lord, to make atonement
upon it, to send it into the wilderness as the scapegoat.
20 When he finishes atoning for the holy place, and the tent of meeting and altar, he shall offer the live goat.
21 Then Aaron shall lay both of his hands on the head of the live goat, and confess over it all the iniquities of the sons
of Israel, and all their transgressions in regard to all their sins; and he shall lay them on the head of the goat and send
it away into the wilderness by the hand of a man who stands in readiness.
22 And the goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a solitary land; and he shall release the goat in the
wilderness.20
Description of Scapegoats
In brief, the first goat is a symbol of God's requirements for mankind, and the second of man's need.21 It is apparent
that one of the goats was provided by the entire congregation for their collective sin; this was the goat designated "to the
Lord."22 The other goat was to be presented alive before the Lord to make atonement. The high priest, representing the
community, would lay his hands on the goat's head, simultaneously confessing over it the sins of Israel, and then it
would be sent away into the wilderness, presumably to be devoured by wild beasts.23
According to the New American Standard Bible, the word scapegoat used in Leviticus 16:8, 10 and 26 can be
translated azazel. Until now, this figure azazel remains an enigma, but there are four possible interpretations:
1. Denotes scapegoats, as ez means "goat" and azazel means "goes away."
2. Used as an initiative, "In order to remove," because the Arabic azala means "to remove."
3. A desolate region, referring to Leviticus 16:22.
4. Name of a demon who haunted the region--derived from azez meaning "to be strong" and el meaning God.24
Although these are all acceptable meanings, most scholars accept azazel to be leader of the evil spirits of the
wilderness, possibly to be identified with "demons" (Deuteronomy 32:17; Psalm 106:37) and "satyrs" (II Chronicles
11:15). In I Enoch, azazel appears as head of the rebel angels.25
Symbolism of Scapegoats
But whatever viewpoint one holds regarding the meaning of azazel, it is apparent that the scapegoat is an expression
of the work of the Lord Jesus Christ. In his article "The Scapegoat of Leviticus 16," C. L. Feinberg succinctly explains
that both goats were a sin offering to the Lord; one was sacrificed, whereas the other was sent off to express visibly and
emphatically the truth of absolute removal: "That which was symbolized by both goats points to the finished work of
Christ on Calvary."26
17
R. M. Haldeman, The Tabernacle Priesthood and Offerings (Old Tappan: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1925), p. 249.
Lyonet and Sabourin, Sin, Redemption, and Sacrifice , p. 269.
19
Literally, "Goat of removal," or else a name: azazel.
20
Leviticus 16:5-10, 20-22 (NASB).
21
Habershon, Study of Types, p. 22.
22
Lyonet and Sabourin, Sin, Redemption and Sacrifice, p. 270.
23
Martin Noth, Leviticus, trans., S. E. Anderson (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1962; reprint ed., Philadelphia:
Westminster Press, 1977), p. 124.
24
A. Van Selms, The New Bible Dictionary, 14th ed., s. v. "Azazel."
25
Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, 1975 ed., s. v. "Azazel," by A. E. Cundall.
26
Lyonet and Sabourin, Sin, Redemption, and Sacrifice, p. 284, quoting Bibliotheca Sacra 115, 1958, p. 333.
18
33
The commentary of Denis the Carthusian states:
Finally, by the scapegoat sent to the solitude, carrying on himself the sins of the people, Christ is signified, upon
whom the Father placed all our iniquities: who, carrying his cross, went out, and paid for what he had not stolen (Ps.
69:5); also Christ on Mount Calvary was exposed, to be devoured by mad dogs and cruel beasts, who opened their
mouths against him in insults and they struck him on the jaw and were satiated with his sufferings.27
Several commentators explicitly refer to the scapegoat when explaining II Corinthians 5:21 or Galatians 3:13. Two
examples are cited by Lyonet and Sabourin:
The statement 'he made him to be sin' (II Corinthians 5:21) is best understood if we recall the Jewish ritual on the Day
of Atonement, when the priest was directed to place the sins of the people upon the head of the scapegoat (Lev. 16:21).
Made to be sin means then first: condemned to become man, turned into sinful flesh, placed under the anathema of sin:
thereby made bearer of all the sins (Jn. 1:29); in this respect is more than imputation: Christ becomes the
personification of the sins. The phrase, secondly, is to be related to death. Here also sin is not upon himself in all its
reality, like the scapegoat (Lev. 16).28
The Word Became Flesh
Old Testament Terms
There are three Hebrew terms used in the Old Testament to express God's communications: peh, 'imra and dabar.
Peh("mouth") is the most vivid; it specifies that speech originates from God Himself, and is generally translated "word."
Regarding 'imra, this term focuses on the actual act of speech itself. And of dabar, there are 394 occurrences of this
word which characterizes divine communication from God. Its emphasis lies in the subject of utterance--on what is said.
The Evangelical Dictionary of Theology states: "As dabar, God's word is the virtual concrete expression of His
personality. God is what He says."29 Creation is the word spoken by the Creator (Psalm 19:2-5). This divine utterance is
the first recorded event in the Old Testament (Genesis 1:3). It expresses itself at the deluge (Genesis 6:7), the call of
Abraham (Genesis 12:1), the call of Moses (Exodus 3), the call of Samuel (I Samuel 3), as well as numerous other
instances. And history is a process governed by the word of Yahweh; it is this reality that fulfills His utterance. So,
creation is the word uttered by the creator, and nature (like history) is also a word which reveals .Yahweh who speaks
it.30
The Hebrews, and most of the ancient Semitic world, as well as numerous other peoples, believed in the distinct
reality of the spoken word as a dynamic entity. Often, this conviction degenerated into magic, but this was only a
perversion of a genuine belief in the power of the word.
The spoken word is more valuable in a culture which writes little or not at all. And the permanence which writing
gives the word is granted by a belief in the reality of the spoken word. Examples of this are words of covenant, marriage,
contracts, and other similar commitments. Thus, the veracity and potency of the word are, as the Dictionary of the Bible
states, "rooted in the personality who utters the word, ….and when it is uttered with power, it posits the reality which it
signifies."31
New Testament Terms
In the New Testament the "word" is translated by two terms: logos and rhema. The former is supremely used of the
message of the Christian gospel (Acts 6:2, Galatians 6:6), although the latter also bears essentially the same meaning
(Romans 10:8, Ephesians 6:17, Hebrews 6:5).32
In the Gospel of John, Chapter 1, the person of Jesus is interpreted by the use of the widespread concept: the Word
of God. The term used for Jesus in John 1:1-18 is logos. Greek philosophers spoke of inward thought and its outward
expression as logos. They envisioned logos as a fiery vapor capable of intelligent thought, permeating all things,
sustaining the universe, and rationally governing all things. In the Abingdon Bible Handbook, Edward Blair states: "For
them logos was rational creative power and rational expression (revelation)."33
27
Ibid., p. 283, quoting Commentary on Leviticus.
Ibid., p. 284, quoting Der Zweite Korintherbrief (Gottingen, 1924), p. 198.
29
Evarigelical Dictionary of Theology, 1984 ed., s. v. "word."
30
Dictionary of the Bible, 1965 ed., s. v. "word."
31
Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. "word."
32
The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 1980 ed., s. v. "word."
33
Edward P. Blair, Abingdon Bible Handbook (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1975), p. 242.
28
34
God expressed Himself in creation and history, where the activity of the logos was visible but his person veiled. He
now revealed Himself through the Son in human form, which was termed "flesh."34 The visible logos was superior to the
traditional dichotomy between word and deed. There was an absolute consistency between what people heard Jesus say
and what they observed Him doing. As it explains in The Broadman Bible Commentary: "In an ultimate sense, they 'saw'
what He 'said' because He perfectly practiced what he preached."35
In the character of Jesus, His word always went hand in hand with His work. It was His word which resulted in
healing (Matthew 8:8), exorcism (Matthew 8:16), raising the dead (Luke 7:14, 15), and ruling the elements (Mark 4:39).
An amplification of the truth of the term "the word became flesh" is expressed in the book of Philippians:
… Jesus Christ, being in very nature God, did not consider equality something to be grasped, but made himself
nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness. And being found in appearance as a man,
he humbled himself and became obedient to death--even death on a cross! Therefore God exalted him to the highest
place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven
and on earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.36
Christ Himself is the ultimate and complete Word. As the expression of God He is therefore the Word in an
absolute and personal sense. As the Evangelical Dictionary states:
In summary, then the word of God, the word of the Lord belongs in turn to God's own revelation of himself made
known personally in Christ, to the proclamation of Christ in the apostolic ministry, and to the truth of Christ embodied
in written form in the Scriptures.37
34
Everett Harrison and Charles F. Pfeiffer, Wycliffe Bible Commentary (Chicago: Moody Press, 1962), p. 1073.
John Clifton J. Allen, ed.,, The Broadrnan Bible Commentary (Nashville: Broadxnan Press, 1970), p. 218.
36
Philippians 2:6-11 (NIV) (NIV = New International Version.]
37
Evangelical Dictionary, s. v. "word."
35
35
CHAPTER V. BREAKTHROUGHS AND HEARTBREAKS IN TIBETAN CHURCH HISTORY
The history of the Christian church in Tibet is marked by severe struggles, heartbreaks, sufferings, and even death-sprinkled with an occasional advance and breakthrough. "Christianity has never won more than a tiny following,"
according to the New Catholic Encyclopedia.1
Catholic Missions
Jesuits
The foundation of the first Catholic mission in Tibet dates from 1624, when Father Antonio de Andrade, a Jesuit,
was the first missionary to enter Tibetan territory.2 On March 30, 1624, Father de Andrade along with Brother Manual
Marquez, left Agra bound for Kashmir. However, arriving at Delhi, they learned that a sizable party of Hindus were
about to embark on a pilgrimage to a famous temple in the mountains. This was an unexpected opportunity to travel into
the heart of the Himalaya mountains and hence into Tibet. Therefore, Andrade, his companions and two servants united
with this caravan.
Chapters could be written of their adventurous expedition, but it is sufficient to record that Andrade and his
companion did negotiate the treacherous Mana Pass at an altitude of 18,390 feet and in early August safely arrived at
Chaparangue (or Tsaparang). This was the capital of what was then the Kingdom of Guge (present day Zanda) in the
valley of the Langtchen-Kamba, or upper Sutley.3 Father Ippolito Desideri, a Catholic missionary to Tibet, describes
their arrival in his book, An Account of Tibet:
The arrival of the stranger caused no slight commotion. At first, the king, unable to believe that a man, not a trader,
could undertake such a journey, was somewhat displeased, but after the first interview, at which the missionary
explained the reason of his coming, both he and the queen showed themselves quite pleased. A religious conviction
prompting such deeds of dating did not fail to impress him. Andrade availed himself of this favorable disposition to
further the object of his journey of exploration. He became aware that there were no forlorn Christians to be assisted,
but a new mission field might be opened among the pagan population of these remote regions.4
Later in the month (although the time is not definite) Andrade was allowed to depart, promising a speedy return.5 In
the summer of 1625, Father Gonzales de Sousa was appointed as Andrade's new traveling companion, and on June 17,
1625, they set out together. After weeks of travel, they reached Tsaparang on August 20, and the establishment of a
permanent station was one of the first orders of business. Desideri states: "The king made good his promise and himself
urged in April 1626, the building of a church and of a house for the missionaries."6
Soon an excellent site was secured, and construction began. Not only was the location in town but also near the
king's palace. These details are also recorded:
Its position protected it from the cold and it had the sun upon it from early morning. The natives living on the spot had
their dwellings pulled down, but were given better houses elsewhere. To secure greater privacy the road passing near
the place was turned into another direction. The king razed to the ground two of his own houses that the Fathers might
have a garden with flowers for the church, and on Easter Day, 12th April 1626, himself laid the foundation stone of
the first Christian church in Tibet, while at the same time he presented the mission with a large gift of gold.7
The building operations were not yet finished when Andrade welcomed the arrival of three more Fathers: Jose de
Oliveira, Alano dos Anjos and Francisco Godinho. On August 15, 1626, Andrade wrote: "The work of conversion is
necessarily slow owing to the great difficulties in learning the language."8 However, he went on to express his optimism
for the coming year:
Having been on the spot for about a year and a half, the two were certainly the best judges. In their replies, while
admitting that life out there is trying and full of hardship, they are quite sanguine about the future…. In dos Anjos'
opinion it will be one of the most flourishing (missions) which the Society possesses today. He does not hide the fact
that so far the number of baptized is very small, only twelve, but then it should be remembered that by regular
1
New Catholic Encyclopedia, 1967 ed., s. v. "Tibet," by E. R. Harnbye.
Richardson and Sneligrove, Cultural History, p. 202.
3
Desideri, An Account, pp. 3-4
4
Ibid., p. 4.
5
Ibid., p. 5.
6
Ibid., p. 6.
7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.
2
36
religious instruction many are preparing for this great event. The queen and one of her cousins, daughter of the king
of Ladakh, probably to be married to the prince, will be baptized one of these days.9
Although the year is not certain (but sometime before 1630), Andrade was recalled from Tibet to take on the
honorable responsibility of governing the entire mission province of Goa. Then in 1630, a revolution broke out, and the
political upheaval was devastating for the mission. The church and mission house at Tsaparang were sacked, and the
missionaries suffered greatly.
For the next few years, up until 1635, little is known about the affairs at Tsaparang. An Italian, Father Giuseppe de
Castro, wrote a letter on February 6, 1633 reporting:
Three days ago we received letters from the mission in Tibet. The five fathers who were there tell us that they are like
prisoners in their house, because the commanders do not allow them to come back here or to leave the place where
they are, or to carry anything out of the house without his seeing it.10
Problems continued to plague the mission until war between Ladakh and Guge brought it to a final end in 1640.11
Of the mission buildings, presently nothing is left. In 1912 Mr. G. Mackworth Young made a thorough search for any
possible traces of the ancient mission station, on the request of Father Henry Hosten, S. J., the well known author of the
history of the mission in India. He relates:
I entered every house in the city that I could, but found no trace of a church or mission. The lamas no doubt abolished
the mission buildings just as thoroughly as the wiped out the king's name from their chronicles.12
However, near the end of his report he described the intriguing experience of discovering a row of whitewashed
chortens (Buddhist shrines), one of which towered over the rest bearing a weather-beaten cross of wood. But, with this
single exception, the destruction was final, and nothing else is left as a reminder that this mission once influenced
Tibet.13 Not only did they face this tragic miscarriage of the ministry in western Tibet, but these courageous Catholics
suffered disheartening setbacks in central Tibet as well.
In 1630 two Jesuits, Fathers Estavo Cacella and Joao Cabral, traveled through Bhutan to Shigatse, where they
encountered a warm reception. Because of their ignorance of the Tibetan language, the two initially imagined they had
possibly discovered an ancient Christian community of deteriorating practices. A case in point being the images of Tara
(Tibetan sGros-ma, "the Savioress"). To the new missionaries these may well have appeared to be an oriental version of
the "Mother of God."
However, a severe blow struck and prevented the founding of a Shigatse Mission. Father Cacella met an early death
and nothing came from the positive contact.14
But the Jesuits had by no means concluded their ministry on Tibetan soil. In November, 1713, Father Ippolito
Desideri was appointed to re-establish the mission. While studying in Rome, Desideri had learned about the possible
reopening of the Tibetan mission, and had generously offered himself for the Herculean endeavor. Therefore, he was
delighted upon receiving news of his appointment.15
His ministry in Tibet extended over a period of five years. Even as early as May 1, 1716, Desideri had not only
obtained authorization to preach but also to purchase a house in Lhasa, a marked distinction of special favor, since
foreigners normally could only rent houses.
With single-minded devotion he zealously set himself to language study and could claim: "From that day to the last
which I passed in the kingdom I studied from morning until night."16 Desideri was extremely successful, and by the end
of December in the year 1716, he had completed an expose of the Christian religion in the Tibetan language, which was
presented to the king at an audience on January 6, 1717. These details are given in An Account of Tibet:
Acting on the advice of the latter to study the religion of the lamas in their own writings, he stayed from 25th March
to the end of July, at the monastery of Ramoche…. Desideri moved in August to the University of Sera…. Here he
was comfortably housed and could say mass in his private oratory; he had the free use of the libraries and could
converse with the most learned among the professors.17
His strategy was to write in the Tibetan language, of the errors of their beliefs and a defense of the Catholic faith.
However, he had barely begun when a violent catastrophe interrupted his work. The country was invaded by the Tartars;
9
Ibid., pp. 8-9.
Ibid., pp. 11-12.
11
Richardson and Snellgrove, Cultural History, p. 203.
12
Desideri, An Account, p. 18.
13
Ibid., pp. 18-19.
14
Richardson and Snellgrove, Cultural History, p. 2.03.
15
Desideri, An Account, p. 28.
16
Ibid., p. 30.
17
Ibid., pp. 30-31.
10
37
Lhasa was overtaken and sacked, and on December 3, 1717, the king and his ministers were murdered. For protection,
Desideri fled to the province of Takpo-Khier, an eight day's journey from the capital; there he had time to complete his
writing. With the exception of a few months residence in Lhasa, he stayed in this new location until April 1721. During
one of his visits to the capital he presented his works to his former Tibetan language teacher, one of the cleverest among
the lamas.
Historic records seem to conclude that these writings consisted of three volumes. The first argued against the
migration of souls, as instructed by Buddhism, and the second attacked the Tibetan's view of the Godhead. The third was
more constructive--an exposition of the Christian doctrine. The volume caused quite a stir, and soon Desideri found his
house becoming the scene of "incessant comings and goings" by all types of people, the majority being educated men
and professors, seeking permission to see and read his book.18
The strength of Desideri's character and the impact of his ministry is further described in these records edited by
Professor Luciano Petecht:
Desideri was an educated man of penetrating intellectual powers, able within a short space of time to master sufficient
Tibetan to write an account of the essentials of Christianity, and a little later to master the content and meaning of
Tibetan Buddhism, as expounded to him by "dGe-lugs-pa" teachers, arid to write in Tibetan his refutation of their
doctrines. In his Account of Tibet, although he necessarily condemns those doctrines of Buddhism which conflict
with his faith and philosophical conceptions, he never indulges in abuse, and although he criticizes what he sees as the
weak points of Tibetan character, he is full of praise for the greater good which he sees in it.19
Ironically, while Desideri's writings were the source of numerous discussions and stirrings in Lhasa, stirrings and
discussion of another nature were taking place in Rome. For it so happened that soon after Desideri's arrival in Lhasa, a
fresh Capuchin mission had also entered the capital under the leadership of Father Orazio della Penna. Although
outwardly restrained, from the very start there was rivalry between the two associations regarding the right to conduct
the mission at Lhasa.20 Serious tensions were unavoidable between the simple, pretentious Capuchins and a genuine
religious intellectual such as Desideri. As a result, the Capuchins did not restrain themselves from unchristian complaints
in letters to their superiors.21
The case went to Rome, and, after some years, by December 1718, the decision was finalized. Judgment went
against the Jesuits, and the General of the Society was ordered to recall his workers from Tibet without delay. On April
28, 1719, Desideri left the holy city of the Dalai Lama. Reports confirm that it was a painful day as "Desideri sadly left
the place where he had studied and taught and recorded Tibetan life and religion as no foreigner has done before or
since."22
And so the missionary labors of the Society of Jesus in Tibet finally were terminated. Father Ippolito Desideri had
lived as a notable exception in the missionary community, exemplifying a life-style to be emulated. But the Catholics
were replacing him with missionaries incapable of understanding the depth of the Tibetans' feelings.
Capuchins
In 1707 the Capuchin Fathers Fraricois de Tours and Giuseppe de Ascoli began to organize a mission in Lhasa, and
they were followed in 1709 by Father Domenico De Fano.23 When the Capuchins arrived, they received assistance from
Armenian merchants established in the area; without this help, they would scarcely have survived. Also, because of the
Armenian connections, they obtained entrance to the houses of some nobility. However, during their mission from 1707
to 1711 they do not seem to have shared their faith, except very discreetly.
