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TOWARD A THEOLOGY OF TECHNOLOGY
This writer's potential research question is: “What are the perceptions of Evangelical
Seminary Faculty of the Use of Visual and Multimedia Communications Technologies As
Tools to Build Online Learning Environments?”
The underlying philosophical questions that must be addressed prior to the study will be
addressed from a general standpoint arguing toward a more specific precepts: What does the
Bible say about the use of technologies in general? Is there evidence that God prescribes the use
of technology as a vital resource for life and faith? How do theology and technology intersect?
More specifically, how should the church integrate technologies into its purposes and mission?
Are there biblical guidelines by which church leaders are to guide this integration? This paper
will seek to define God's general perspective and purposes in the uses of such technologies by
man.
Definitions
The power of technology is found in meeting needs and changing that which is possible.
Technology can be defined in several ways. From a sociological standpoint Merriam-Webster
defines technology thus: The etymology of the word is from the Greek technologi, meaning a
systematic treatment of an art, from technE art, skill + -o- + -logia -logy. It is defined as:
a : the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area.
b : a capability given by the practical application of knowledge.
c : a manner of accomplishing a task especially using technical processes, methods, or
knowledge.
Technology is also defined broadly as "the body of knowledge available to a civilization
that is of use in fashioning implements, practicing manual arts and skills, and extracting and
collecting materials" (The American Heritage Dictionary, 1843).
Jacques Ellul wrote vociferously about the role of technique in society in The
Technological Society. He used a somewhat narrow definition :“the totality of means rationally
arrived at and having absolute efficiency” (Ellul, 1974, p. xxv). For Ellul, technique is
characterized by pragmatism, driven by whatever works or gratifies. Ellul cast technology in a
disproportionately negative light, seeing its power for destruction as the overriding concern.
Delimiters
In the fields of communications, building and engineering, education, science, and the
arts, technology refers to tools and procedures and their usage. This is the sense in which
technology will be addressed in this paper. Technology includes three aspects: a) utensils,
devices, machinery, inventions, and structures; b) methods , including skills, processes, and
techniques; and c) applied materials, both raw and manufactured.
In the most general sense, technology is Man's ability to combine tools, techniques, and
creativity to affect and control Nature. The products of technologies are known as artifacts, and
they are a key way in which we know the past as well as function in the present. Cultures arise
and progress by means of advancing and using technologies to accomplish what man could not
efficiently do on his own. In this sense, technologies reflect the image of Man in the earth.
Creativity, technique and skill are intrinsically interrelated. Harold Best has pointed out that
"Technique and skill are a means of executing a thought-up thing expeditiously…
technology is the larger integration of technical means into an all-inclusive network of
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effectiveness" (in Heie and Wolfe, 1987, 249). Gregor Goethals refers to the role of
communications technologies in particular in "fabricating our collective symbols of reality"
(Goethals, 1990,123). This theological treatment will attempt to discern from scripture a focal
point in the broad landscape covered by technology upon which to appropriate data that will
pertain to the research question at hand. It is this writer's hope it to identify a biblical nexus for
our approach to a primary technology with which to be concerned.
Theological Issues
Theologically, the root source of the application of technologies is based in the doctrine
of the imago Dei, the cultural mandate, and the doctrine of the fall of man. Man was created in
the image of God. The image of God has often been spoken of in more than one sense. In the
broad sense, man is spoken of as retaining the image of God after the fall. This sense
incorporates the attributes of spirituality, rationality, and dominion. In the narrower sense, man
had nevertheless lost some aspects of the image of God: knowledge, holiness and righteousness.
He only regains these attributes by being in Christ. (Hoekema, 1986, 68-73)
The term "cultural mandate" is used by contemporary evangelical Christians to represent
the doctrine that biblical principles are not only to be applied to one's personal life and the life of
the church, but that God commands Christians to also transform society and its structures with
those biblical principles as agents of redemption, thereby seeing God redeem culture for the good
of all. Christian truth is Truth about all of Reality. (Schaeffer, 1981, 20.)
Yet this world is being re-formed in a scientific and technological image today that exalts
the autonomy of Man and dismisses the need for God. Innovation, information, and technique
have evidenced a trend toward a meritocracy based on technical skill. At the same time,
information technologies provide a means for the dis-incarnation of human relationships,
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isolating humans from one another and from reality. Computer mediated communications
present challenges to our definition of human relationship. Here is another area where theology
and technology collide. Thus the potentials and dangers of technology must be critiqued and
deconstructed and then reframed in a biblical framework of reality.