So, upon returning in 1716, they were surprised to discover that Father Desideri had formally requested permission
to practice and preach his beliefs. Although he had only been there a few months, he was established as a priest, wearing
his habit and openly celebrating the mass. He had been given remarkable affection and respect in high places and
promptly found himself in great demand among religious circles. Moreover, Desideri already knew a great deal of
Tibetan language and was discussing religious questions with the nobles; he was even accepted in a kindly and respectful
manner by King lHa-bzang Khan.
The Capuchins were encouraged by his example and began professing their faith, sharing in the social advantages
gained by Desideri. However, as alluded to previously, they were missionaries with far less education, being trained for
the emphatic preaching of slogans rather than for intellectual reasoning and analysis of religious beliefs. In addition, with
18
Ibid., p. 31.
Ibid., p. 222.
20
Richardson and Snellgrove, Cultural History, p. 221.
21
Desideri, An Account, pp. 31-32; Richardson and Sneligrove, Cultural History, p. 221.
22
Richardson and Snellgrove, Cultural History, p. 221.
23
Ibid., p. 203.
19
38
the exception of Ozario della Penna (who lived in Tibet for twenty years) none of the Capuchins obtained a level of
language acquisition useful for religious discussion.
Furthermore, they did not seriously endeavor to comprehend the theory and practice of the Tibetan religion, but
simply condemned it. Although the Tibetans expressed great tolerance and consideration, the Capuchins saw no converts
to Christianity until 1742, twenty-six years after their return in 1716.24
And, eventually as time progressed difficulties with the Tibetans did arise. Particular offense resulted from their
teaching that the Dalai Lama was not a reincarnation, and that Sakyamuni (the historical Buddha) was not a genuine
saint. Eventually the Capuchins were shunned and ignored by the nobles and lamas who had once been their friends. The
mission dragged on for a while and was in financial difficulty. In addition to these setbacks, Father Ozario della Penna
was elderly and ill.
So in 1754, the missionaries finally left, and before they were barely beyond the environs of Lhasa, their chapel was
razed to the ground. Ozario, heartbroken with such termination to twenty years of ministry, died soon after arriving in
Kathmandu. Later attempts to reopen the mission were abandoned. Thus ended the Capuchin mission in Tibet.
Encouragingly, however, in the latter years of the mission there had been a few authentic conversions. The last
heard of these converts was a message from Lhasa in 1769 requesting a priest.25
Paris Foreign Mission Society
In 1846, the Paris Foreign Mission Society (MEP) was given responsibility for the Tibetan mission and the newly
created Vicariate Apostolic of Lhasa. The mission made heroic attempts to break through the Tibetan region from India,
as well as from the China side. One such attempt resulted in the murder of two MEP priests, Nicholas Krick and Auguste
Bourry, in 1854.
Overall, the mission's only accomplishments were opening a few precarious stations near the borders. Hatred
toward foreigners resulted in further persecution, culminating in the death of four missionaries, many lay Catholics, and
almost the complete destruction of the mission.26
Statistics/Present Ministry
However, amidst these struggles and setbacks, by 1910 there were twenty-one European priests and 2,407 Catholic
Tibetans.27 The Catholics also administered schools and a hospital prior to 1949.28
Catholics residing in Tibet numbered approximately twelve hundred at the beginning of the Communist regime;
another three thousand Tibetan Catholics lived in other parts of China.29 Presently, in the Darjeeling-Kalimpong area the
Catholics have founded large institutions where they minister to Tibetans, as well as other nationalities.30
Protestant Missions
Through the years Protestant evangelists laid siege on Tibet from three sides of the region--Kashmir on the west,
China on the east, and India to the south.
Kashmiri Advancement
The Moravian Mission
The first attempt from Kashmir came in 1854 with the arrival of Moravian missionaries, August Wilhelm Heyde
and Edward Pagell. Previously they had made three unsuccessful attempts to enter the Tibetan territory, but were turned
back each time by border guards.
Finally, their perseverance was rewarded, and the Indian government granted permission for them to found a
mission station in Kyelang, Luhul, which lay on trade and pilgrimage routes to Tibet. On May 16, 1856, the first trees
were felled on the mission site.31 Another missionary, Heinrich August Jaeschke later joined them in 1857, beginning
Bible translation as well as work on an English dictionary and grammar book.32
24
Ibid., pp. 221-222.
Ibid., pp. 222-224.
26
New Catholic Encyclopedia, s. v. "Tibet."
27
Ibid.
28
Hoke, Church in Asia, p. 650.
29
New Catholic Encyclopedia, s. v. "Tibet."
30
Hoke, Church in Asia, p. 650.
31
John Bray, "A History of the Moravian Church inIndia," The Himalayan Mission (Leh: Moravian Church, 1985), pp.
29-32.
32
Hoke, Church in Asia, p. 650.
25
39
The Gergan Family
Significantly, during this time another man was also forced to settle in the same area. In 1856, the minister of
finance for Tibet, Tempu Gergan, was falsely accused of murdering the Dalai Lama. To save his life, he miraculously
fled the country and eventually resettled his household in northern India, near Luhul.33 He met Heyde and Pagel in 1858
and willingly became their instructor and assisted in some of the initial translation of the Scripture.34
Although neither Tempu Gergan nor his wife ever made a profession of faith in Christ, their only child, a son
named Yoseb, did become a believer. He was educated at the Christian Missionary School at Srinagar and later returned
to the Tibetan frontier, devoting himself to the project of translating the Tibetan Bible. 35 Additional information
regarding the Tibetan Bible translation is found in this Chapter on pages 121-125.
The overall growth of the Christian community was and painful. Nine years of labor elapsed before the first
converts were baptized in 1865. By 1883 there were thirty-three baptized Christians, and by 1914, a total of 162. David
Woodward, an authority on Tibetan church history reports: "Ultimately, there were three or four tiny congregations
scattered along the Kashmir-Tibetan border, of which one, the original at Leh, remains today."36
There were a variety of setbacks and trials for these pioneer missionaries: a scattered population, shortage of
manpower, ill health--even philosophical contradictions on fundamental issues. For example, Jaeschke could find no
Tibetan word corresponding to the Christian concept of God. Finally he had to adopt one--dkonmchog. However, the
nature of God continued to be a stumbling block, even for well educated Tibetans. A case in point occurred in 1931
when a well-traveled monk from Drepurig monastery (near Lhasa) spent several weeks studying Christianity at the
Moravian Mission in Leh. He concluded, "I have learnt that a sinner, however great, can be saved if he puts his trust in
the cross of Jesus. But I cannot understand what God is."37
Eliyah Thsetan Phuntsog
In 1928, a Tibetan scholar and high ranking member of the Ladakhi nobility, Eliyah Thsetan Phuntsog, was given a
Christian tract by Yoseb Gergan. 38 Several years later, in September 1934, Phuntsog gave his life to Christ and
eventually married Gergan's daughter Sungkil. (See Testimony--Appendix D).
In the 1950's Eliyah Phuntsog told Pierre Vittoz, a Moravian missionary from Switzerland, that the forms of
worship being utilized were obviously Western--such as Ladakhi hymns with German tunes. Also, theology was based
on Western considerations and experience. Eventually Phuntsog took tangible steps to alleviate this plight and wrote
Christian hymns and poems utilizing Eastern verse forms and tunes. Then in 1959 Phuntsog left Ladakh, moving to
Mussoorie, Uttar Pradash, India to work with Vittoz on the Tibetan Bible revision.39
Refugee Relief Work
Ironically in the same year another man resettled in Mussoorie: The Dalai Lama. He and over eighty thousand of his
followers had fled their homeland--now under harsh Communist domination.
So while completing his revision of the Tibetan New Testament, Phuntsog determined to commence relief work
among a group of two hundred families from Amdo province in northeastern Tibet. He assisted in settling them
temporarily in Rajpur (in 1961) and later moved the group permanently to Clement Town, both of which lie south of
Mussoorie, near Dehra Dun.
With a grant from the Moravian Church, he established small scale cottage industries for the refugees. And The
Evangelical Alliance Mission (TEAM) provided a medical dispensary.40
In April 1963, he opened a school for a dozen Tibetan children; Zhidey Kundan, his daughter, was the only teacher.
From these humble beginnings grew the Moravian Institute, which is now located near Rajpur at Zhan-phan-ling, which
in Tibetan means "a place good for others."
Eliyah Phuntsog died suddenly of a heart attack in February 1973, but the work he began continues to thrive.
Zhidey's husband, Obed Kundan, who had become the School's director in 1972, continued on and remains in this
position today. Another son-in-law, Stephen Hishey, was principal from 1977 to 1980. Then he was succeeded by a
33
Allan Maberly, God Spoke Tibetan (Orange, CA: Evangel Bible Translators, n. d.), pp. 17-27 passim.
Maberly, God Spoke, pp. 42-43; John Caidwell Thiessen, A Survey of World Missions (Chicago: Moody Press, 1961),
p. 102.
35
Maberly, God Spoke, p. 81; Thiessen, World Missions, pp. 102-103.
36
Hoke, Church in Asia, p. 650.
37
Bray, Himalayan Mission, p. 64, quoted in Periodical Accounts, 1931.
38
Bray, Himalayan Mission, p. 42; Eliyah Phuntsog, "How I Became a Christian," p. 2.
39
Bray, Himalayan Mission, pp. 43, 65.
40
Ibid., pp. 43-44.
34
40
grandson, Thespal Kundari, who is the present principal. Today the school enrolls approximately two hundred students,
the majority being Tibetan, most of whom stay at the Institute's hostel.41
Chinese Advancement
A second attack on Tibet with the Gospel was initiated from the China side, when Dr. James Cameron made a thrust
into Batang, eastern Tibet, in 1877. In the following years, the China Inland Mission, the Christian Missionary Society
(Disciples) , and the Assemblies of God established themselves along the borders, as well as inland.
The Christian and Missionary Alliance
Another group which made significant efforts in penetrating the frontiers of Tibet was the Christian and Missionary
Alliance. Actually, one of the original purposes of A. B. Simpson, founder of the Christian and Missionary Alliance, was
the evangelization of Tibet.42
William Christie and W. E. Simpson (no relation to A. B. Simpson) of the Christian and Missionary Alliance
established the first mission in Taochow Old City, in Gansu Province on the Tibetan borders.
(Refer to the following map)
41
42
Ibid., p. 44.
Hoke, Church in Asia, p. 650.
41
In this location, through the years, numerous missionaries would give their lives in valiant efforts to penetrate the
mountainous interior.43
Christie was a stonemason from Scotland who came to America at the age of nineteen; Simpson came from the hills
of Tennessee in the United States. These were the two volunteers who arrived in Shanghai in 1892 to be greeted by the
¡°encouraging¡± words of Hudson Taylor (quoted in Chapter I). After studying the Chinese language in Wuhu and then
Tibetan in Peking (now Beijing), these two began their work in Taochow, five miles from ethnographical Tibet.44
William Carisen of the Christian and Missionary Alliance relates how the initial thrust into Tibetan Territory was
carried out by William Christie and David Ekvall who traveled to the monastery and commercial center of Labrang in
1896. (At this time Labrang was the fourth largest monastery in Tibet.) They arrived at the time of the New Year's
43
44
Ibid., p. 651.
Carlsen, Tibet, p. 37.
42
festival, discovering the population of five thousand monks and five thousand townspeople swelled by hundreds of
pilgrims and merchants.
As Christie and Ekvall expressed their Christian faith and also distributed literature, there were threats that the
materials would be burned. Soon the threats came in a tangible form of flying dirt clods and stones. One missionary
broke his umbrella while fending of f the attack, and the other received a gash on his face. Suddenly, two monastery
guards rushed into the mob and rescued the two foreigners, taking them as objects of curiosity. Then they were seated in
places of honor where they watched the entire "Devil Dance." (See Appendix A--Section-Festivals/ Ceremonies.)
When the dance ended, these two were informed they were part of the menace which the community desired to be
rid of; fortunately they were soon released.45 Although this first trip to Labrang had a dismal outcome, missionaries still
fostered hope that it might soon be opened as a mission station.
The next journey of the Alliance to the area included Mr. Christie and Mr. David W. LeLacheur (1841-1901) who
succeeded in renting a room in a Labrang inn. Soon news was sent to America that a station had opened in the city and
that the Alliance Mission was ministering in a closed region.46
Robert Ekvall, anthropologist (quoted in Chapter II) and missionary to Tibet writes these details:
Tibet, whose opening doors so clearly touch the portals of His coming,¡± wrote Dr. Simpson in glad rejoicing that the
task for which the Alliance had been founded was well begun, maybe even then hastening to completion as the last
years of the century seemed about to herald prophetic changes.
But that realization was not to be for nearly a generation. Long before the letter telling of the opening of Labrang
had reached the homeland, the presumptuous innkeeper who had dared to rent to the foreigners had been exiled, his
property had been confiscated, and public proclamation had been posted forbidding reception of the preachers of the
1Jesus religion even for a night. The gospels and tracts left by the pioneers were gathered and publicly burned.
Possession of a single page was made punishable by the loss of the right hand, and Labrang again was securely sealed
against the Gospel, So much so that my father years later wrote,
"Ten years have passed since we made this first trip to Labrang, and the place is still strongly fortified against the
truth. It seems as if the feeling of animosity against the gospel messengers has intensified with time."47
Although missionaries established themselves in other centers of the country, it was 1919 before rulers of the
Labrang monastery allowed missionaries to reside within their domain. Carisen explains how this mellowing resulted
from a unique set of circumstances. it so happened that the parents of a recently discovered "Living Buddha" had
transferred to Labrang from Batang, several hundred miles to the south. These parents were favorable toward the
Alliance Mission as a result of the medical ministry of Dr. Albert Shelton, of the Church of Christ in Batang.48 (Dr.
Shelton is mentioned in Chapter I.) Marion Griebenow and his wife Blanche were the new missionaries assigned to repioneer the work in Labrang in 1923. Carisen notes:
During one class period as they were reading in the Bible, their language teacher exclaimed, "That's it! That's it!" The
Griebenows were nonplussed and asked for an explanation. The monk confessed that, when news reached the
monasteries that teachers of the Christian religion were coming to Labrang, the monks agreed to place a curse on the
new family. In the past their victims had always become sick or died, but it was obvious that this time their curse was
ineffective. Now the teacher pointed to the words of Jesus, "And surely I will be with you always, to the very end of
the age." It was Christ's presence that fortified the Christian witnesses against indifference and sometimes hostility.49
Overall the harvest in Tibet had been very bleak. For years, the only Tibetan converts had been a scarce few in the
areas of Taochow Old City, Luba Si and Chone. Even in the new stations, commencing with Labrang, there were no
revealed conversions among the Tibetans. Ekvall adds that sometime before the evacuation in 1927 (because of political
upheaval), there had been one who professed conversion in Hehtso, but shortly afterward had been killed. (Refer to
Chapter I--Section-Statement of the Problem: Significance of the Problem.)
Sporadically there were encouragements, such as lamas reading the Scriptures, individuals under deep conviction,
the Tibetan's disillusionment in their own religion and even many inquiring, "If I believe, what then?"
But there appeared to be no genuine converts to Christianity.50
Then suddenly there were two or three open confessions of faith, as well as a few secret Confessions. It appeared
that a breakthrough was coming. But amidst these seeming victories the most devastating trial occurred: Death took one
of the most gifted of all the workers in the Alliance Mission. Another couple had to leave because of shattered health;
45
Ibid., pp. 37, 40.
Robert Brainard Ekvall, Gateway to Tibet (Harris- P burg: Christian Publications, Incorporated, 1938), pp. 38-39.
47
Ibid., p. 39.
48
Carlsen, Tibet, p. 40.
46
49
Ibid.
50
Ekvall, Gateway, p. 87.
43
later sickness struck others--this time to the farthest outpost in Tibet. More setbacks faced the missionaries; unbelief
seemed to gain ground. Ekvall relates: "Again a victory had been won to keep the Gospel out of Tibet."51
A report of the earliest efforts to penetrate Tibet would be incomplete without a description of the occupation and
closing of Pao-an, a unique area of peculiar racial mixtures. Following is Ekvall's description of the region:
It is a center of Tibetan and lamaistic learning, home of the master idol painters of all northwest Tibet, and a region of
fierce feuds and bloody intertribal warfare one of the great sorcerer sects, the Ngak-wa, exponents of the old prelamaistic religion of Tibet, has its headquarters and center in this region.52
However, in this lamaistic entrenched community, the missionaries found a place to live and begin their work.
Although sorcerers in the vicinity of Pao-an continued to intone their claims and pronounce their most intimidating
curses, the foreigners continued their ministry and everywhere spoke the name of Jesus.
But periodic droughts began to trouble the land, and adversity began to brew. Some violence broke out--but it was
calmed, and life went on. Over the ensuing weeks, however, mutterings of trouble continued. Eventually the terminal
outbreak arrived with unexpected rapidity and violence.
Although the missionaries escaped with their lives, the mob made a thorough job of destruction. Even their food
was scattered and flung into the river. Ekvall states his impressions: "For rage was even stronger than cupidity and they
smashed and ruined that which in their saner."53 moments they would have saved as most desirable loot. Thus, another
unequivocal setback was written into the records of the mission's endeavors, and the country remained largely closed.54
Neither would a description of the Christian and Missionary Alliance's advancement in the Tibetan Mission field be
complete without an account of the heroic, sacrificing and gifted Robert Ekvall. Robert was the only son of David and
Helen Ekvall, born in Gansu Province on February 18, l898.55 (David Ekvall is mentioned earlier in this section.)
A gifted scholar and writer, Ekvall was also a talented athlete, attaining varsity letters in football, basketball and
track at Wheaton College, where he majored in English. In addition to his academic and athletic pursuits, he found time
to develop a relationship with Betty Fischer, granddaughter of the college's first president. They were married October 6,
1921, and on the same day boarded a train bound for Nyack, New York, where they both enrolled in the Missionary
Training Institute.56
With college and training completed, Bob and Betty headed for Lintao, where Bob became the director of the Bible
School which his father had founded. Bob looked forward to a time when he could retrace the trail his father and
William Christie had taken in 1896. When the opportunity came Bob and Betty traveled into Tibet and their burden to
reach the Tibetans intensified.
Later the couple was released from their Bible school responsibilities to study the Tibetan language at Taochow.
Carisen relates: "The young family set off in typical Tibetan style on horseback with six-month-old David tucked under
his father's massive sheepskin coat."57
Bob and Betty contributed greatly to the work of evangelism in Tibet, although Betty met an early death in October
1940 from a high fever that defied diagnosis. In addition to his personal ministry, Ekvall also enhanced the Alliance
Mission's work in Tibet through his many scholarly writings on Tibetan life and culture. In later years he lectured on
anthropology at the University of Chicago and the University of Washington.58
Regarding the ministry of the Christian and I Missionary Alliance in Tibet, Ekvall reports the following:
The account of the work among the Tibetans is a story of hope deferred. When they were turned back from Labrang,
rioted out of Pao-an, forbidden a visit to Mei-wu, and restricted to the narrow limits of the Taochow and Chone
districts, the pioneers yet hoped on, waiting for the doors to open. Then nearly a generation later those stations
became occupied and the first general advance into Tibetan country began, to continue in the opening of the third line
of stations…. Thus, a hope deferred became a hope fulfilled.
For years in that hard field there was no sign of fruitage…. the Tibetans yet seemed by all the forces of demon
influence, by all the powers of that ancient, subtle faith, and by their own sinfulness, thrice sealed against the Gospel.
And for long years hope for the Gospel to break forth among the Tibetans was a hope deferred. Not yet is it fulfilled,
but the signs of a break are multiplying here and there in the salvation of individuals, and with those signs the doors to
the heart of Tibet swing still wider.
51
Ibid., pp. 87-88.
Ibid., p. 40
53
Ibid., p. 41.
54
Ibid., p. 42.
55
carlsen, Tibet, p. 46.
56
Ibid., p. 48.
57
Ibid., p. 51.
58
Ibid., p. 52.
52
44
Praise God that for hope deferred there is yet sure fulfillment, and with that present fulfillment the grandest hope of
all grows brighter with immediacy, for did not Dr. Simpson say, "Tibet whose opening doors so clearly touch the
portals of His coming."59
Additional Missions
Through the years, the English and American missionaries from these previously mentioned groups were also
joined by representatives from the Finnish mission, the English Pentecostals, the Swedish Free Mission and others, all
united at heart to reach Tibet.60 The Tibetan Tribes Mission was begun by J. MacGillivray who came to China in 1910.
Also, the Mennonite Brethren in Christ had missionaries on the Gansu border of Tibet as early as 1911.61 In addition, by
1923, the Tibetan Forward Mission occupied several centers in Gansu.62
Indian Advancement
The last arid most successful beachhead from which the Gospel was propelled into Tibet was from the South-from
India.
Pioneer Ministries
Pioneer work developed in two areas:
1. In the hills and valleys, both northeast of New Delhi and west of Nepal.
2. At the Kalimpong-Darjeeling district, north of Calcutta, on the east.
By 1921, E. B. Steiner of The Evangelical Alliance Mission (TEAM) was ministering with Dharchula as a center,
developing a strong nucleus of evangelists, both Tibetan and Indian.
Evan McKenzie of the Church of Scotland had initiated work at Kalimpong in 1894, unable to get permission to
enter Tibet itself. He organized the first congregation, which continued under the leadership of G. Tharchin.63
Tharchin/McDonald
Born in western Tibet in 1890, Tharchin was educated and converted in the first school of the Moravian Mission in
Tibet. In 1907 he met Sadhu Sundar Singh, the famed Indian missionary. They planned to travel into Tibet together, but
their permit to enter continued to be delayed and was finally refused. Details about Singh are presented in The Church in
Asia:
Singh finally gave his life to bring the Gospel to the Tibetans. He made several other brief trips into the country, his
last in 1929, from which he never returned. His dramatic and well-publicized death has been symbolic of the death of
scores of other missionaries who have laid down their lives trying to penetrate Tibet's vastness for Christ.64
Tharchin was admitted into Tibet several years later through the instrumentality of David McDonald. British-born
and fluent in the Tibetan language, McDonald was led to Christ at Darjeeling in 1903 by Frederick Franson, founder of
The Evangelical Alliance Mission. After serving with the mission until 1909 and assisting with the revision of the New
Testa.rnent and hymn writing, McDonald accepted a position as British political officer and trade agent at Gyantse.
It appears that throughout his lifetime McDonald had significant influence for Christianity. Early in his work, he
saved the life of the former Dalai Lama who was fleeing from the Chinese in 1909. Then after taking his new post at
Gyantse, he and his family held large Christian gatherings in their home each Sunday, and the Word was taught by Y.
Isaac, from the TEAM mission. McDonald also preached in various places on Sundays, including a leper colony.
Through contact with McDonald, Tharchin's life and goals were changed. He subsequently devoted himself to the
Scots Mission in Kalimpong--a ministry which continued for nearly fifty years.65
In 1925 Tharchin started the first Tibetan newspaper and sent a copy to the thirteenth Dalai Lama, who in return
sent a letter of appreciation. Then, two years later, Tharchin met this Dalai Lama on the first of his three trips to Lhasa.
During the last of these journeys he attended the installation of the fourteenth Dalai Lama, who as a youngster had
been presented a Gospel portion by a missionary and had had his picture taken while receiving the Scriptures. This was
proven when Tharchin discovered copies of this picture pasted on the altar in the great temple in Lhasa.66
Tibetan Bible Translation
59
Ekvall, Gateway, p. 153.
Hoke, Church in Asia, p. 651.
61
Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 10.
60
62
Ibid.
63
Hoke, Church in Asia, pp. 651-652.
Ibid., p. 652.
65
Ibid.
66
Ibid., pp. 252-253.
64
45
The story of the Tibetan Bible's translation is an account characterized by extreme perseverance.67 The Scriptures
took ninety years for translation and printing--at the cost of several lives. But, although marked by heartbreak, God's
miraculous intervention is evidenced throughout the entire endeavor.
Allan Maberly, who wrote an account of the Tibetan Bible translation process, states that in 1935 Yoseb Gergan,
then fifty years old, finally completed transcribing the entire Bible. Since the age of twenty-three he had toiled on this
task. According to Maberly, he bowed his head and prayed: "Thank you Lord. The task is done. Now the Bible has legs
to go to my people. Now the book will be printed; then it will go to its appointed task. May it be soon."68
While the translation was being tested for accuracy I among Tibetans, the original manuscript was sent to Britain
for printing. However, in September 1939, Hitler invaded Poland, and soon the world was at war. The Tibetan
manuscript was stored in an underground vault at the Ripon Cathedral, two hundred miles north of London. As the Battle
of Britain raged, more and more protected places became hazardous.
Then a near catastrophe struck. A two-thousand-pound missile landed on the roadside near the cathedral and came
to rest alongside the wall of the church. Four feet away, inside the building, lay the Tibetan Scriptures. But the missile
did not explode!
Maberly reports how the bomb demolition crew who came to defuse the bomb was surprised to find that the firing
device seemed faultless. "So they could not understand why it had failed to explode. The old sexton was certain that a
divine hand had sabotaged the bomb."69
By the time the nightmare of this Great War had ceased, Yoseb Gergan was sixty years of age and extremely
anxious to see the fruit of his labors. But even then, this undertaking of nearly a century received a further setback: paper
supplies were scarce in Britain.
Therefore the British and Foreign Bible Society granted permission for the printing to be carried out in Lahore,
Pakistan, by the Bible Society of India. 70 But when the Scriptures reached Lahore, the printers declared that the
manuscript could never be printed; it had been written on cheap Tibetan paper which had not absorbed the ink well.
The only hope was to rewrite the script on a special white paper so that sharp photographs could be obtained. The
Bible Society determined to prepare its own paper which was carefully treated with chemicals mixed with egg yolks. But
who could do the copying?
Maberly explains that upon learning of the predicament, Yoseb pleaded with the Society in Lahore to allow him to
do the rewriting. Finally, they accepted the enormous risk of transporting the copy and sent the precious manuscript on
its perilous journey. When it reached Yoseb at Leh (in Ladakh--presently Jammu-Kashmir State) his old enthusiasm
immediately returned, and he began the arduous task. Months and years slipped by, and Yoseb's health began to fail. But
through prayer he was able to continue the project he had begun over forty years before. Two Tibetan scribes, Gappel
and Phuntsog, came to assist Yoseb, and eventually two more men were found to help finish the mammoth
undertaking.71 Maberly gives these details:
There were days when Yoseb could barely hold the sheets passed to him. With willpower and dependence on God, he
determined to see the task concluded. The work became a race against death.
Now there was not time to rewrite a page if a mistake was made. Correct it as well as possible and press on! James,
the epistles of Peter and John, Jude, Revelation--still Yoseb nodded approval as each page was finished.72
Finally the great day came on August 11, 1946. Yoseb Gergan read in Tibetan: "Surely I come quickly. Amen.
Even so, come Lord Jesus." His work for the Lord's kingdom was completed. "Five days later, in the Tibetan year of the
Fire Dog, Yoseb Gergan fell asleep in his Lord.73
Almost by miracle, the completed manuscript was conveyed from Leh to Lahore at the height of turmoil in that
corner of the world, and in 1948 the first copies came off the press.74
When the Tibetan scriptures were reprinted in 1950, Tharchin advertised this Bible in his newspaper.
Surprisingly, the Dalai Lama ordered a copy and sent money to pay for it. When the Dalai Lama visited India in
1958, a year before his expulsion, Tharchin presented him with an English copy of the Bible. He relates:
The Dalai Lama has been witnessed to by many people and presented with many Bibles. It is said that he reads them
from time to time. May God give him understanding and opening of heart with the reading.75
67
Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 10.
Maberly, God Spoke, p. 92.
69
Ibid, pp. 95-96.
70
Thiessen, World Missions, p. 103.
71
Maberly, God Spoke, pp. 96-98.
72
Ibid, p. 98.
68
73
Ibid.
74
Thiessen, World Missions, p. 103.
46
Summary
As this account reflects, throughout the history of Christianity in Tibet, numerous heroes of the faith have
prayerfully suffered and sacrificed trying to breakthrough this frigid physical and spiritual barrier. Many died in the
service of their King.
In Ghoom, Miss Treschbuck served fifty-six years and Miss Guriva of Finland served forty. On the China border
the names of William Christie, William Simpson, James Edgar, Theodore Sorenson, Dr. and Mrs. Albert Shelton, the
Petrus Rijnharts, Miss Ann Taylor, the Cecil Polhills (Cecil is one of the famed "Cambridge Seven") and others were
among the faithful who had the devotion and determination of those unnamed heroes in Hebrews 11.76
But by the onset of World War II, there were yet only tiny fellowships meeting, and only a handful of Tibetans had
been baptized in any given location. No strong settled congregations had been established.
Although there were twenty-seven missionaries still listed on the Indo-Tibetan border and forty-five on the China
border, only a small proportion of these missionaries devoted themselves exclusively to Tibetan work and were fluent in
the Tibetan language. The majority worked among Tibetans with the use of Hindi, Nepali or Chinese, as well as working
with other border peoples. Their work included medical evangelism, orphanages, schools and ministering to passing
Tibetan traders.77
Then in 1951, everything changed drastically. Woodward reports: "The arrival of Chinese Communist armies
abruptly checked this freedom for Christian witness. Foreign missionaries were expelled, and Chinese missionaries were
restricted."78 After the Communist takeover, it was almost thirty years before the West found out what had happened to
the native Christians.79
Present State of the Church/Future Outlook
In November 1979, the Far East Broadcasting Company (FEBC) received a letter from inner Tibet--the first word
after those thirty silent years. Since then Christian Tibetans have been contacted in the southeastern section of Tibet, and
Christians have received Bibles in the northeast.80
Hishey/Gergan
Marion Griebenaw, of the Christian and Missionary Alliance (mentioned previously) , met Stephen Hishey, a
Tibetan refugee, in approximately 1972. He supplied Hishey with funds to complete studies at the Canadian Bible
College (Christian and Missionary Alliance) in Regina, Saskatchewan. Presently Hishey is the pastor in Leh. Elijah
Gergan, Grandson of Yoseb Gergan, graduated from a seminary in Korea in 1980. At this time he is ministering in the
Kargil area, between Srinagar and Leh.81
Assessment of the Ministry
Today it is very difficult to assess the conditions of Tibetan churches. There are five main congregations: in Leh
(Jammu-Kashmir State); in Rajpur, Kalimpong and Buxa Duars (India); and Mangan (Sikkim); all of these
congregations are small and include other nationalities living in the vicinity.
Tibetan Christians have witnessed for Christ by expressing their love and service to fellow countrymen. Tharchin
had consulted with the Dalai Lama on educational affairs, and Munshi Chekub, an evangelist for The Evangelical
Alliance Mission, received the commendation of the Dalai Lama for his service to the sick. In addition, Eliyah Thsetan
Phuntsog, had the wide respect of numerous Tibetans for his labor among Amdo refugees.82
There is a need in Tibet for Christians who would be willing to work with Tibetans in educational and medical
projects. Presently English teachers are welcome in Lhasa. Literature is also a high priority in Tibetan evangelism and
assistance in this field is needed; improved and increased supplies of literature could be a stimulus for evangelism.
Church leaders have a positive outlook: "The future may see some of these new [Tibetan] Christians able to send in
Christian literature or even return to their homeland to witness openly for Christ."83
75
Hoke, Church in Asia, p. 653
76
Ibid.
Ibid., pp. 653-654.
78
Ibid., pp. 654.
77
79
Thorson, "The Tibetans," pp. 10-11.
80
Ibid.
81
William Carisen to Cans Faith Sy, 2 March 1987.
Hoke, Church in Asia, pp. 644-646.
82
83
Ibid., p. 646.
47
CHAPTER VI DATA ANALYSIS
To determine how Tibetan Christians were attracted to Christianity and if they were influenced by any possible
redemptive analogies inherent in the Tibetan culture, the following survey was conducted.
Survey for Tibetan Believers
1. How old were you when you first heard about Christianity? __________________
2. What caused you to be interested in learning more about Christianity?
(Please check correct response.)
_____ Family
_____ Friends
_____ Reading books/Literature
_____ Attending church/Christian meeting
_____ Hearing a story
_____ Watching a film
_____ Other (Please explain) ____________
3. At the time you become interested, how many members of your immediate family (who were living with you)
would you have considered Christians? _________
4. Did this include:
(Please check)
Father _____
Mother _____
5. What was the length of time from when you first heard of Christianity until you actually decided to become a
follower of Christ? (Please place a correct number I on line.)
____ Days
____ Weeks
____ Months
____ Years
6. Was there anything related to your Tibetan history, culture, or religion which heightened your interest in
Christianity? PLEASE CHECK ANY CORRECT RESPONSES and PLEASE GIVE AS MANY DETAILS AS
POSSIBLE. (Write on the back if necessary.)
____ Religious Customs ____________________
____ Rituals ______________________________
____ Holidays ____________________________
____ Social Customs (such as extending the Khata __________________________________
____ Religion/Doctrine ___________________
____ Parallels in the Sacrificial System to Christ's sacrifice ______________
____ Power of Speech in the Verbalization of Religion Related to the Phrase "Word was Made Flesh"
____ Folklore/Folk Heroes
____ History ______________
____ Art ________________
____ Drama ________________
____ Family Structure ________________
____ Music ________________
____ Other ________________
7. What aspects of Christianity attracted you to learn more? PLEASE CHECK AS MANY AS ARE
APPROPRIATE and PLEASE GIVE AN EXPLANATION (No need of repeating cases where same response as
#6)
____ Holiday Celebrations such as Christmas or Easter - Why? ___________________
____ Bible Stories - Which Stories?___________________
____ Christian Sacraments such as Communion or Baptism - Which one(s) - Why?
____ Wedding Ceremony/Funeral Service - Why? _______________________________
____ The Concept of "The Word was Made Flesh" _______________________________
____ The Sacrificial System and the Concept of Jesus being our Sacrifice
_________________________
____ Christian Art/Music - What kind? Why?
48
_________________________
____ Christian Drama - What kind? Why?
_________________________
_____ Observing Lives of Christians/Christian Families?
_________________________
____ Films/Slides - Which Ones? Why?
_________________________
8. Perhaps none (or only a few) of the various categories in 6 and 7 influenced your decision to become a Christian.
However, do you think any of these aspects would have helped you (or would help other Tibetans) better
understand Christianity if presented properly? (Please list in any order and give any explanation you think will
be helpful.)
_________________________
Conducting the Survey
Thirty-two Tibetans were interviewed who had received Christ after the age of ten. Of those surveyed, eighty-eight
percent live in northern India. The remainders reside in Nepal, Korea, Australia and the United States.
The majority of surveys were conducted in person; five were completed earlier and collected personally and five
conducted through the mail. An additional three were conducted by a qualified woman who had previously taken the
survey. (In these three cases, it is not certain whether males or females were surveyed.) Of the remaining twenty-nine
individuals, eighteen were females, and eleven males.
Results of Question #5
Question #5: What was the length of time from when you first heard of Christianity until you actually decided to
become a follower of Christ?
Answers to this question indicated that the average length of time was 10.46 years.
Results of Questions #6 and #7
As stated in the proposal, although all survey questions are valuable, the two most significant questions are #6 and
#7. Therefore, these responses will be analyzed more fully, and the results displayed in Graphs A and B at the end of this
Chapter.
Question #6: Was there anything related to your Tibetan history, culture or religion which heightened your interest
in Christianity?
"Parallels in the Sacrificial System"
The option which received the largest number of replies was "Parallels in the Sacrificial System," which received
six responses (eighteen percent). This concept will be discussed and amplified in the Conclusion.
"Religion/Doctrine"
The four (thirteen percent) valid responses for "Religion/Doctrine" were as follows:
1. Tibetan Buddhism's utilization of incense, burning lamps, and burning fat helps the Tibetans understand the Old
Testament.
2. Buddhism's emphasis on compassion and sentiment relates to Christianity's doctrine of love. (However, one
must acknowledge that the sentiment in Buddhism is subjective, whereas Christianity's unique agape love is
objective.)
3. There is a parallel between the Trinity and Buddhists taking refuge in the three Gems: Buddha, Dharma
(Teaching) and Sangha (Noble Order).
(This response was given twice.)
"Family Structure"
Four individuals (thirteen percent) also selected "Family Structure," and of these, two stated specifically that respect
for parents and other relatives served as a bridge in heightening their interest in Christianity.
"Music"
Although music only received one valid response, it was particularly interesting. Sungkil Phuntsog, daughter of
Yoseb Gergan and wife of Eliyah Thsetan, gave this information. She related that her husband, who helped revise the
49
Tibetan Bible, had put some passages of Scripture to music in the Tibetan rhythm. Some specific sections are: Luke 4:10,
11, 18, 19; John 1:1-14; Acts 2:34, 35; and I Peter 3:10-12.
Placing Scriptures in this form manifested the Gospel's validity for the Tibetans. Rather than couched in a foreign
style, it appeared in a pattern suitable to their cultural norm, therefore enhancing their acceptance of God's Word.
Question #7: What aspects of Christianity attracted you to learn more?
"Bible Stories"
The option which received the greatest response, nineteen persons (fifty-nine percent), was "Bible Stories."
However, the data was somewhat inconclusive; when questioned about specifics, twenty-four separate stories, parables,
or persons were listed. And only a handful of responses were repeated.
Following are the specific stories:
Story
Number of Responses
Stories about Jesus--General
3
Prodigal Son
3
Birth of Jesus
2
Death of Jesus
2
Moses
2
"The Sacrificial System"
The selection receiving the second highest number of responses was "The Sacrificial System and the Concept of
Jesus being our Sacrifice," which received fourteen replies (forty-four percent). The significance of these replies will
also be discussed in the Conclusion. Interestingly, of the twenty-nine Tibetan Christians interviewed (whose sex is
known), fifty percent of the females responded positively to this option of "Jesus being our Sacrifice" and forty-five
percent of the males responded positively. I
"Observing the Lives of Christians"
Next in order of the number of replies was "Observing the Lives of Christians/Christian Families," which received
thirteen responses (forty-one percent). Although the number of responses is impressive on the surface, as I analyzed this
more fully, there was a sobering observation.
Of the total number of individuals surveyed (thirty-two), eleven had come from families where both parents were
professing Christians, and two came from families where one parent was a Christian. But, of these thirteen, only four
responded that they had been attracted to Christianity by observing the lives of Christians.
Furthermore, of the remaining nine (who had riot responded positively to "Observing the Lives of Christians,") all
lived in families where there were at least four professing Christians. Noteworthy also is the fact that, the vast majority
of those who responded positively to "Observing the Lives" had no Christian family members.
Following is the breakdown: (The left-hand column reflects the number of professing Christians in one household,
and the numbers in the right-hand column reflect the number of individuals coming from such a household as listed on
the left.)
Number of Christians in Home
Number of Persons Interviewed Who Did Not Respond
Positively to "Observing the Lives"
4
5
5
1
10
1
All
2
Number of Christians in Home
Number of Persons Interviewed Who Respond Positively
to "Observing the Lives"
4 (Wife and children)
1
1 (Brother)
1
None
7
Therefore, it is not safe to assume that an individual will be drawn to follow Christ solely on the basis of family
influence. It is the Spirit of God who ultimately draws men to Christ rather than subjective life-styles.
"Films/Slides"
Twelve individuals (thirty-eight percent) answered that they had been attracted to Christianity by "Films/Slides."
Those interviewed listed a variety of specific films, seven in all. However, the film King of Kings received the highest
number, five people recording this particular film.
"Christian Sacraments"
50
Approximately one-third of those interviewed listed "Christian Sacraments" as an attraction to Christianity.
The breakdown is as follows:
Sacrament
Number of Responses
Communion
4
Water Baptism
3
General
3
However, the mode of these sacraments must not be bound by Western standards of conduct. One must be careful
to present the Gospel in the context of valid cultural images for the Tibetans. An amplification of this issue is given in
the Conclusion.