The scriptural basis for the Cultural Mandate is found in Genesis 2:
Genesis 2: 26: Then God said, "Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness;
and let them rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over the cattle
and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth." 27 God
created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He
created them. 28 God blessed them; and God said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply, and
fill the earth, and subdue it; and rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky
and over every living thing that moves on the earth."
This passage is commented on by Nancy Pearcey:
"In Genesis, God gives what we might call the first job description: "Be fruitful and
multiply and fill the earth and subdue it." The first phrase, "be fruitful and multiply" means
to develop the social world: build families, churches, schools, cities, governments, laws.
The second phrase, "subdue the earth," means to harness the natural world: plant crops,
build bridges, design computers, compose music. This passage is sometimes called the
Cultural Mandate because it tells us that our original purpose was to create cultures, build
civilizations-nothing less." (Pearcey, 2004, 47).
Technology in the Bible
The modern world view speaks of organization, efficiency, and will to power based on the
excellency of the human mind. In regard to technology, Neil Postman's Technopoly has explored
this with fascinating detail. Postman says,
"First, technology is a friend. It makes life easier, cleaner, and longer. Can anyone ask more
of a friend? Second, because of its lengthy, intimate, and inevitable relationship with
culture, technology does not invite a close examination of its own consequences. It is the
kind of friend that asks for trust and obedience, which most people are inclined to give
because its gifts are truly bountiful. But, of course, there is a dark side to this friend. Its
gifts are not without a heavy cost....It creates a culture without a moral foundation. It
undermines certain mental processes and social relations that make human life worth living.
Technology, in sum, is both friend and enemy." (Postman, Technopoly, xii.)
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But hat is the biblical perspective? Is technology inherently a Faustian bargain? A survey
of the mentions of technologies in the first chapters of Genesis is instructive. We will note the
intrinsic motivations behind the use of these technologies. It is necessary to point out that a
technology is mentioned before the fall. In Genesis 2: 5 it is said that man will cultivate the
ground. This would seem to indicate that man’s creation and use of technologies is intrinsic to
him in his original state, created in the image of God (Foster, The Imago Dei, 1-2), and was
specifically appropriate to fulfilling the imperative of Genesis 2:27-28. From this key verse we
have an indication that while in the Garden of Eden was a paradise, gardens need gardeners, and
gardeners employ the tools and techniques of agriculture.
This native ability would lead to man’s appropriation of technologies to attempt to
mitigate the effects of the curse after the fall. The ground would not yield is bounty as in the
Garden of Eden, but the "sweat of the brow"; evidently the creation of tools became more
necessary ante lapsum; the use of tools would be required to live, and for the defense of one's
very life.
With the mandate to subdue the Earth, the Cultural Mandate defined the role of man as
the chief steward over the earth. (Hoekema, 1986, 79-80). This was the original purpose for
man, and the fall made it more difficult, but did not abrogate the mandate. The means by which
man was equipped to carry out his original mission would come to carry the potential for
misuse, abuse and sin.
In Genesis 3:7 the naked and ashamed man and woman sewed together fig leaves to
cover themselves. This is the first recorded use of technology after the fall. It is interesting to
note that their motivation was to cover the shame that only God could cover in their own feeble
and futile way. Within the framework of the definition, God exerts control over nature in a
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natural and supernatural ways. The first mention of a post-creation “making” was God’s making
of the garments of skin to cover the man and woman after the fall. With the cursing of nature,
man’s ability to control nature would be exponentially more difficult. In Genesis 3:24 the
cherubim with a flaming sword was set to guard the way to the Tree of Life, so man in his fallen
state could not eat of it.
In the next generation, technologies were utilized to make a living in the fallen world. In
Genesis 4:2 Cain is described as a tiller of the newly cursed ground. It is unclear whether
herdsman Abel’s sacrifice was consumed by fire on a hand-made altar, or if Cain used a weapon
to dispose of his brother. After Cain was banished to the land of Nod he built a city and named it
after his son Enoch. Cities are typically centers of culture informed by the technologies with
which they are built. Cain's descendants are described in Genesis 4:20-24 as dwelling in tents,
playing the lyre and pipe, and as forgers of bronze and iron.
Thus in the first four chapters of Genesis several nascent technologies played a crucial
role. We see man attempting to exert control over his environment by sewing fig leaves together,
tilling the ground, building a city, tanning hides for tents, creating musical instruments, and
developing metallurgical skills. Thus, the earliest mentioned technologies of man were
agricultural, architectural, textiles, musical technologies, and metallurgy. In at least some of
these cases, man's autonomy was being asserted by the use of the technologies.