Results of Question #8
Question #8: Do you think any of these aspects would have helped you (or would help other Tibetans) better
understand Christianity if presented property?
The responses to this question appeared to reinforce some of the trends evidenced in answers to Questions #6 and
#7. Eighty-one percent of those completing this survey offered at least one valid response to this question. The results
are exhibited in Graph C at the end of this Chapter.
GRAPH A. RESPONSES TO QUESTION #6
WAS THERE ANYTHING RELATED TO YOUR TIBETAN HISTORY, CULTURE, OR RELIGION WHICH
HEIGHTENED YOUR INTEREST IN CHRISTIANITY?
POTENTIAL REDEMPTIVE ANALOGIES
20%
18%
18%
16%
14%
PERCENTAGE OF
TIBETAN BRLIEVERS
WHO RESPONDED
12%
12%
12%
10%
8%
6%
9%
6%
6%
6%
4%
2%
0%
3%
0%
3%
3%
3%
0%
es
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oms tuals idays stoms trine
ory
Art Drama cture
ero Hist
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ust
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Sp
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Pow
POTENTIAL REDEMPTIVE ANALOGIES
51
Mus
ic
GRAPH B--RESPONSES TO QUESTION 7
WHAT ASPECTS OF CHRISTIANITY ATTRACTED YOU
TO LEARN MORE ABOUT THE GOSPEL?
70%
59%
60%
50%
43%
40%
40%
PERCENTAGE OF
TIBETAN BELIEVERS
WHO RESPONDED
37%
34%
30%
25%
25%
25%
21%
18%
20%
10%
0%
ns
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Obs
FACTORS WHICH ATTRACTED TIBETANS TO THE GOSPEL
GRAPH C--RESPONSES TO QUESTION 8
DO YOU THINK ANY OF THE QUALITIES LISTED IN QUESTIONS #6 & #7 WOULD HAVE HELPED YOU
(OR WOULD HELP OTHER TIBETANS) BETTER UNDERSTAND CHRISTIANITY, IF PRESENTED PROPERLY?
(FEEL FREE TO LIST OTHER APPROPRIATE RESPONSES.)
30%
28%
25%
25%
25%
21%
20%
PERCENTAGE OF
TIBETAN BELIVERS
WHO RESPONDED
18%
15%
15%
9%
10%
9%
6%
6%
6%
5%
0%
ies
tor
S
le
Bib
ma
Dra
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Cer
E
POTENTIAL AIDS FOR ENHANCING THE TIBETANS' UNDERSTANDING OF THE GOSPEL
52
CHAPTER VII. CONCLUSION
Potential Redemptive Analogies
A combination of the bibliographic research, surveys gathered and interviews conducted reveals an interesting
pattern. Throughout these sources a striking feature emerged: the sacrificial system.
Although bibliographic research evidenced that the power of speech and verbalization of religion might be a form
of redemptive analogy, the surveys did not confirm this. Also, research had indicated that the concept of God's love
might be a major determinative factor in a Tibetan's attraction to Christianity, but the surveys did not reflect this either.
Actually, information uncovered in the study supports the possibility of numerous potential redemptive analogies.
However, the concrete evidence obtained pointed overwhelmingly in the direction of the sacrificial system.
Interviews Regarding Redemptive Analogies
Throughout my research, I met some extremely knowledgeable persons. Information gained from them also
reinforced the validity of the sacrificial system as a redemptive analogy.
Interview with Passang Angmo
For example, I had a fascinating interview with Passang Arigmo, who has been involved in the Tibetan ministry for
nineteen years. She also emphasized the sacrificial system as a means to effectively explain the Gospel. In addition, she
discussed her views about other bridges to effectively communicate Christ to Tibetan Buddhists. I will discuss four
which I believe are especially significant.
First of all, she believes it is very valuable to utilize Philippians 2:6-1l and John 1:14, because these concepts
approximate the Tibetan concept of speech as a revealer of personality.
Then Passang discussed Communion. In Tibetan the word for the concept of "one cup" (or Communion) is "one
mouth" (adjikh). Passang explained that when family members gather they have the right to share the same cup. Even if
one family member is not a Buddhist (for instance if he has converted to the Islamic faith), he is still welcome to drink of
the same cup. (It is reported that this custom does vary among different tribes.)
She thinks this is a beautiful way to express how Christians are related in the body of Christ. No matter what tribe
or nation a Christian represents, he is a member of God's family. As relatives in His name, Christians can freely partake
of that "one cup."
This would accentuate the necessity, not only of culturalizing our religious practices, but also of assessing Western
values. In other words, possibly our Western attitudes arid patterns of conduct are not always the most effective in
communicating the precise intent of Scripture (which originated in an Eastern framework). It is possible that conducting
a hygienic communion with hundreds of separate cups is not always the most meaningful. In Tibetan culture most likely
it would be counter-productive and could hold devastating implications.
Thirdly, she commented on breaking the Karma chain (the endless cycle of death and rebirth). Continuing the
conversation, Passang emphasized: "There is no forgiveness in Tibetan Buddhism. In fact there is no word for it [in the
Tibetan language]." She added: "And of course there is no grace in that situation, no free gift, and that is important to
realize."
She explained further how this endless plight can be a pivotal point in their understanding, because "Jesus came
from outside to fulfill the Law--to break the Karma chain. Instead of being blown out [as Nirvana means the "blowing
out"] we are brought into existence, into new life." She added that Christians can explain to Tibetan Buddhists that "the
Holy Spirit sets us on the new Path towards the pure Karma--that is a life in Heaven."
Her fourth point related to one's initial witness for Christ with a Tibetan. Some of her advice had come from a
friend who worked in Bhutan with Bhutanese. "We were talking, and he said: 'Start with the existence of sin and Jesus'
sacrifice, and lead to the resurrection.'"
Then Passang stressed, "I've done it and have the strongest advice for you to do it." However, she quickly added,
"But wait with the concept of living God, eternal life, death, and heaven." She offered further details:
Arid the reason is that if you talk about living God--well, nothing is living for them. Everything that exists doesn't
exist. And God--they don't have any concept of God. Eternal life, well to them there is the Karma chain. That is
eternal life for them. But they don't have the Christian view of eternal life, death, and heaven.
She emphatically added at the close of the explanation, "As you've seen right through your survey, it is the sacrifice
that they always find important."
Interview with Obed Kundan
53
In a discussion with Obed Kundan, director of the Moravian Institute at Zhan-phan-ling (son-in-law of the late
Eliyah Thsetan), I learned the most interesting facts about the blood offering. He explained that each family does a blood
offering at the end of the Harvest Festival and also on New Year's Day. The offering held at the end of the harvest is for
a blessing on the house, and the offering on New Year's Day is for forgiveness of sins.
In each case an animal is slaughtered, and its blood used. Rev. Kundan verified that these blood sacrifices still are
conducted at the present time. However, he added that these offerings are often hidden by a curtain and not talked about
outside the room where the offering takes place, because shedding of blood is forbidden in Buddhism.
Effective Avenues for Communicating the Gospel
Therefore, it appears from bibliographic and empirical data that there are several effective avenues for
communicating Christianity to Tibetan Buddhists.
Some of the most significant are:
1. Utilization of Christian films.
2. Example of Christian individuals/families.
3. Utilization of concepts:
a. The Word made flesh.
b. Jesus Christ breaking the Karma chain.
4. The meaning of Christian sacraments.
5. Presenting God as giver of unconditional love.
Key Redemptive Analogy: The Sacrificial System
Although the avenues cited previously could be very useful, evidence overwhelmingly supports the sacrificial
system as being a redemptive analogy which could genuinely open the eyes of Tibetan Buddhists to truth about Jesus
Christ.
Therefore, I encourage those ministering to Tibetans to utilize this analogy in presenting the Gospel. And for those
who pray for spiritual breakthroughs among Tibetans, this would be a tangible springboard for specific prayer.
Revelation 7:9 says:
After these things I looked, and behold, a great multitude which no one could count, from every nation and all tribes
and peoples and tongues, standing before the throne and before the Lamb, clothe in white robes, and palm branches
were in their hands.1
We are assured that God desires the Tibetans to be part of the throng who stand before His throne.
But, as Paul wrote long ago in Romans 10:14:
How then shall they call upon Him in whom they have not believed? And how shall they believe in Him whom they
have not heard? And how shall they hear without a preacher?2
Prayer Focus
Let us focus our prayers on the following:
1. Spiritual breakthrough among Tibetans as they visualize Jesus Christ as the true substitutionary sacrifice for sin.
2. The Lord of the Harvest to thrust forth laborers to present Jesus Christ to the Tibetans as the true Sacrificial Lamb
who takes away the sin of the world.
3. For Christians around the world to put on their spiritual armor and wage victorious spiritual warfare against the
enemy who blinds the eyes of the Tibetan people.
4. Spiritual strength, endurance and wisdom for those who minister to the Tibetans.
1
2
NASB.
Ibid.
54
APPENDIX
A. BREAKTHROUGH IN UNDERSTANDING (Tibetan Life and Culture)
Geography/Population
The centre of high snow mountains; the source of great rivers; a lofty country, a pure land--is part of a Tibetan
poem, a kind of national hymn of the ninth century or earlier.
Tibet is one of the world's most fascinating countries, both culturally and physically. For centuries it remained the
most secluded and inaccessible country in the world. For the mountains which ring Tibet are the highest in the world,
and in the lofty upland lie sources of some of the greatest rivers of Asia.1
Political Tibet is found roughly between the 28th and 36th parallels of north latitude and the 79th and 99th of the
east longitude. Some have described its shape as a clenched right fist with the wrist towards the east and is enclosed on
three sides by mountain ranges.2 Located in the southwestern corner of the People's Republic of China, it is bordered by
the countries of Nepal, India, Bhutan and Sikkim.3
Known as the "Roof of the World" this area is about one-third the size of the United States. It covers 471,000
square miles, eighty-five percent being uninhabited.4
About three-fourths of this land mass is a high, tangled wilderness of mountain ranges and plains--all at least 16,000
feet in elevation. This is uninhabited or sparsely populated by nomads. The southern quarter of the country is comprised
of valleys of many great rivers and their tributaries. Here the elevation is from 9,000 to 15,000 feet and is the cultivated
area of Tibet.5
There are three topographical zones in Tibet, the northern plateau being the largest and reaching across all of
northwest Tibet. Eastern Tibet has a more rugged terrain, displaying abrupt mountain ranges and deep, forested gorges.
A lengthy river valley region south of the Kailas Range and north of the Himalayan Mountains is Tibet's third
topographical zone.6
There are approximately three million Tibetans living in the People's Republic of China, and about 1.75 million live
within the borders of Tibet; the others live in Qinghai and northwest Sichuan Provinces.7 Additional provinces where
concentrations of Tibetans reside are: Garisu, Hebei, Shaanxi and Yunnan.
Lhasa is Tibet's capital and largest city, with a population of nearly 160,000. Located north of the Brahmaputra
River (in Tibet called the Zangbo), it is near the eastern end of the Zangbo Valley region.
Although the Tibetan people are extremely scattered, there are several other substantial concentrations of
population in addition to Lhasa. Shigatse to the west of Lhasa is the second major town with a population of
approximately forty thousand.8 The third and fourth largest cities are Chamdo and Gyantse (Gyangze) respectively.
Chamdo is located in eastern Tibet with a population of approximately twelve thousand and Gyantze in central
Tibet with a population of about ten thousand.9
Ethnology/Language
Ethnology
There are two traditions regarding the racial origin of the Tibetan people. One may be called the tradition of Indian
ancestry, because it claims that an Indian king (or military commander) fled to Tibet after suffering a military defeat.
The second tradition maintains that Tibetans descended from monkeys. It states they came from a male monkey, an
incarnation of the deity Avalokitesvara, who supposedly produced six progeny through a mountain ogress.10
1
Pradyumna Prasad Karan, The Changing Face of Tibet (Louisville; University Press of Kentucky, 1976), p.5.
Hugh Edward Richardson, A Short History of Tibet (New York; E. P. Dutton and Company, Incorporated, 1962), p. 3.
3
Rosalie Thorson, "The Tibetans: A Minority Nationality of the People's Republic of China" (Research Paper for the
Institute of Chinese Studies, Pasadena, CA, June 1980), p. 2.
4
New Catholic Encyclopedia, 1976 ed. s. v. "Tibet" by E. R. Hambye.
5
Tsepon Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967), p. 1.
6
Frederic M. Kaplan and Julian M. Sobin, Encyclopedia of China Today (New York: Eurasia Press, 1982), p.56.
7
Richardson, Short History, pp. 8-9.
8
Kaplan and Sobin, Encyclopedia, p. 56.
9
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, pp. 157, 215.
10
Shakabpa, Political History, p. 5.
2
55
In the eleventh century a document was discovered in the central temple of Tibet's capital which, according to
tradition, had been written during the rulership of Songtsen Gampo in the seventh century. According to Shakabpa in his
book Political History, "This document provides evidence in favor of the second tradition for the origin of the Tibetan
people."11
Shakabpa goes on to state: "Modern anthropologists claim that Tibetans belong to the Mongoloid race. Such
classification seems plausible since Tibetans have had a class relationship with the Mongols for centuries.12 The majority
are stocky, with black hair, brown eyes and prominent cheekbones. These Tibetans have long been known for their
strength and stamina.
However, in eastern Tibet the people are tall, with long heads and broad faces, quite unlike a Mongol strain. From
Dotog are the Kham people, and from Domed are the Amdo.
These Tibetans are believed to be related to the Karens of Burma.13
Language
The Tibetan language belongs to the Indo-Chinese family and is similar to Burmese. Like Chinese, Tibetan is a
mono-syllabic language, using intonation and stress instead of inflection. There are dialectal differences, and the speech
of the upper classes is distinct from that of the lower classes.14
Climate/Elevation
In many poetical writings, the country is ascribed as Khawachen or Gangjong meaning "The Abode of Snow", and
Sildanjong, meaning "The Cool Climate Land."15
In a country of such diversity, there is an enormous variety of climate, rainfall and vegetation. For example, Lhasa
lies at 12,000 feet above sea level and has temperatures up to 80°F in summer, rarely falling below 5°F in winter. Its
annual rainfall is about 18 inches.16
On the plateau at elevations of 17,000 feet, much lower temperatures are recorded--maximum 45°-65°F and
minimum down to -27°F. Also, there are strong, cold winds, and rainfall is considerably less, about 6-8 inches
annually.17
This high elevation produces a climate in which very few people (other than Tibetans) can live comfortably. For
example, in the summer temperatures during the day may be as high as 75°-85°F (26°-29°C); however, at night it falls
below freezing.
Lack of oxygen is another hazard of living at such high altitudes. 18 For instance, any illness which might be
considered minor at lower altitudes can be fatal in an atmosphere with less oxygen. People not accustomed to this
altitude experience several reactions to the atmosphere: after walking a distance a person's feet may feel like lead, and
even when climbing a short staircase, many rest stops are needed. Also, calm people may become irritable and trivial
problems can produce outbursts of temper.19
History
Recorded history began in the seventh century when the region was unified and shaped into a strong power by King
Songtsen Gampo. Not only did he succeed in welding various warring tribes into a nation, but Songtsen Gampo is
known for many significant contributions. He instituted a legal code based on Chinese customs, adopted an alphabet of
Indian origin for the unwritten Tibetan tongue, chose Lhasa for his capital, welcomed Buddhism and extended dominion
westward and to the south.20
11
12
Ibid.
Ibid., pp. 5-6.
13
Encyclopedia inericana, 1962 ed. s. v. Tibet, by Lowell Thomas, Jr.; Shakabpa, Political History, p. 6.
14
Ibid.
15
Richardson, Short History, pp. 8-9.
Kaplan and Sobin, Encyclopedia, p. 5-6.
17
Richardson, Short History, pp. 8-9.
18
Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 2.
19
Ibid., pp. 8-9.
20
Encyclopedia Americana, 1976 ed., s. v. "Tibet."
16
56
During his reign, in 634, the first Tibetan emissary was sent to the Chinese imperial court in Changan (now Xian).
Seven years later he married Princess Wen Cheng, a kinswoman of the Chinese Emperor, T'ai-tsung of the Tang Dynasty
(618-906). Historians credit her with the introduction of Buddhism and Chinese civilization into Tibet.21
And it was for Princess Wen Cheng that he had the famous and impressive Potala Palace built, which today is a
popular tourist attraction in Lhasa. This sprawling hilltop palace lies 700 feet above Lhasa arid is the world's highest
palace. It is a magnificent tribute to Tibetan architectural skills. In the past the Palace served as the winter quarters of the
Dalai Lama and reportedly holds the gilded tombs of eight Dalai Lamas, Extensive renovations have restored this palace,
arid presently it is preserved as a museum.22
In 841 Tibet was divided into two districts. The process of decentralization continued to such an extent that by the
eleventh century Tibet had reverted to the rule of numerous chieftains, of whom some were women.23
The Mongol conquest of the land in 1247 led to the installation of a religious leader, the Saskya Lama, as the
viceroy of Tibet. Then in 1357, the Mongols were overthrown, and by early in the fifteenth century, a reform Buddhist
group had gained power. By 1578, the head of this order was given the title of Dalai Lama, the priest-king of Tibet.24
(Details presented in Chapter Il--Section-Divisions of Tibetan Buddhism.)
In the early eighteenth century the Chinese invaded Tibet, ending the Mongol influence and placing control over the
Dalai Lama, However, according to Thorson's report, "The Tibetans," "In the nineteenth century China was so weakened
by its own internal conflicts that it had little influence over Tibet."25
By the late nineteenth century arid early twentieth century it was the British who caused difficulties. The Tibetans
attempted to maintain an isolationist position regarding British India, but the British were not pleased with that
arrangement. When the British sent troops to Lhasa in 1904, the Dalai Lama fled to Mongolia, but other Tibetan
authorities signed an agreement with Britain. In 1913 the Dalai Lama declared Tibet independent, but China gave no
attention to the announcement as it was involved in its own struggles for existence.
Then in the 1940's Tibet applied for membership to the United Nations, and by August 1949 the United States was
about to recognize Tibet as a sovereign state and support its application. However, later that year the Chinese
Communists took control of Mainland China. In 1950 Lhasa appealed to the world for support of her independence but
was ignored.
The People's Republic of China reconquered Tibet, and in May 1951 a treaty was signed which undermined the
Dalai Lama's authority.26 There was a revolt in 1959. When the Communist forces shelled Lhasa, the Dalai Lama and
more that eighty thousand Tibetans escaped to India.27 After this revolt, harsher measures were taken to integrate Tibet
into the People's Republic of China. In 1965 Tibet was formally organized into an autonomous region.28
Character/Personality
Western visitors so diverse in personality and objective as the Jesuit Fathers Francisco d'Azvedo in the seventeenth
century and Ippolito Desideri in the eighteenth, the British emissaries George Bogle and Samuel Turner also in the
eighteenth century, the Indian Civil Servant Sir Charles Bell and the mountaineer and explorer Heinrich Harrer in the
twentieth century, all agree in describing the Tibetans as kind, gentle, honest, open and cheerful.29
Thus reports Hugh Richardson, an authority on the nation of Tibet. The Tibetans are self-reliant and amazingly
hardy. Also they are known as remarkably cheerful, humorous and friendly people; they have none of the shyness or
coolness that the Chinese may display towards foreigners.30 In addition to their transparency and pleasant personality,
they are an intelligent people. Furthermore, Tibetans appear to have inborn good manners, and they have a high regard
for women. Peasants behave with deference and politeness, which does not exclude the expression of an independent
opinion. Their considerate treatment of domestic animals has impressed many travelers.
21
Grolier Universal Encyclopedia, 1966 ed., s. v. "Tibet."
Ou Chaogui, "Tibet's Potala Palace," China's Minority Nationalities (I) (Beijing: China Reconstructs, 1984), pp. 219,
235-237.
23
Grolier Universal Encyclopedia, s. v. "Tibet."
22
24
Ibid.
25
Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 3.
Encyclopedia Britannica, 1973 ed., s. v. "Tibet."
27
Carlsen, Tibet, p. 12; Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 4.
28
Kaplan and Sobin, Encyclopedia, p. 56.
29
Richardson, Short History, p. 10.
30
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 29.
26
57
However, these pleasant and approachable qualities do not exclude a streak of hardness which should not be
mistaken for cruelty or pleasure from inflicting pain. Rather, it reflects the simplicity of their existence and the austerity
of their surroundings.31
The backwardness of the nation seems to have been a matter both of popular choice and deliberate policy by the
governments of succeeding Dalai Lamas. Many Tibetans believed that Western conveniences and medicine implied an
irreligious devotion to material things, and they feared that these foreign inventions would undermine their beliefs.32
On the whole, Tibetans have shunned almost the entire apparatus of the modern world. Until 1951, there were no
factories for mass production, no hospitals, no cinemas, and most surprising--no wheeled vehicles of any kind. An
aversion to foreign ideas and practices has prevailed for centuries, long before the industrial revolution of the West
affected neighboring lands.
A case in point regarding their primitive life-style is the fact that, except among the upper classes, the habit of
bathing is almost non-existent. Many Tibetans go through their entire lives without bathing.33
Family Structure
Before the Communist takeover in 1951, families were either monogamous, polygamous (a man having several
wives) or polyandrous (a woman having several husbands). Most families were monogamous, but polyandry was
common, usually for economic reasons.34
The polyandrous family usually consisted of two or more brothers sharing the same wife. Quite frequently brothers
determined not to divide the family herds. And not relishing two tent-mistresses, they agreed to share one wife.
In these variations of family structure, economic considerations appear to take precedence over commonly cited
reasons for the institution of marriage--such as sanctioned sexual relations and security for the children.35
Possible reasons for the above are:
1. There was a considerable degree of sexual license both previous to marriage and within the bonds of the union.
Therefore, sexual experimentation and fulfillment was not dependent on sanctioned arrangements.
2. There was a dearth of children because of the low birth rate, and children were in demand. Thus, an unmarried
mother was more desirable than a woman without children. Adoption of children by childless families took place
frequently.36
Society
Traditionally, the Tibetan people were organized into a theocratic feudal hierarchy comprised of three chief groups:
monks, nobles, and peasants. When Tibet was annexed to China in 1951, there were over one hundred and seventy noble
families in the nation who were either related to, or had been knighted by the Dalai Lama. These families held the
majority of Tibet's political and economic power.37
In most cases aristocracy was a matter of birth, the nobles tracing their ancestry back to the early rulers of Tibet.
The peasants lived as serfs, paying regular feudal dues through money, goods and labor to their lords. Generally, the
nomads also worked for others, but they enjoyed far more freedom.
The monks were of great importance because of their influence and numbers. Before 1951, approximately onequarter of the male population entered monasteries, and these religious centers were found almost anywhere that a settled
community could maintain itself.38
Education
According to authorities, "Education as we know it was non-existent in Tibet."39 However, literacy was fairly
widespread for several reasons. First of all, monks were taught to read and write although it is not definite that their
studies extended beyond this level.
31
32
33
Richardson, Short History, p. 10.
Encyclopedia Americana, s. v. "Tibet."
Ibid.
34
Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 5.
Robert Brainard Ekvall, Fields on the Hoof (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Incorporated, 1968), pp. 26-27.
36
Ibid., p. 27.
37
Hoke, Church in Asia, p. 650.
38
Encyclopedia Americana, s. v. Tibet."
39
Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 6.
35
58
Children of noble families learned to read and write as a matter of course, and in the towns, schools were
established for those who could pay a small fee. It is probable that a considerable proportion of towns- people acquired a
modicum of literacy.40
Educational opportunities were also available in the countryside. There, the landowner usually set up a school for
his own children, the children of his servants and others located in close proximity. Through this system, these young
people learned to read and write and to memorize some prayers. This was sufficient knowledge to enable them to keep
rough accounts; write letters; and read, although not always enough to understand the sacred books.41
As in other facets of life, Communism radically changed the educational structure. By 1976, there were forty-nine
middle schools in Tibet, and by 1983, there were four college institutions in the region. The Regional Teachers College,
in Lhasa, was established in 1975, on the basis of a teachers training school dating from the 1950's.42
Then in 1978 two more institutions were formally inaugurated. One was the College of Agriculture and Animal
Husbandry and the other was Tibet Medical College, both located in Yingchi. These colleges are an outgrowth of
previous departments in Tibet's Institute for Nationalities established in Xianyang, Shaanxi Province (near Xian) in 1957.
Operated by the Autonomous Region, it is actually the mother school of Tibet's higher education.
The University of Tibet in Lhasa offers a major in English, and in 1988, for the first time two Tibetan students will
be sent abroad to study in the United States. In addition, many colleges, institutions and universities in other parts of
China have long accepted students from Tibet. Those who study outside Tibet are then expected to return to their
homeland upon graduation.43
Transportation/Communication
The living conditions of the people before 1950 were very primitive. It has been said that before the Communists
came there was no wheeled vehicle of any kind in Tibet, except two cars brought from India. Supposedly, the only
wheels in the country were prayer wheels.44
Thus states Thorson in her report on Tibet.
Transportation
Modern transportation has been enhanced by the construction of the Qinghai-Tibet and Sichuan-Tibet highways,
and these highways have radically shortened the overland journey between Lhasa and western Chinese railheads.
Presently the journey from Golmud, Qinghai Province to Lhasa takes thirty hours by bus.45
Other networks connect western Tibet with Xingiang Province, arid Lhasa with Shigatse and Sikkim. More
highways link the west and east with a branch running off to Nepal.46
Regarding air transportation, in 1965 an air connection was established between the Chengdu airfield of inland
China (Sichuan Province) and the Gongar airport, situated sixty-five miles south of Lhasa (about a ninety-minute bus
ride). Audrey Topping, author of The Splendor of Tibet, reports: "This air route was one of several projects undertaken
to link Tibet and inland China, eventually bringing the region fully into international life."47 Currently there are two
daily flights from Chengdu to Lhasa, both in the morning.
Since 1951, the Chinese Communists have continued to construct new roads, bridges and airfields. This is to
facilitate military movements in the occupation of Tibet, as well as upgrade the entire communications system in that
region.48
Communication
"Tibetan scholars view personality as tripartite: body, mind and speech…. speech is considered an essential part of
the personal existence. A Tibetan's word is his bond,"49 states Tsepon Shakabpa, authority on the nation of Tibet.
40
Richardson, Short History, pp. 13-14.
41
Ibid., p. 14.
42
Israel Epstein, Tibet Transformed (Beijing: New World Press, 1983), pp. 342, 352.
Ibid., pp. 352-353.
44
Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 5.
45
Li-an Ma to Cans Faith Sy, 22 January 1987.
46
Kaplan and Sobin, Encyclopedia, p. 56.
47
Audrey R. Topping, The Splendor of Tibet (New York: SINO Publishing Company, 1980), p. 9.
43
48
Ibid.
49
Shakabpa, Political History, p. 9
59
Since the tongue is the vehicle of speech, it plays a significant role in social encounters. In fact, the traditional
Tibetan greeting is to protrude one's tongue toward his friend.50 This is still practiced, but more by the older generation
than young people.
The entire communications system has remained rather primitive, even in modern times. Shakabpa relates these
details: "Until 1956, there was a postal system maintained by runners who carried the post in relays, each man covering
four-and-a-half miles before handing over the mail to the next man."51 Urgent communications were attached to arrows
giving them greater significance, and therefore any such letter was given priority and speedily forwarded to its
destination.52
Li-an a who lived in Tibet for several months relates: "Now the air route to Chengdu enables one to receive a letter
from the U.S.A. in two weeks! However, at times the letters are lost or arrive much later." 53 Also, there is a
telecommunications center in Lhasa linking it by satellite through Beijing to many foreign countries.54
Economy
The twin pillars of Tibet's economy are agriculture and livestock.
Agriculture
Tibet has approximately 228,000 hectares of farmland (limited by climate and elevation). The principle crops are
highland barley, wheat, rapeseed, broad beans, buck wheat, corn arid rice.55
For centuries the methods of cultivation were primitive; the standard tool was the age-old wooden plow with a
metal tip, usually drawn by yaks to the accompaniment of songs, to frighten away demons in the fields. Irrigation was
used only on a small scale.56
However, in the late 1970's, Tibet established a special local government department for expanding its farm
equipment industry. Hundreds of machine-tools, lathes, planers, grinders, drills and metal press and shears were supplied
by the state to factories at regional, municipal, prefectural and county levels. Scores of their workers are trained each
year to be farm-machine engineers and technicians.57
But agricultural production is still poor. Israel Epstein, another authority on Tibet explains: "The low levels of
agricultural production can be accounted for, in part, by the commune system, but also in part by the lack of water, poor
soil and the difficult weather conditions."58
Forestry
The forestry industry is presently focusing on the extraction of lumber from forests along the middle and lower
parts of the Yarlung Zangbo (Brahmaputra) River, and this represents about 1.5 billion cubic meters of timber. The
vegetation belts contain a vast number of species including varieties of pine, spruce and fir.59
Animal Husbandry
More than three-fourths of Tibet lies above the tree line where no crops grow, except grass. Therefore, Tibet
supports a dozen times as many animals as it has human inhabitants, a fourth of whom are occupied in the care of these
animals.60 In fact Tibet is one of the largest pastureland areas in all of China, containing over thirteen million hectares
and providing for twenty-one million head of livestock. These include: yak, cattle, Tibetan sheep, goats, horses, mules
and donkeys.61
50
Ibid.
51
Shakabpa, Political History, p. 8.
52
Ibid.
53
Li-an Ma to Caris Faith Sy, 22 January 1987.
54
Ibid.
55
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 30.
Encyclopedia Americana, s. v. Tibet.
57
Epstein, Tibet Transformed, pp. 274-275.
56
58
Ibid.
59
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 30.
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 30; Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 9.
61
Epstein, Tibet Transformed, p. 308.
60
60
Presently the great potential for related industries is being tapped. Tibet's wool, most of which used to be sent out
raw, is now being processed in factories within the region. The same is true of leather. And prospects for milk products
and canned meat are now being discussed.62
Mining and Mineral Resources
Buckley and Strauss state: "Tibet has an extraordinary wealth of minerals which has hardly been exploited." 63
Through the ages, the Tibetans were extremely superstitious about mining and believed that if the earth were disturbed,
misfortune would befall the Dalai Lama, and their crops would fail.64
Tibet's untapped mineral resources include: oil-shale, asphalt, coal, iron, manganese, magnesium, tin, lead, zinc, salt,
arsenic, borax, sulphur, mica, graphite, talc, gypsum, jade, radium, uranium and plutonium. Also, excavating has
uncovered large chromite deposits and extensive porphyry copper deposits and many associated elements.65
The world's largest lithium mine is in northern Tibet with a deposit amounting to half the world's known total.66
Industry
Before the 1950's, industry was only really present in the form of a mint and an ammunition factory in Lhasa, and
various regional handicraft centers which produced religious products.67
Buckley and Strauss give further information.
Presently, Tibet has 215 small and medium-sized industries employing 69,000 workers and producing over eighty
types of products which account for twenty percent of the total production in Tibet. The present emphasis is on light
industry, individual business, free markets and more autonomy for management, in order to encourage the production of
goods for the general public's consumption.68
Energy
Hydro-electric power stations are under construction in many areas of Tibet in order to tap the enormous potential
provided by rivers originating in Tibet. Presently there are plans to construct the world's largest hydroelectric power
station at the turning point of the Yarlurig Zarigbo (Brahmaputra) River, with a generating capacity of forty million
kilowatts.69
Buckley and Strauss add:
The exceptionally high altitude in Tibet creates intense solar radiation. The solar radiation observatory set up on the
East Rongbuk glacial basin at 6,000 meters has measured a direct solar radiation coefficient seldom found in the world-1.8 calories per square cm per minute. If the solar energy striking a square meter was concentrated, it would boil 10 kg
of water 0°C to 100°C in less than an hour! "70
Tibet also outranks the nation in geothermal energy resources. Initial surveys reveal that the region has over three
hundred geothermal geysers. The Yangbajan Wet-Stream Geothermal Power Station, the first of its kind in China,
presently accommodates Lhasa and its outlying pastoral regions. The lengthy Tibetan days combined with the area's
powerful solar radiation and perpetual high winds, give Tibet favorable prospects for the future development of its solar
and wind energy resources.71
Culture
Music
As with nearly every other facet of Tibetan life, religion also has a profound affect on music. The religious function
of music in Tibet is to symbolize primordial sounds; to call the monks to ceremonies; to introduce or end magic formulas;
to drive away evil spirits; and to accompany liturgical texts. There is also a long tradition of folk music which is usually
associated with specific types of work, such as house-building or loading pack animals.72
62
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 31.
63
Ibid.
64
Ma Yin, China's Minority Nationalities (Beijing: New World Press, 1985), p. 166.
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 31.
65
66
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 32.
68
Ibid.
69
Ibid.
67
70
Ibid.
Yin, Minority Nationalities, p. 166.
72
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 60.
71
61
Literature
Most ancient Tibetan literature is devoted to translations of Buddhist texts from India. Usually these books are
regarded as sacred, since they are a symbol of Buddha's word.73
Painting and Sculpture
Tibetan painting and sculpture is likewise religious in inspiration and is renowned for its thangkas (religious
paintings on cloth), mandalas and statues. The earliest influences on painting and sculpture in Tibet entered with
Buddhism during the reign of the Pala dynasty in India, creating the Pala-Tibetan style. Other influences came from
Nepal and China between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries and resulted in Tibeto-Nepalese and Sino-Tibetan
styles.74
Dance and Drama
In Tibet the monastic dances are all connected with religion, and the Tibetans believe that not only will they enjoy
the skill of the monk-dancers, but also they will gain blessings while observing the dancers.75
Cham dances, a religious exercise, are the most important form of Tibetan dance. They are a masked dance or
pantomime, being performed at set times in the monastery courtyard by monks adorned in luxurious brocade dress and
masks of wood, metal, or leather. Saints arid Dharmapalas (protectors of the faith) from tantric Buddhism are honored in
these dances.76
Tibetan Opera
The Tibetan opera is one of the oldest drama forms among China's minority nationalities. According to Hu Jin'an in
his article from China's Minority Nationalities, "For hundreds of years it has been performed in Tibet as well as in
Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu and Yunnan Provinces--wherever there are large communities of Tibetans."77
Although attached to religion in its birth and development, Tibetan opera was rooted in the people and their lifestyle.
Even many of the dance movements originated from people's common daily experiences.
The principal media of expression in Tibetan opera are: song, dance, rhymed monologue, recitation, acrobatics and
acting. The most important feature is the singing, while dance and acrobatics are also essential.
Regarding the plots, most came from stories and biographies in the Buddhist sutras (scriptures or books containing
doctrines) or from folk tales.78
Festivals /Ceremonies
Throughout the year, there are a number of festivals and ceremonies that figure significantly in the lives of the
Tibetans, Numerous ceremonies have proliferated, in all probability, because of the introduction of Bon practices into
religion.79
New Year Festival
The New Year Festival, like the harvest festival, funeral rites and exorcistic ceremonies, is an example of
Buddhism's influence on pre-existing local traditions.80
Other than the special days related to the Buddha's life, the New Year Festival is the greatest event of the year.81
Initial Activities
Called Losar, it is celebrated on varying dates in February or March. The Tibetans are great lovers of show, and this
is evident throughout the celebration. The initial event which marks the beginning of this great season is the "Devil
Dance" at the Potala Palace on the twenty-ninth day of the twelfth month.
On New Year's Eve, auspicious signs, such as the swastika (different in form from the German swastika and
meaning "good fortune") , the flower vase, flowers, the sun and the moon, are painted in white on walls, pillars and also
73
74
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 61.
75
Taring, Daughter, p. 154.
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 61.
77
Hu Jin'an, "Tibetan Opera," China's Minority Nationalities (I) (Beijing: China Reconstructs, 1984), p. 53.
78
Ibid., pp. 55, 58.
79
Ch'en, Light of Asia, p. 251.
80
Encyclopedia Britannica, s. v. "Buddhism."
81
Heinrich Harrar, Seven Years in Tibet (New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1954), p. 79.
76
62
on the ground in front of doors.82 Also on this day everyone prays to expel all evil from their homes, and dances are held
at the Potala Palace and other monasteries 1 for the same purpose.83
During the first day of the New Year each household has its own celebration, which includes: special prayers,
offerings, prostrating to the deities, and drinking boiled, sweet chang (Tibetan beer brewed from barley and millet). After
the home celebrations the Tibetans head to the Jokhang Temple, the main temple in Lhasa, and line up to visit the
shrines.84
Great Prayer Festival
Then on the third or fourth day of the New Year, the twenty-one day Monlam Chemro (The Great Prayer Festival)
begins.85 This festival commemorates the victory of Buddha over his six opponents, and its includes numerous activities
including offerings, tax-collecting and almsgiving.86
During Monlam, tea for twenty thousand monks was served three times daily at the Jokhang (though it is riot
certain whether this is continued) . Rinchen Dolma Taring who grew up in Tibet and has written much about Tibetan life
gives many details about the new year celebrations: "Everybody gave contributions of some kind to the monks, who
were so busy praying for the happiness of all living beings, and especially for the prosperity of Tibet and the flourishing
of Buddhism." 87 Subsidiary ceremonies during the New Year celebrations include masked dances (Cham), military
reviews, horse races, and the driving out of the city of two "scapegoats."
The Scapegoat Ceremony
The "scapegoats" are two ordinary Tibetan men who come to Lhasa posed as demons, dressed in plain clothing and
saucer-type caps. They come requesting "wine money" from door to door, and are allowed to buy daily provisions in
Lhasa at half price.
For seven days the local monks prepare their most poisonous curse, passing around a human skull filled with wine,
into which everyone spits. The wine, which is called the "bewitched water," is to be administered to the two demons on a
designated day near the end of the month. On that day the demons come with their faces painted half black and half
white, dressed in sheepskins and hats bearing red flags.
Hung on one side of their bodies is a weighing scale and on the other a measuring cup, both symbolic of their
authority over the material world. Advancing to the Jokhang monastery, they dance and shout to all their demonic
families to gather and witness their gamble with Tibet.
They challenge a Buddhist official to throw dice and decide the fate of Tibet-- whether these demons will
have free reign over Tibet, or if they will agree to go away until the next year. Invariably, the two demons lose, and
at the moment of victory, a procession begins from the Jokhang monastery, and crowds in the streets commence clapping,
whistling and spitting at the approaching demons. Two lama ruffians, gripping the defeated demons by their collars,
banish them from Lhasa--one to the southern suburb and the other to the northern.88
As these "scapegoats" are driven out of the city, they represent the removal of transferred sins from the townspeople
during the past year, as well as removing malevolent intents of demons.89
The Scapegoat Ceremony has been celebrated in recent history as well as in localities other than Lhasa. Malcolm
and Helen Sawyer, who served with the Christian and Missionary Alliance in western China on the Gansu-Tibetan
border prior to 1949, describe the festival:
The Tibetans in Labrang where we lived had a festival similar to the scapegoat of the Old Testament. A man wearing
black and white clothes--one side white and the other black; one side of his face painted white-- the other black, spent
a whole day on the streets and in the market place where the people met him and gave him gifts of money, in order for
him to carry away their sins/evil that might befall them in the future year, etc. At dusk the crowds of people chased
him from the town--throwing rocks and stones. He crossed the river and fled to the mountains. Usually he received
enough money to live comfortably the coming year.90
Western travelers have witnessed this event as recently as February 1987 at the Taersi (Kumbum) Monastery.
Additional Festivals/Ceremonies
82
Shen Chi Liu and Tsurig-Lien Shen, Tibet and the Tibetans (Stanford University Press, 1953), p. 172.
Taring, Daughter, p. 130.
84
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 251; Taring, Daughter, pp. 6, 130-131.
85
Taring, Daughter, p. 132.
86
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 62; Liu and Shen, Tibet, pp. 183-184.
87
Taring, Daughter, p. 133.
88
Liu and Shen, Tibet, pp. 187-188.
89
Encyclopedia Britannica, s. v. "Tibetan New Year Festival."
90
Malcolm and Helen Sawyer to Caris Faith Sy, 20 April 1986.
83
63
Smonlam
A remarkable example of the absorption of religion into local custom was the Smonlam Festival, celebrated on a
large scale in Lhasa. It was instituted in 1408 by Tsongkhapa, who transformed an old custom into a Buddhist festivity.
Smonlam was celebrated at the commencement of the winter thaw when caravans embarked, and the hunting
season was resumed. The observances included exorcistic ceremonies performed privately within each household to rid
itself of evil powers. Also, propitiary rites were performed to ward off harm, such as drought, epidemics, or hail during
the coming year.91
Warm Season Ceremonies
Special ceremonies also took place at the beginning of the warm season, the third Tibetan month. Two events in
Lhasa would herald the arrival of this season. On the eighth day of the third month, the entire ecclesiastical and secular
court would attire in winter garments and gather for a ceremony at the Potala Palace. Then they returned, mysteriously
changed into summer uniforms.
Not long afterwards, on an auspicious day, the other event took place. This was the occasion of the Dalai Lama
moving in state from his winter palace in the Potala Palace to his summer residence at Norbulingka.92
Incense Festival
The Incense Festival is held on the fifteenth day of the fifth month (approximately late June). Supposedly on this
day, evil ghosts prowl around looking for a human spirit. However, if the spirit is truly happy, the ghosts are unable to
take possession.93
Harvest Festival
In addition, there is the harvest festival celebrated in Tibetan villages during the eighth lunar month which most
commonly includes offerings of thanks to local deities.94
Fourth Month Observances
However, the most important month by far is the fourth, the month of the Star Saka. For in this month the Buddha
was born, and in it he attained Nirvana and Buddhahood Supposedly the month is so full of potency that the effect of
everything, good or bad, is multiplied a hundred thousand times.95
It is also during this month that the Tibetans usually walk the circumbulatory path encircling the city of Lhasa. At
this time of year, all Tibetans who can possibly spare the time, make the circumbulation for the purpose of acquiring
merit.
For the more devout Tibetans, it is not enough to merely walk, but they negotiate the entire distance by falling
prostrate on the ground, getting up and then repeating the process. Approximately one week is necessary to complete the
round of about six miles.96
It is declared a meatless month, and from the first day of the month, the devout start penance. Some abstain from
food and beverage every day from sunrise to sunset. Also, many observe silence for a period of eight days, fifteen days,
or the whole month.97 Shen-Chi Liu and Tsung-Lien Shen, co-authors of Tibet and the Tibetans, give further information:
Special prayers and lectures by high lamas are organized throughout the city. Dedications and offerings are redoubled.
Lamps are lit before every altar. Each government minister grants amnesty to one prisoner serving life sentence….
Charity is poured upon the beggars, and mendicant monks and nuns flock from far and near.98
Many festivals result from the adaptations of ancient celebrations to the world of Lamaism. Buddhism in Tibet has
actually stamped its own imprint on the traditional rituals arid festivals, which have been allowed to continue and
preserve vital qualities of the ancient forms. Giuseppe Tucci, an authority on the nation of Tibet states: "There is scarcely
any place in Tibet where these indigenous form were not preserved from destruction by admitting them into the festal
cycle of the Lamaist calendar."99 Although these celebrations continue, modifications have obviously occurred since the
Communist takeover.
91
Encyclopedia Britannica, s .v. "Buddhism."
Liu and Shen, Tibet, p. 159.
93
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 63.
94
Encyclopedia Britannica, s. v. "Buddhism."
95
Liu and Shen, Tibet, p. 159.
96
Ch'en, Light of Asia, p. 254.
97
Liu and Shen, Tibet, pp. 159-160.
92
98
Ibid., p. 160.
99
Giuseppe Tucci, Tibet: Land of Snows (New York: Stein and Day Publishers, 1967), p. 149.
64
Marriage
Marriage in Tibet is generally an arranged affair, a son being consulted by his father on the desirability of a bride
chosen for him. However, a daughter's opinion is less likely to be solicited.100 Traditionally, the compatibility of a couple
was evaluated by an astrologer and a lama. After the marriage contract was signed, an official ceremony was held at the
bridegroom's home. The bride's family would then place prayer-flags on the roof of the bridegroom's home.101
Shakabpa notes that wedding ceremonies in Tibet vary in different localities according to family wealth and social
status. However, preliminaries for a typical Tibetan wedding usually commence with extensive inquiries made among
eligible girls by the parents of the prospective groom.
After a legitimate amount of screening, the parents of a potential bride are requested to give their consent-- if the
horoscope of the girl is in agreement with that of the groom. Then an engagement date is fixed by an astrologer, if all is
in harmony.102
Regarding the wedding ceremony, these details are given by Shakabpa:
Early on the wedding day, the lama of the bride's house will seek the permission of her household deity to give the
bride away. The special representative of the bridegroom will then plant an arrow with ribbons of five different colors
(da-tar) on the bride's collar after he has explained, in poetical form, the significance of the arrow. He then declares
the bride to be married to the bridegroom. The reception party will lead the procession, followed by the bride riding a
mare and supported on both sides by attendants. A similar party of horsemen from the bride's house will accompany
the procession.
The bride is escorted into the family chapel and seated beside the bridegroom, then members of both families will join
them, seating in order of seniority. An exchange of scarves and gifts takes place between the two families, after which
tea, rice, and wine are served. Following the ceremony, friends of both families come to congratulate the married
couple with gifts and scarves. Later, the couple will be taken onto the roof of the house, where prayers will be offered
by the household lama to bring the bride under the protection of her husband's family deities. The representative of
the bride, while hoisting a prayer flag on the roof of the house, will pronounce her equal in rights as the other
members of her husband's family. Lavish parties are given for a few days to celebrate the marriage. In recent times,
the wedding ceremony and customs have become simpler and love-marriages, in contrast to arranged-marriages, are
permitted.103
Death/Burial
Many Buddhist sects in Tibet believe that the state of consciousness at the time of death determines an individual's
rebirth pattern. The succeeding life can be influenced not only by the dying man's degree of enlightenment but also
through assistance from lamas who attend his demise.104 Therefore, the pre-death hours can precisely affect subsequent
experiences in the Bardo realm--the time which lies between death and a new life.
There is one ceremony designated as the ceremony of guiding consciousness after death, and it is performed by
monks for the advantage of the one who has just expired. The ceremony may be instigated by the dead person's family
for the purpose of influencing the form of his next rebirth. But sometimes there is also the intent of prevailing upon the
spirits not to cause trouble for the living.
Tibetan Buddhists believe there are six modes of existence--the first being hell. The other five are: hungry ghost,
animal, man, tita and deity. Initially in the ceremony a lotus shaped mandala, with six petals representing these modes of
existence, is drawn by the monks. (A mandala is a frame of a picture, real or imagined, into which the gods are placed.)
Throughout the ceremony a name card is used as a substitute for the deceased, and this card is shifted around the
various lotus petals of the mandala, beginning with hell. When the name card is placed on the appropriate petal, mystic
syllables are uttered. This signifies calling upon Avalokitesvara (Bodhisattva of Compassion) to remove all the torments
of heat and cold.
As the name card is transferred to each successive sphere of existence (hungry ghost, animal, man, tita, and deity)
the same ceremony is repeated with the corresponding changes made in names of particular Buddhas and the nature of
sufferings in each sphere. Later the lotus shaped mandala is pushed away and the Rite of the Intermediate State recited.
Food, drink and a large number of desirable objects are then offered to the deceased to take care of his needs in the
intermediary state between successive rebirths.
100
Moraes, The Revolt, p. 44.
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 58.
102
Shakabpa, Political History, pp. 18-19.
101
103
Ibid., p. 19.
104
Nancy Ross Wilson, Hinduism, Buddhism, Zen (London: Faber arid Faber Limited, 1966), p. 155.
65
As these offerings are being made, the spirit of the deceased is called upon, regarding his rebirth in another body.
Then exhortations are rendered; he is informed of his arrival in the Buddha field of Avalokitesvara, and that he should
remain in that sphere protected by the Bodhisattvas. (The Bodhisattvas are those who delay entering Nirvana in order to
contribute to the salvation of others. See Appendix B--Section-Buddhist Beliefs and Practices.) The name card is then
destroyed, and the ceremony ends with the utterance of the mantras.105
In the burial process, the most common practice is Jator, or "feeding the birds."106 In this Tibetan ritual, the human
corpse is taken out in the early morning, chopped up and then fed to vultures. The Tibetans consider this to be the
cleanest and holiest way to dispose of the dead.107
General Description of Life Since 1950
According to Thorson, "After the 1959 uprising, the Communists began to totally destroy the traditional Tibetan
way of life and replace it with the Han Chinese way of life."108 Monks were sent out to work, and the farmers and
nomads were forced into communes. Subsequently the nobility lost all power and privilege.109 Sacred scriptures were
burned, and buildings were dynamited. All forms of Tibetan customs and worship were prohibited, including barter.
Moreover, Tibetans were coerced into memorizing passages from Mao's Little Red Book, and also compelled to take
part in Mao Thought Study classes. Large numbers of Tibetans lost their lives in labor camps and prisons.110
Today in Tibet there are mixed reports on the situation. The Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) can be seen
throughout Lhasa and Shigatse. Chinese appear to be in charge of everything, except some monasteries which are open.
About eight years ago Beijing began to allow the Tibetans to worship again in the temples and monasteries. Also a
large number of young boys were allowed to enter the monasteries as lamas in the Lhasa area.
Although it appears to be more than a token restoration, the numbers of open monasteries are nowhere near the pre1951 levels; prior to the 1950's there were at least 2,500 monasteries. Although reliable statistics are not available,
reports indicate that at the most, only ten percent of these monasteries (and monks) are still active.111
It appears that at present it is possible to maintain one's ethnic identity as long as it does not conflict with Chinese
policy.112
105
Ch'en, Light of Asia, pp. 251-252.
Encyclopedia Americana, s. v. "Tibet."
107
"Religion vs. Communism in Tibet," Pacific Sunday, 15 December 1985, p. 15.
108
Thorson, "The Tibetans," p. 8.
106
109
Ibid.
110
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, p. 17.
Ibid., pp. 8-9, 55.
112
Ibid., p.10.
111
66
B. BREAKTHROUGH OF A RELIGION
Buddhist Beginnings
Buddhism began in India about five hundred years before the birth of Christ. At that time the Indian people had
become disillusioned with certain aspects of Hinduism; one was the caste system, which had grown extremely complex.
Also there was a continuous growth in the number of outcasts who belonged to no particular caste.
Furthermore they despaired of the Hindu belief of an endless cycle of births, deaths and rebirths. Therefore, the
people reverted to a diversity of beliefs. Many sects of Hinduism arose--Buddhism being the most successful.1
The Buddha
"f Central to Buddhism lies the conviction that Gautama Siddhartha became Buddha, the Enlightened One, and the
search for this enlightenment is the goal of all Buddhists. The life of the prince who gave up everything to seek the cause
of suffering and the way to remove it, is common knowledge to all Buddhists.
He propagated the simple teaching of the Way--the Way which leads to the heart's peace, when eventually all
thought of self is dead. Christmas Humphreys, an authority on the Buddhist religion states: "He taught this Way for fifty
years, and when he died his message was already known throughout the length and the breadth of northeast India."2
The consensus of modern scholarship directs us to approximately 560 B.C. as the year of the Buddha's birth. The
oldest accounts agree that the Buddha was born in the grove of Lumbini near Kapilavastu, (the capital of the small
aristocratic republic of the Sakyas), which lay between the foothills of Nepal and the Rapti River. (Kapilavastu lies in the
district of modern Nepal designated as Terai or Tarai).3
Anarida Bhikku, another authority on Buddhism explains that the Buddha was born Prince Siddhartha Gautama,
son of Queen Maya and King Suddhodana of the Sakya clan. When the prince was five days old, in accordance with the
ancient custom, eight of the learned Brahmins were called in to predict the future of this infant prince. Bhikku reports:
"The Brahmins predicted that if the prince remained as a householder he will be a Buddha and remove the veil of
ignorance from the world."4
According to Bhikku, two days after this prognostication, the birth of the prince was overshadowed by the death of
his mother, who left the infant in the care of her sister Maja Pajapati Gotame. She instructed: "I shall soon leave this
world, for a mother who has given birth to a future Buddha will not remain in this world. When I am gone be thou
mother to him."5
This prophecy troubled the father, who desired his son to succeed him as king. So, to keep him at home, he
surrounded the prince with wealth and pleasures, removing all painful and ugly objects or occurrences from his
experience.
Thus admist the luxury of palatial halls and picturesque flowered gardens, the prince lived and matured, being
nurtured in naivety. However, Bhikku adds that this life did not appeal to the young man. "He was of a retiring
disposition and loved to remain in solitude giving himself up to meditation."6
Siddhartha eventually married but was yet confined to the palace and its protective boundaries. Finally when he was
twenty-nine years old, he expressed to his father his desire to observe the outside world.
Encounter with Reality
However, before the king granted permission, he attempted to create a pleasant environment outside the palace. He
ordered the streets cleansed and decorated and for all the elderly and infirm to remain inside. But the records claim his
scheming went amiss, and to the father's dismay, there were some who did not receive the message.
Thus, the long awaited excursion was destined to forever change the life of this sheltered prince. Because it is said
that during this journey he say "the four passing sights."
His first distressing sight was a decrepit old man; later he encountered a diseased man. He was told that infirmity as
well as old age are the ways of mankind. Subsequently he viewed a funeral procession with a corpse on its way to
cremation. Questioning this he was informed that sooner or later both prince and pauper must face death. His fourth and
1
Josh McDowell and Don Stewart, Understanding Non-Christian Religions (San Bernardino: Here's Life Publishers,
Incorporated, 1982), p. 47.
2
Christmas Humphreys, The Buddhist Way of Life (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980), p. 21.
3
Richard Henry Druinmond, Gautama the Buddha (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1974), p. 27.
4
Ananda Bhikku, Buddhism (Colombo: W. E. Bastian and Company, 1949), p. 5.
5
6
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 6.
67
final sight was that of a monk begging for food. As he viewed the tranquil look on the beggar's face, Siddhartha
increasingly coveted this life-style.7
Search for Enlightenment
Although by this time Siddhartha had a son of his own, he still determined to leave all behind and experience a new
quality of life. From that day he separated himself forever from his family and all which was familiar.8
Bhikku relates:
Immediately he left the palace and his family in search of enlightenment. The night that he left his home to seek
enlightenment became known as the Great Renunciation. The former prince, now a beggar, spent his time wandering
from place to place seeking wisdom. Unsatisfied by the truths taught in the Hindu scripture, he became discouraged
but continued on his guest. He tried asceticism but this gave him no peace.9
Reportedly this was the critical period in Gautama's search. He exhausted techniques of extreme ascetism, fasting to
an extent that one account reports: "When he touched the skin of his belly, he took hold of his backbone."10 He strove to
subdue, restrain and dominate his mind. But this regimen of severe austerity gave Gautama neither physical peace, nor
spiritual enlightenment.11
Realizing that self-mortification would not profit him in attaining emancipation, the ascetic Gautarna resolved to
follow a less rigid life-style. He designated this as the Middle Path, avoiding the two extremes of self-indulgence and
self-mortification.12
Unsatisfied with all previous experience, Gautama wandered from place to place, until he came to a beautiful,
serene location near the village of Uruvela. There he sat under a fig tree and resolved not to move until deliverance was
realized. Authorities say he declared: "Let my skin, sinews and bones be left. May my blood and flesh dry up and wither
away, yet never from this seat will I stir until I have attained full Enlightenment."13
Supposedly he remained under the tree for seven days, and after that the tree was called the bodhi (or bo tree) the
tree of wisdom. The truths which he received, he would impart to the world--no longer as Siddhartha Gautama, but as
the Buddha, the Enlightened One.
Buddha's Teaching
McDowell and Stewart, who have studied major world religions, report that when the Buddha emerged from this
experience he met five monks who had been his previous companions. Directing his teaching toward these five monks,
the Buddha began his ministry with the Sermon at Benares.
This sermon contained the following:
Avoiding these two extremes the Blessed One has gained the Enlightenment of the Middle Path, which produces
insight and knowledge, and leads to a calm, to higher knowledge, enlightenment, nirvana.
And what, monks, is the Middle Path….? It is the noble Eightfold Path: namely, right view, right intention, right
speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.... In short, the five
components of existence are painful. Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of pain, the cessation
without a remainder of craving, the abandonment forsaking, release, nonattachment.
Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the path that leads to the cessation of pain: this is the Eightfold Path.14
After his first sermon, the Buddha commenced to spread his teachings to other countrymen. The Indian people,
disillusioned with Hinduism, listened intently to this new doctrine. By the time of Buddha's death at the age of eighty,
his teaching had become a strong force in India.
The Buddha's main teachings can be summarized by the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
Four Noble Truths
The First Noble Truth is the existence of suffering. Birth is painful, and death is painful; disease and old age are
painful. Not having what we desire is painful, and having what we do not desire is also painful.
The Second Noble Truth is the cause of suffering. It is the craving desire for the pleasures of the senses, which seeks
satisfaction now here; now there; the craving for happiness and prosperity and prosperity in this life and in future lives.
7
McDowell and Stewart, Non-Christian Religions, p. 49
Bhikku, Buddhism, pp. 8-9.
9
McDowell and Stewart, Non-Christian Religions, p. 49.
10
Drummond, The Buddha, p. 36.
8
11
Ibid.
12
Bhikku, Buddhism, p. 13.
13
Ibid., pp. 13-14.
14
McDowell and Stewart, Non-Christian Religions, pp. 49-50.
68
The Third Noble Truth is the ending of suffering. To be free of suffering, one must give up, get rid of, extinguish this
very craving, so that no passion and no desire remain.
The Fourth Noble Truth leads to the ending of all pain by way of the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path
The first step on that path is Right Views: You must I accept the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
The second step is Right Resolve: You must renounce the pleasures of the senses; you must harbor no ill will toward
anyone and harm no living creature.
The third step is Right Speech: Do not lie; do not slander or abuse anyone. Do not indulge in idle talk.
The fourth is Right Behavior: Do not destroy any living creature; take only what is given to you; do not commit any
unlawful sexual act.
The fifth is Right Occupation: You must earn your livelihood in a way that will harm no one.
The sixth is Right Effort: You must resolve and strive heroically to prevent any evil qualities from arising in you and
to abandon evil qualities that you may possess. Strive to acquire good qualities and encourage those you do possess to
grow, increase and be perfected.
The seventh is Right Contemplation: Be observant, strenuous, alert, contemplative, free of desire and of sorrow.
The eighth is Right Meditation: When you have abandoned all sensuous pleasures, all evil qualities, both joy and
sorrow, you must enter the four degrees of meditation, which are produced by concentration.15
One symbol of Buddhism is the lotus--for the image of this exquisite flower, which rises from the mud and murk of
a pond to repose in the sunlight, is suggestive of Buddha's quest. He too strove to surmount the darkness of illusion and
supposedly broke into the light of perfect understanding, therefore becoming a fragrance to purify the stench of this
world.16
Buddhist Beliefs and Practices
Buddhism is unique among the classified religions of the world, having no criteria for orthodoxy. It has no doctrines,
creeds, or dogmas which must be accepted by faith. And it possesses no Bible in the Christian sense of inspired
revelation. Simply stated: "A Buddhist is as a Buddhist does."17 Humphreys explains further:
Judged by the usual criteria, Buddhism is not a religion at all. The hallmarks of a religion are a personal God, an
unchanging and immortal soul, and the necessity for the salvation of the latter by the former. These three factors are
entirely absent in Buddhism. The importance of the distinction is that all religions provide an authority, and Buddhism
has none.18
A Buddhist is free to question any part of the Buddha's teaching; in fact he is encouraged to do so. Nothing is
forbidden to question, and no teaching exists which calls for a closed mind and blind faith.
Furthermore, the Buddha invited anyone to examine his statements, declaring his teachings were something to
"come and see," to investigate for oneself, to test and prove if they were workable.19
In place of doctrines and dogmas, the Buddha taught methods which one could apply to everyday life and
experience the benefits immediately. Khantipalo Bhikku another authority explains: "The whole of Buddhist teaching is
one mass of flexible methods appropriate severally for different times, places and most important, for different
temperaments of persons."20
Buddhists believe a person is attracted towards Buddhism because he holds some wisdom to perceive a little truth in
Buddhism; meanwhile he accepts by faith those teachings yet unproved by his experience. Eventually, when he finds
they are practical, his faith enlarges. Therefore, Buddhism is also symbolized by a wheel, which is an expression of
dynamic growth.21
Triple Gem
Buddhists place their faith in the Triple Gem: The Buddha; The Teaching; and in the Noble Order of the
Enlightened Followers--meaning the monastic order.
15
Ibid., pp. 51-52.
16
Douglas A. Fox, The Vagrant Lotus: An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, l73),
p. 37.
17
Humphreys, Buddhist Way, p. 27.
18
Ibid.
19
Khantipalo Bhikku, What is Buddhism (Bangkok: Social Science Association Press of Thailand, 1965), p. 2.
20
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 1.
21
69
In Buddhist worship, there are three common offerings: flowers, lights and incense. Each offering can be directly
related to the Triple Gem. For instance, flowers, particularly the lotus, are symbols of the Buddha's presence in the world
and his quest.22 Regarding light and incense--the light illumines the dark corners of the mind and brings enlightenment to
replace ignorance. The morally pervasive qualities of the Order are represented by incense whose aroma pervades all
things.23
Sangha (Noble Order)
According to Khantipalo Bhikku the formation of the Sangha took place at Isipatana. This was after the first
declaration of the Dharma to the five recluses who had previously been companions of Buddha.
Members of the Sangha are designated as monks-- Tibetan lama. (Although all Tibetan monks are usually called
lamas, in the true sense lamas are only fully-ordained monks, or masters.) Monks (lamas) teach others by example and
precept, without remuneration. Purity, voluntary poverty, selflessness and service are some of their characteristics. Race,
color, and social class are immaterial; the only rank observable within the order being length of membership. H.
Suddhatissa in his book Buddhist Ethics gives further details:
Entry is debarred to deformed persons, as those suffering from such diseases as leprosy or tuberculosis, and to
debtors, professional soldiers…. There is no age limit. Entrants below the age of twenty are known as samaneras and
later may become bhikkhus.24
The monks renounce everything worldly, do not regret their past, nor worry about their future. They live essentially
in the present, and direct their energies to activities which they believe lead to universal happiness.25 Generally, they live
in a monastery, which is a precinct comprising halls and monk's quarters. Some are large villages in themselves, where
hundreds, even thousands of monks reside.
Life in the Monastery
In the monastery, each monk has his own room or house, and he provides for his own food. He is not supported by
the monastery, but by himself or by his family. Most monasteries possess lands and cattle, and the produce helps meet
expenses. In addition, special offerings and subscriptions from the public are collected for specific purposes, such as new
buildings, repairs and festival expenditures.
Although most monks live in a monastery, many do not, as they may prefer to live at home, or there may be no
room available in the monastery. Also, wealthy families may have private chapels and monks in residence.26
At any age, a male can join a monastery, and then a sponsor (usually a friend or relative), arranges for a teacher at
his residence. Subsequently the entrant takes his pre-novice vows of rapjung (the first of three grades of monks) .
Thereupon, he commences to work, study, receive training and take part in ceremonies.
Between the age of fifteen and twenty-five, monks take thirty-six additional vows to become a getsul (next level) .
Then full ordination as a gelong (third level) requires a minimum age of twenty arid the observance of 250 precepts. The
rapjung monk attires himself in brownish-red robes, and the getsul and gelong wear red.
Within a monastery only a small proportion of the monks are gelongs arid even fewer number among the genuine
masters (or lamas). In Tibetan the term lama corresponds to the Sanskrit word guru which is a term reserved for
"perfect" teachers.
Every two weeks the monks assemble and recite the rules. After each is stated, there is a pause to allow any monk
to confess his transgressions and receive the deserved punishment. The most serious violations are punishable with
expulsion; these concern sexual intercourse, theft, murder and exaggeration of one's miraculous powers. Other precepts
deal with lesser transgressions, such as drinking and lying.27
Life in the Present
A general Buddhist attitude toward life can be seen from the lotus flower which has previously been mentioned. Dr.
Ananda Perera, a Buddhist convert to Christianity explains, "This flower used in meditation is also a symbol of life being
transient. As the flower may be brilliant today and withering tomorrow, so life is also fleeting."
Wisdom and Compassion
Wisdom and compassion are the twin pillars of Buddhism. Wisdom-- unlike knowledge which is acquired from the
outside through study and experience--is to be cultivated from within; it is inborn in all things. Compassion, on the other
22
23
Ibid., p. 5.
Ibid.
24
H. Saddhatissa, Buddhist Ethics (London: George Allen and Unwin Limited, 1970), pp. 80, 84.
25
Ibid., p. 85.
26
Lhamo, We Tibetans, pp. 115-116.
Buckley and Strauss, Tibet-Survival Kit, pp. 54-55.
27
70
hand, is an all-embracing selfless desire. It is compassion which moves the good man's heart at the sight of suffering. Its
main characteristics are the desire to remove all forms of misery and pain, and to overcome cruelty.28
Prayer
In Buddhism, prayer is not so much conceived as having a petitionary or intercessory function, but as voicing
thanksgiving, praises, and of aspirational vows--namely vows to overcome ignorance, to comprehend Buddha's teaching
and to reach enlightenment. Thus, prayer in Buddhism takes the form of meditation and directing loving, compassionate
thoughts.29
Values
Actions
One might simplify the Buddhist outlook on life by stating: Every individual is a busy gardener removing weeds
and cultivating virtues. The task at hand has supreme value-- not worship, nor ceremony, but the next project to be
completed. And, whenever possible, that task should be done in the service of one's neighbor.30
Attitudes
Also, Buddhism regards humility as a high virtue. Pride or arrogance, which is usually expressed by the word mana
(and its derivatives), is one of the most abominable vices from the Buddhistic moral point of view. Buddhists describe
pride as a great self-feeling or self-interest and teach that destruction of pride is essential. The search for, or clinging to
self, is not only useless but results in many other vices and leads to pain and suffering.31
Relationships
"Pay as you go" is the Buddhist method, unconscious or deliberate, of coming to terms with Karma, (or the force
which determines a man's destiny). The philosophic background of "pay as you go" encompasses the concept of the
unity of life. In other words, Buddhism teaches that persons are members of one another; therefore, the erring one is wise,
upon incurrence of a debt, to be swift and generous in payment.
The Buddhist virtue of dana (giving), or charity in its widest form, is far more encompassing than a mere
distribution of surplus funds. Every injury and complaint, however trivial, should be healed with giving, with measure
heaped up, overflowing with goodwill.32
One's duty to mankind is to serve others with priority over self. Each good deed one offers will diminish "drop by
drop," that "sea of suffering formed of the tears of man" and therefore reduces the self whose death results in the birth of
Enlightenment.33
Sin
Buddhists view sin as any desire which terminates in self, or has regard for self. Therefore, even the desire for a life
of happiness in heaven would be considered sin.34 Furthermore, since there is no belief in a supreme being, there is no
concept of sin against any absolute authority.35 However, Buddhists do adhere to a Decalogue, which reads as follows:
1) Take not life (of any living thing).
2) Do not lie.
3) Do not steal.
4) Do not commit adultery.
5) Do not drink what intoxicates.
These five are the only obligatory standards for the ordinary Buddhist layman. But for one who aspires to be a saint,
the fourth command is conditioned with, "to lead a chaste and celibate life." Then the decalogue is completed as follows:
6) Eat not at prohibited times.
7) Wear no garlands, and use no dentifrices or perfumes.
8) Sleep on no high or broad bed.
28
Bhikshy Shinkaku, Essentials and Symbols of the Buddhist Faith (Honolulu: Ernest K. Shinkaku Hunt, 1955), pp. 2324.
29
Ibid., p. 25.
30
Humphreys, Buddhist Way, p. 142.
S. Iachibana, The Ethics of Buddhism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926; reprinted ed., London: Curzon Press Limited,
1981), pp. 179-180, 182.
31
32
33
Ibid., p. 134.
Ibid., p. 137.
34
S. H. Kellogg, A Handbook of Comparative Religion (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdinans Publishing Company,
1957), pp. 54-55.
35
McDowell and Stewart, Non-Christian Religions, p. 71.
71
9) Abstain from music, dancing, and from stage plays.
10) Abstain from the use of gold or silver.
Therefore, not only lying, stealing and adultery, but also using tooth powders, singing, or even utilizing gold and
silver are classified as sin.36
Salvation
To the Buddhist salvation is simply non-existence. It is deliverance from the necessity of repeated rebirths which is
occasioned by the presence of tanha (desire) and is eternal suspension of being.
The Buddhist, who is regarded as a saved man, is not merely a man who has ceased to hate, but one who has also
ceased to love. He has ceased to desire evil, but also to desire good. He is one who, while delivered from the desire of
long life in this sinful world, is equally delivered from any desire to go to heaven.37 Furthermore, salvation is to be
achieved by one's own efforts. Others may help an individual discover salvation, but in the last analysis, each must
achieve it for himself.38
Orientation Toward the Future
According to orthodox Buddhism, there is no future life for the individual. Man is merely the result of combining
certain skandhas (elements which make us a personality); when these are separated in death, nothing of the man remains.
There is no substantial essence which passes from one body to another.
Authority on world religions, S. H. Kellogg, explains that the relationship between the body and that which follows
it, is therefore not physical, but merely ethical--not real, but ideal. He adds: "That is the works which I do necessitate the
production after my death of another body in which their fruit can be realized."39
Although various forms of Buddhism acknowledge different heavens arid hells, there is not an eternal heaven, nor
an eternal hell. Kellogg amplifies the concept of the afterlife:
No matter what summits of celestial bliss in one of the highest heavens a man may attain, and no matter how many
ages he may live there, when his merit is exhausted, which brought and kept him there, he must again be born, in
heaven, earth, or hell, according to his deeds. And so must the weary sequence of birth and death go on, until at last,
perchance in some one of these myriad births, by following and walking steadfastly in the "Noble Eightfold Path," the
poor soul may attain nirvana and know no more of bliss or woe.40
Buddhism teaches that from the time of Buddha onward, the proclivity of the human race, religiously considered,
will be downward. Eventually, the world system will have degenerated to such a degree, that it will necessitate the
appearance on earth of another Buddha to preach the way.41
Nirvana
This is a difficult, if not impossible word to define. Essential to Buddhism is Nirvana, which is the final goal of any
Buddhist; it is the highest spiritual plane one person can attain. In one sense it is a negative term and literally means the
"blowing out" of the flame of desire, the negation of suffering (dukha). Nirvana is not to be considered a distinct place,
but a total reorientation.42
Generally speaking, it is a blissful spiritual condition where the heart extinguishes all passion, hatred and delusion.
Therefore Nirvana is realized only when the root of all evil passions is removed. Then the mind regains its original
purity and grace, becoming liberated from worries and other annoyances.43
Buddhist Branches: Nahayana and Hinayana
As time elapsed, the religion developed in two main directions: Mahayana, meaning the Greater Vehicle, or
carriage, and Hinayana, or the Lesser Vehicle. 44 Often these two schools of Buddhism are known as the Northern
(Mahayana) and the Southern (Hinayana). Hinayana is probably closer to original Buddhism than is Mahayana.45 It arose
36
Kellogg, Comparative Religion, pp. 55-56.
Ibid., pp. 79, 82, 83.
38
Kenneth Scott Latourette, Introducing Buddhism (New York: Friendship Press, 1956), p. 55.
39
Kellogg, Comparative Religion, p. 109.
40
Ibid., pp. 110-111.
37
41
Ibid., p. 111.
42
McDowell and Stewart, Non-Christian Religions, pp. 54, 73, citing Buddhism, 1977, p. 44.
Beatrice Lane Suzuki, Mahayana Buddhism (Allen and Unwin, 1981), pp. 48-49.
44
Latourette, Introducing Buddhism, p. 15.
43
45
Ibid., pp. 15-16.
72
among Buddha's original disciples and is also referred as Theravada Buddhism, which literally means "teachings of the
elders.46
Buddhism's History
Buddhism, may be divided into four historical sections:
1. Primitive Buddhism--the period from the beginning of the Buddha's teaching to 100 years after his Nirvana, 530380 B.C.
2. Hinayana Buddhism--the development of the different schools from 100 years after Buddha's death to A.D. 100.
3. Development of Mahayana Buddhism--Hinayana and Mahayana flourishing together. A new epoch in Buddhism,
A. D. 106-300, Buddhism unified by Nagarjuna.
4. The predominance of the Mahayana, A.D. 300-500.47
Similarities of Mahayana and Hinayana
Among the points of views which are common to both Mahayana arid Hinayana are the following:
1. The object of Buddhism is to get rid of delusion, obtain enlightenment, and enter the world of the Infinite and
Absolute.
2. The world has no beginning and no end. All is explained by causation, but there is no first cause.
3. All things change, all is impermanent, all is transient. This is true not only of men but of all life, even that which
seems most enduring.
4. There is no substantial entity known as the "Ego." As all is impermanent and transient, so there is no self or ego
such as is popularly regarded as persisting behind consciousness.
5. The law of causation is universally valid in the moral world as well as in the physical world. Every cause has an
effect.
6. Transmigration explains causation, and is due to karma, and karma is produced by the deeds in the life of birth
and death. Transmigration leads to suffering, as the Four Noble Truths set out.
7. Delusion is the cause of suffering which is universal.
8. Moral practices, such as the Eightfold Noble Path and the Paramitas, are prescribed in order to remove
delusion.48
Mahayana Distinctives
In general, Mahayana was nominated as the Greater Vehicle because it professes to have as its goal the ultimate
salvation of all living beings. It accentuates the Bodhisattvas, a term referring to those actively pursuing the way of
salvation, but who voluntarily delay entering Nirvana until they contribute to the salvation of all who have life. Many are
purely mythical beings, but to some an actual existence in time has been attributed.49
Humphreys adds this information about the Bodhisattvas:
In Mahayana, the Bodhisattva is the ideal of the Path…. Having practiced the Six Paramitas (ethical ideals) and
attained enlightenment he renounces Nirvana in order to help humanity on its pilgrimage. The Bodhisattvas are often
called "Buddhas of Compassion," as love in action guided by wisdom is their aim.50
In addition to Bodhisattvas, Mahayana Buddhism is distinguished by its hierarchical and more structured priesthood.
It emphasizes the following: rituals, an elaborate doctrine of divine emanations, Christianlike worship and masses, a
great insistence on yoga, as well as tantrism.
Tantrism is a form of devotion to natural energy (shakti). It is based on manuals (tantras) having a distinctly
magical and spell-making character.51 (Further explanation of tantrism is given in Chapter 11--Section - Development of
Tibetan Buddhism.)
Mahayana Ideals
To be a Mahayana Buddhist means resolution to tread the Bodhisattva path--to seek for enlightenment and to strive
for the welfare of all. It means to live according to Mahayana ethical ideals, practicing the Paramitas:
Dana: Giving, whether in the form of service, love, time, teaching or finances
Sila: Living a life of morality
46
McDowell and Stewart, Non-Christian Religions, p. 74.
Suzuki, Mahayana Buddhism, p. 22.
48
Suzuki, Mahayana Buddhism, pp. 35-36
49
Latourette, Introducing Buddhism, p. 15.
50
Christmas Humphreys, A Popular Dictionary of Buddhism (London: Arco Publications, 1962), pp. 46-47.
51
John B. Noss, Man's Religions (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1969), p. 229.
47
73
Kanta: Strenuous effort to serve
Dhayana: The practice of meditation
Compassion, wisdom, enlightenment and the desire to benefit others are the great ideals of Mahayana Buddhism,
which can be aspired to by lay people as well as by nuns and priests.52 In her book, Mahayana Buddhism, Beatrice
Suzuki states:
Enlightenment within rather than without is the goal of Mahayana, for without Enlightenment there is a blind groping
in the dark. Yet when Enlightenment comes, compassion will stream forth; men will learn to love their fellow beings;
and wars, the exploitation of men and animals, and anger, and hatred, and lust will come to an end. This is the
teaching of Mahayana Buddhism .53
Contrasts Between Mahayana and Hinayana
In Hinayana Buddhism (Theravada), there is a very loosely organized priesthood with no recognized leaders, as the
Dalai Lama, who is considered the God-King, or the Panchen Lama, who is the Spiritual Head of Lamaism.
There are no recognized rituals comparable to rituals of the Northern School, and there is little or nothing clearly
tantric.54
Also, Hinayana instructs each man to work out his own salvation. Early disciples of Gautama who succeeded in this
intention are known as Arahats. Furthermore, it stresses the monastic life as the path to Nirvana. In contrast, some forms
of Mahayana offer salvation to the laity as well as monks. Simply stated, Hinayana is sometimes described as selfish and
Mahayana as unselfish.55
Summary of Differences
Some of the main differences between Hinayana and Mahayana are:
1. The interpretation of Buddahood. In Hinayana, it is historical and ethical; in Mahayana, metaphysical and
religious.
2. The conception of non-ego. In Hinayaria it is analytical and scholastic; in Mahayana, it is experiential and
intuitive.
3. The altruistic point of view of salvation of the Mahayanists compares with the individualistic view of the
Hinayanists.
4. The lessening of distinction between monk and layman in the Mahayana.
5. In the Mahayaria all may attain to Buddhahood, for all have the Buddha-nature (Buddhata) and the desire for
Bodhi.56
The following chart succinctly contrasts these two main branches of Buddhism.57
Theravada
Mahayana
Man as an individual
Man as involved with others
Man on his own in the universe
Man not alone (salvation by grace)
(emancipation by self-effort)
Key virtue: wisdom
Key virtue: karuna, compassion
Religion: a full-time job (primarily for
Religion: relevant to life in the world (for
monks)
laymen as well)
Ideal: The Arahat
Ideal: The Bodhisattva
Buddha: A saint
Buddha: A savior
Eschews metaphysics
Elaborates metaphysics
Eschews ritual
Includes ritual
Confines prayer to meditation
Includes petitionary prayer
Conservative
Liberal
52
Suzuki, Mahayana Buddhism.
53
Ibid.
54
Walter Yearling Evans-Wentz, The Tibetan Book of the Dead (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 232.
Latourette, Introducing Buddhism, pp. 15-16.
56
Suzuki, Mahayana Buddhism, pp. 34-35.
57
McDowell and Stewart, Non-Christian Religions, p. 54, citing The Religions of Man, 1958, p. 138.
55
74
Buddhist Expansion
Any account of Buddhism and its spread must cover vast expanses of time and space. With only a handful of
followers at its commencement, it gradually grew to encompass the world--influencing the destinies of over six hundred
million people.58
However, other factors aided its advance. For example, never did the Dharmadutas, the messengers of the Dharma
(The Teaching) , use any iniquitous methods in disseminating their message. It penetrated to other countries peaceably,
without disturbing the existing creeds. Furthermore, the Buddhist mission utilized no arms, nor any coercive or
reprehensible methods. Conversion by compulsion was unknown to the Buddha and his disciples.59
During the first two hundred years of its history, Buddhism was generally confined to the northern section of the
Indian peninsula, being propagated only by the Buddha himself and his Arahat disciples.
Then came King Asoka (Ca. 236-232 B.C.), unique among the rulers of the world. He accepted the teachings of
Buddha arid endeavored to educate the people by spreading Buddhist teachings, especially the ethical aspects, within
India as well as outside the country. Consequently, he had the ethical teachings engraved on rock, so they became
sermons in stone, not only metaphorically, but literally.
In addition, there were disciples of the Buddha who followed their Master's injunction: "Go now and wander for the
welfare and happiness of gods and me and proclaim the life of purity." They were also zealous in undertaking the
mission abroad, although communication was troublesome, and travel perilous.60
Therefore, reinforced by King Asoka's unceasing missionary zeal, determination and courage, Buddhism spread to
other nations. Asoka's records speak of missions sent to kingdoms of Asia, Africa and Europe--to Syria and Egypt,
Cyrene, Macedonia, Expirus, to Bactria and through Central Asia and on to China.
It was during Asoka's time, 236 years after Buddha's death, that his own son Mahinda (the Arahat sage) introduced
Buddhism into Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka). Not only did it flourish there, but from Ceylon it spread to Burma, Thailand
and on to Indo-China. It was established in Tibet, and then in Nepal and Mongolia, gaining a firm foothold in China.
From there it penetrated to Korea and was transmitted to Japan through the sea route.61
This territorial expansion of Buddhism was accomplished entirely in the first two millennia of its history. Then it
began its retreat more than a thousand years ago-- first in India, the land of its birth.62
Buddhism Contrasted with Christianity
Kenneth Scott Latourette, the historian of Christianity claims: "There are radical differences between Buddhism and
Christianity that make any attempt of reconciliation between the two faiths impossible."63
The Buddhistic world view is basically monistic; therefore the existence of a personal Creator and Lord is denied.
The world functions by natural power and law--not by divine command.
According to Buddhist belief, man is worthless having only a temporary existence. Rather, in Christianity, man is of
infinite worth, created in God's image and destined to exist forever. Man's body is only a hindrance in the Buddhist
mentality, while for the Christian, it is an instrument to glorify God.64
Nirvana, which is ultimate enlightenment or the highest spiritual attainment for Buddhists, was previously described
as the "blowing out" of a flame. Conversely, the Gospel teaches a salvation which is a complete reversal of snuffing out
flame. Instead it is described as a new birth,--growing in love, joy, peace, longsuffering, gentleness, goodness, meekness,
self-control.65
Buddhism had only slight extension after its twentieth century, and never has it gained a substantial number of
adherents outside of South, Central and East Asia. Rather, in its own twentieth century, Christianity is world-wide and
continues in its geographical expansion.
Moreover, Buddhism only succeeded in penetrating entire communities among people adhering to primitive cults
(at the time of Buddhism's arrival). Among more sophisticated civilizations, it never succeeded in fully displacing the
religious systems which preceded it.
58
59
Suzuki, Mahayana Buddhism, pp. 47-48.
Piyadassi Thera, Buddhism: A Living Message (Colombo: Vajirarama, (2527), 1984), p. 63.
60
Ibid., p. 64.
Ibid., pp. 65-66.
62
Ibid., pp. 66-67.
61
63
64
65
Latourette, Introducing Buddhism, p. 57.
McDowell and Stewart, Non-Christian Religions, p. 70.
Ibid., pp. 70-71.
75
In contrast, Christianity's initial territorial expansion was in the Mediterranean world, when this area was ruled by
the Roman Empire. It grew within an elevated civilization, loftier than any which mankind had thus attained.
Furthermore, Christianity has won far more converts from Buddhism than Buddhism has gained from Christianity.66
66
Latourette, Introducing Buddhism, pp. 555-556, 559.
76
C. COMMON TIBETAN SYMBOLS
Eight Sacred Emblems of Buddhism
Some symbols recur on the walls of almost every temple, shrine and monastery, or on the walls of private houses.
The most common decorative motifs of all are the Eight Sacred Emblems of Buddhism as follows:
Dharma Wheel (cakra): Represents the unity of all things; symbolizes Sakyamuni himself.
Conch Shell (dun): Used in Buddhist worship as a trumpet or offertory vessel; symbolizes the "spoken word."
Lotus Flower (padTna): As the flower rises from muddy roots, so Nirvana rises from this shabby world; thus it
symbolizes purity.
Umbrella (gdigs): Is a token of royalty; symbolizes the protection of the Dharma (Teaching).
Golden Fish (gser-na): As water allows fish to swim freely, so Buddhist belief liberates the soul.
Vase (bum-pa): Is used as a storage urn or a sacred receptacle; symbolizes hidden treasures.
Banner of Victory (dpal-be): A unique Buddhist object; the cylindrical layered banner symbolizes. victory over
ignorance and death.
Endless Knot (apal-be): An auspicious geometric diagram, symbolizing the unity of all things and the illusory character
of time.
Other Common Symbols
Wheel of Life: Found in vestibule murals. The hub shows the "three poisons:" greed, hate and delusion (pig, snake, cock).
The six big sections show all realms of existence: Heaven (top); Demi-gods (top left) Humankind (top right) ; Hell in
awful detail (bottom); Hungry Ghosts with big bellies but tiny necks (low right); Animals (low left) . The demon of
Impermanence holds the whole wheel.
Mystical Seal of the Kalicakra: Usually among vestibule murals, it symbolizes the highest of all initiations into occult
knowledge, which can only be performed by a Dalai Lama.
Swastika: Found in mosaic floors or painted on homes; an ancient symbol. In Tibet it means good fortune. Strict
followers of Buddhism draw it clockwise, followers of Bon counter-clockwise.
Allegory of Cooperation: Found among murals. The bird brings a seed from afar and plants it. The rabbit manures the
tree while eating grass under it. And the monkey waters it while eating sweet fruit, while the elephant comes to enjoy
its shade and protect it. Thus was the Earth prepared for mankind.
Wind Horse (lung-ta): Printed on prayer-flags. Symbol of good luck with the Three Jewels (Gems) of Buddhism on his
back. He takes prayers to Heaven by the wind.
Sun and Moon: Painted on village houses. Ancient archetypal symbol for the source of light, union of opposites. In Tibet
it is a folk sign for good luck and protection against evil spirits.
77
D. TESTIMONY OF ELIYAH THSETAN PHUNTSOG
By Rev. E. T. Phuntsog
I come from a Buddhist Family. My parents were devout Buddhists. My father was one of the chief lay disciples of
the famous abbot of Ridzong Monastery, and I was brought UP in that atmosphere. I was taught the Buddhist philosophy
of rebirth and Karma (i.e., law of causation) , the Four Noble Truths and the Eight Fold Path of Hinayana or Theravada
Buddhism. I too became the disciple of the same abbot. I took the Panchishila, the five Precepts--abstention from killing,
stealing, adultery, telling lies and the taking of intoxicants. I used to fast and prostrate myself before the idols a hundred
times daily and recite the prayers a thousand times.
Despite these devotions I had no satisfaction of mind. I yearned for peace of mind. I failed in my ideal of subduing
unworthy desires and could not do away with the consciousness of the sinful nature in me. Suddenly my father died
when he was only in his fortieth year. It was a great shock to me. I was so impressed by the uncertainty of life and the
vanity of the world that I wanted to become a lama (monk) and renounce the world, but my relatives stopped me as I was
the only son of my father. It would have meant the end of the old family, so I had to accept the inheritance of my father's
property. At that time I studied Buddhist mysticism of Vajrayana sect which is believed to be one of the most highly
developed forms of Mahayana Buddhism. It is called the Guru Yoga. The supreme teacher whom one chooses as one's
soul director, is believed to be the embodiment of Buddha, his doctrine and brotherhood, and one must regard him as
one's saviour. Faith is more essential than practice in this sect. The unification of the candidate's mind with his teacher's
by contemplation and the ecstacy obtained through it is believed to be Nirvana or eternal bliss. I practiced it for some
time, but this did not satisfy me, as I found it more fanciful than real. I was in despair. My devotions slackened. I gave
up fasting and praying. I began eating meat, etc. and fell into bad society and sin.
Now I had read an Urdu Bible out of curiosity. I used to mock the evangelists by quoting from the Bible, the
meaning of which I did not then understand. One day the Rev. Yoseb Gergan, the translator of the Tibetan Bible, gave
me a booklet, "The Traveler's Guide from Death to Life," published by the British Gospel Book Association in Liverpool.
This book was full of stories telling of how sinners were saved by believing in Jesus Christ. It shed so simply the
redeeming love of Jesus Christ that I received great conviction of sin and the need of a Saviour. I became restless again. I
read over and over the wonderful stories about the redeeming power of Jesus Christ. I became convinced that a superior
lama could not be my saviour because he had the same sinful nature as myself. At last the love of Jesus laid its powerful
grasp on my soul. I accepted Jesus as my Saviour. I believed in the forgiveness of my sins, and put my signature and date
on the page at the back of the book, which was headed "My Decision" and underlined in red. It was on Friday 10th
August 1928. In spite of believing in Him I was weak in faith that I could not witness of Him openly. I was afraid of my
position and property, and I was afraid of being persecuted.
I told Yoseb Gergan all about it, because he had given me the booklet. He was very pleased. He strengthened my
faith, and we had prayer together. I used to long for a vision or sign from the Lord, so that I might receive enough
strength to bear all things and witness for Him. I used to meditate upon and contemplate Jesus Christ in my Buddhist
way. Although I received no outward vision or sign I felt His presence in my heart, nearer than my soul. At last, after a
struggle of six years I threw all my life, fortune and fame at the feet of Him who had died for me, and was baptized
publicly on Sunday the 24th of September 1934. Trouble began from the very day. I could not go out alone and I was
socially boycotted by the Buddhists. They tried to take away my property, saying that as I had given up the Buddhist
faith I could not receive a Buddhist heritage and it should go to one of my Buddhist sisters. They made the authorities to
imprison me charging me with false accusations. They tried to poison me on several occasions. I was in danger of my
life, but praise the Lord; all their malignity brought me closer to my Lord, and on many occasions I had wonderful
experience of consolation and joy from the Lord, that I blessed my persecutors. I shall never forget the card sent to me in
prison by Mrs. Peter (wife of Bishop Peter who was then the missionary in Ladakh) with the quotation from Romans
8:28, "All things work together for good to them that love God, who are called according to His purposes…." I know it
to be true from my own experience now.
I am content and happy with the love of my Lord Jesus. I long no more for visions or signs as I know He is ever
with me. I only pray for enough love to be able to proclaim His redeeming love to everybody and everywhere. As a
Buddhist I was an atheist, but through Jesus Christ I came to believe in the Heavenly Father and the work of the Holy
Spirit. In Jesus I see the Father arid in Him I find the Holy Spirit. For me, to be with Him is heaven and to be without
Him is hell. He is my all in all. He sustained me through all my trials and humiliations; and my trials and humiliations
are nothing compared with what He endured for me. He is the joy of my heart, and although men may take everything
from me, they cannot take away the joy I have in Him.
78
GLOSSARY
KEY:
(P)--Pali: Early language of Buddhism which was adopted to preserve the memorized teachings of the Buddha.
(Sk)---Sanskrit: Ancient Indian language used to record Buddhist Teaching.
(T)--Tibetan term.
Abhidhamma (P) Abhidharrna (Sk): The third division or Pitaka (Basket) of the Buddhist teachings. It is philosophical
and psychological, containing an entire system of mind-training.
Amdo: Northeastern section of Tibet; a large section was annexed as Qinghai Province by the Chinese in 1928.
Amitabha (S): The Buddha of endless life; the Panchen Lama is considered a reincarnation of Amitabha.
Anagarika: One who is not a householder; one who has gone forth from home, renouncing the amrnenities of life to
become a holy man.
Ananda (P, Sk): One of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, distinguished by his devotion to the Buddha.
Arahat (P) ; Arhat (Sk): The highest kind of saint; he has attained enlightenment through liberating himself from all ego
cravings. He has traversed the Eightfold Path to its goal of Nirvana, and is therefore exempt from further rebriths.
Avalokitesvara: One of the most important Bodhisattvas; Bodhisattva of Compassion.
Avidya (Sk): Ignorance; lack of enlightenment.
Bardo (T): Time period between life and death.
Barkhor (T): Inner pilgrim-circuit in Lhasa.
Bhikkhu (P); Bhikshu (Sk): Member of the Buddhist Sangha (monastic order). It can be translated monk or brethren.
Bodhi (Sk): Enlightenment; from which the word Buddha is derived.
Bodhisattva (S): One who delays attaining Nirvana for the express purpose of helping his fellowmen attain this goal;
from Mahayana Buddhism.
Bon: Animistic religion of ancient Tibet before the arrival of Buddhism.
Buddha: The Enlightened One; this title was bestowed upon Siddhartha Gautama (Gotama), the founder of Buddhism,
upon his Enlightenment.
Bumpa (T): Ceremonial water pot.
Cha: Tea.
Cham (TP): Masked dance.
Chang (T): Tibetan beer, brewed from barley and millet.
Choga (TP): Thick coat worn by Tibetan nomads, also called Chupa
Choi (T); Dharma (Sk): Teaching.
Chorten (T); Stupa (Sk): Small temple which houses religious images.
Craving: Considered by Buddhists as the root of all suffering.
Dalai Lama: The religious leader of the Tibetans. Before the Communist takeover, he was also considered as temporal
head of the government in Tibet.
Darlog (T): Pole for prayer-flags.
Dharma (Sk); Dhamma (P): The Buddhist Teaching.
Dharmapalas; Chokyong (T): Gods who are protectors of the faith. Some were imported from India and others
(originally Bon deities) were conquered and transformed by Padmasambhava into Buddhist protectors.
Dorje (T): Thunderbolt symbol, normally of brass. Used as a weapon in opposing the powers of darkness.
Dri: Female yak.
Drilbu: Ritual bell; the handle consists of half a dorje.
Dukkha: Suffering, which (as Buddhists believe), has its roots in desire and attachment.
Gompa CT): Lamasery or monastery.
Guge: Kingdom in western Tibet, founded in the ninth century. It was destroyed in the seventeenth century.
Guru (Sk): Spiritual teacher or master who takes pupils.
Gyalpo (T): Leader; the Dalai Lama is known as Gyalpo Rinpoche, leader of the Gelukpa sect of Tibetan Buddhism.
Hinayana: One of the principal schools of Buddhism, mainly found in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and Cambodia. It is
also referred to as Theravada, which is a term used in ancient India for one among several methods of attaining
enlightenment. It was a method of limited appeal as compared with Mahayana, known as the method of universal
appeal (which has as its goal the salvation of all beings)
Jokhang: Main temple in Lhasa.
Kanjur: Tibetan "Bible" or Canon of Buddhist Law; contains 108 volumes.
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Karma: Literally means "action." This refers to the Law of cause and effect; personal punishment or reward, resulting
from deeds of former lives.
Karma Yoga: Path which leads to release as a result of selfless activity.
Karuna (Sk and P): Pure compassion; one of the two pillars of Mahayana Buddhism, the other being Prajna.
Kashag: Council of Ministers who report directly to the Dalai Lama.
Kham: Eastern Tibet.
Khampa: Inhabitant of eastern Tibet.
Khata (T): Cermonial white scarf.
Kjungchag (T): Prostration.
Korlam (T): Clockwise circuit of sacred places.
Korlo (T): Prayer cylinder; wheel which symbolizes setting into motion of the teaching.
Ladakh: Region of east Kashmir which, since 1979, has been named the Jammu-Kashmir State of India. It is located at
the meeting point of China, Pakistan and Tibet; its capital city is Leh.
Lama (T): Fully ordained monk who has attained the level of master; also used as a general term for monk.
Lhakhang (T): Temple or chapel.
Lingkhor (T): Outer pilgrim-circuit in Lhasa.
Losar (T): New Year.
Mahayana: The form of Buddhism which was adopted in Tibet. Its goal is the liberation of all beings.
Mandala: Graphic mystic symbol of the universe that is typically in the form of a circle enclosing a square with deities or
symbols arranged around a central figure. It is used primarily in meditation.
Mani (T): The mantra Om Mani Padma Hum, a phrase normally addressed to Buddha or to Avalokitesvara. Mani-stones
have this mantra inscribed upon them.
Manichorkor (T): Prayer-wheel containing maritra.
Manjusri (Sk); Chanpai Chana (T): One of the most prominent Buddhist deities, Bodhisattva of Wisdom.
Mantra (Sk): Literally, "Mind protection." Recitations of mystic syllables. Those are to protect one's mind from ordinary
appearances and conceptions.
Mara: The Evil one; regarded as a demonic being, an arch enemy of all who yearn to be holy.
Meditation: Plays an important role in Buddhism, being the surest avenue of mind-control and purification.
Merit: Karmic result of selfless actions. The wholesome forces and tendencies accumulated through virtuous actions of
body, speech, and the mind.
Middle Way: One of the most basic teachings of Buddhism; path between the two extremes of sensual indulgence and
self-mortification.
Momo (T): Steamed tsampa dough; a type of dumpling, usually with meat in the center. It is a popular Tibetan dish.
Mudra: Mystic or symbolic gestures of hands and fingers.
Ngari: Province of western Tibet.
Nirvana(Sk): Nibbana (P): Attainment of ultimate enlightenment; personal liberation; state beyond sorrow.
Norbulinka: Former summer residence of the Dalai Lama, located in Lhasa.
Padina (Sk): Lotus.
Pali (P): One of the early languages of Buddhism. It was later adopted as the language in which to preserve the
memorized teachings of Buddha.
Panchen Lama (T): Also known as the Tashi Lama. It is the title bestowed on the Abbot of Tashilhunpo Monastery in
Shigatse, and the most important incarnation after the Dalai Lama.
Paramites (Sk): Perfections; the six (or ten) stages of spiritual perfection followed by the Bodhisattva, in the progression
toward Buddahood.
Phurpa (T): Magic dagger; ritual instrument utilized in Bon exorcism.
Pitaka (P): Literally means "basket." The three Pitakas are the main divisions of the Pali Canon. First there is the Sutta
Pitaka (Sermons), the Vinaya Pitaka (Rules of the Order), and the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Prajna (Sk) ; Panna (P) Wisdom; one of the two pillars of Buddhism, the other being Karuna (Pure Compassion).
Rinpoche: Blessed, or jewel. The Dalai Lama is known as Gyalpo Rinpoche.
Sakya: Tribe from which Buddha Gautama comes. This tribe inhabited the Himalayan foothills (now Nepal).
Sakyarnuni (Sk): Title of Gautama Buddha.
Samsara: Cycle of birth, suffering, death and then rebirth.
Sariskrit: Ancient Indian literary language used to record Buddhist teaching.
Shakti (Sk); Riyma (T): Generative power; female counterpart of a male deity.
Skandhas: The five components of existence. These are inherent in every form of life, the sole constituents of the
personality: 1) body, 2) feelings, 3) perceptions, 4) volitional impulses, 5) consciousness.
80
Sutra (Sk) ; Sutta (P): A sermon which claims to have been spoken directly by the Buddha.
Tantrism: Refers to an esoteric form of Buddhism, whose purpose is to carry the mind from the surface of natural
existence to the essence of the reality beyond.
Thangka (T): Religious painting on cloth, often considered sacred.
Theravada (P): (See Hinayana)
Tsampa (T): Roasted barley flour, a staple food in Tibet.
Vajra (Sk): Thunderbolt (dorje) or diamond-like substance.
Vajrayana (Sk): An esoteric form of Buddhism which uses radical steps to shortcut obtaining enlightenment.
Vinaya: First of the three segments of the Pitaka, or scriptures of Buddhism; it holds the rules of discipline for the
Buddhist monastic order.
Vinnana (P); Vijnana (Sk): Consciousness; considered to be the most significant of the five elements which make up an
individual. It is regarded as the regenerative force which passes from one human individual existence I to form
another (at the termination of one life).
Visvavajra (Sk): Ritual instrument known as the double-thunderbolt.
Yak: Male Tibetan ox.
Yidam: In tantric Buddhism, an individual's personal deity and protector, generally selected for him by a lama.
Yoga: Spiritual system in Buddhism and Hinduism which emphasizes rigorous mental and physical disciplines.
81
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Marinevone, Miriam to Sy, Cans Faith, 12 February 1987.
Olson, Alton to Sy, Cans Faith, 6 March 1986.
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Withey, Hester to Sy, Cans Faith, 5 May 1986.
Unpublished Material
Thorson, Rosalie. "The Tibetans: A Minority Nationality of the People's Republic of China." Research Paper for the
Institute of Chinese Studies, Pasadena, CA, June 1980.
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