Next in the biblical narrative we see God interceding and prescribing the usage of a new
technology at the onset of his judgment. This can be seen as a mitigation of the judgment in
order to preserve the seed of the woman promised in Genesis 3:16-18. Noah built the ark
according to God’s specifications. God called Noah a righteous man (Gen 7:1-2). In the
postdiluvian world, Noah built an altar and sacrificed by fire in order to glorify God. In Genesis
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9, Noah planted a vineyard and made wine. He was covered by a garment that was wrought by
someone’s skilled hands.
In Genesis 10 Nimrod was called a mighty hunter. By Genesis 11, men were turning their
technologies into implements for evil such as building the tower of Babel. The same dust of the
ground that Adam was created from was made into bricks, and tar, a product of the destructive
distillation of organic materials. As they built, they sought to also “make a name” for
themselves. In Genesis 13 the mining of silver and gold is inferred. In Genesis 17 circumcision,
the sign of god's covenant, takes place by the use of a cutting tool. Genesis 18 mentions
cooking tools. Genesis 21 mentions water skins, digging a well, and chapter 24 mentions
pottery or jars.
It is notable that he Bible does not speak of the use of fire as a technology. The earliest
inferences to fire are in Genesis 8:20, 12:7, 22 in regard to sacrifices.
In general, the Bible is not prescriptive but rather descriptive in its treatment of
technology. The key departures from this mode are in the building of the ark and the tabernacle
with its furnishings, along with the giving of the law.
It is in this the latter half of Exodus that one finds the biblical warrant for the research
topic at hand. God's giving of the law at Sinai was accompanied by God’s sovereign choice to
use a prescriptive designation of technologies to preserve, transmit and communicate His
presence in the world.
Bezaleel and Oholiab were gifted by the Spirit in the use of the day’s craft technologies
to produce the beautiful tabernacle, its furnishings and the Ark of the Covenant. In this process
we see the use of gold-smithing, mining, weaving cloth, tanning of hides, stones mined from the
ground and worked into the breastplate of the High priest, metallurgy and architecture. The
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minute descriptions also inform a biblical theology of the arts. It is this writer's contention that
the elements of this passage reflect God's will that the creative, moral, rational, and aesthetic
aspects of the restoration of the imago Dei in man.
It is also in this narrative that a stark picture of God's prescriptive use of technology is
contrasted with one of its worst possible uses on the part of the children of Israel. While God was
prescribing the building of the tabernacle that would be his dwelling place with His people, the
Israelites were building a golden calf to worship. So the Bible paints a stark contrast of man's
misuse of technologies for his own purposes in making the golden calf set against the backdrop
of God's prescriptive use of the same tools and skills for His glory and our good.
The golden calf episode is the same kind of opposition to God's will we saw in the
description of man building Babel, and see in the nations (some of whom were descendants of
Cain) warring against the people of God with iron chariots and bronze implements of
destruction. God forbids the creation of graven images worked by hand or cast from metal and
forbids the use of stone cutting tools on altar stones erected to His worship (Exodus 20:25).
When man uses technology to realize God's plans, it is a mighty thing. In the same manner,
technologies can aid and abet the depravity of man, empowering him to new heights of
depravity. When Man abuses his creative abilities, his skills, and application of knowledge, he
sets him up against the knowledge of God. Thus it seems reasonable to conclude that man, made
in the image of a creative God, is a maker, utilizing raw materials and creativity, creating
technologies to serve righteous and unrighteous purposes. Nicholas Wolterstorff has written that
“the cultural mandate requires us to develop the potentials of creation by bringing forth science
and art.” (Wolterstorff in Carpenter and Shipps, 1987, 209).
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It is in the same passage in Exodus that the technology of writing is prescribed by God.
we may surmise that in the light of the finite capacities of man, it is not enough to use oral
language and memory techniques to preserve and convey the word of God. While the first tablet
of the law was inscribed by God's finger, Moses broke them in anger and had to use man-made
tools to fashion a second set of the Law. The Ark of the Covenant would represent the throne of
God on earth, and in it would be placed both the Decalogue and the writings of Moses given by
God. So we see that God prescribes technologies to preserve and transmit his Word to man.
Observations
From these seminal passages in the book of Exodus, it is clear that the technologies in
question focus on the area of the arts, crafts, and aesthetics. We also see a contrast between
God's use of Nature to visually communicate his presence and will with his prescriptive
command to man in building the Tabernacle, its furnishings, and contents. The written Word
contains the Law and reveals the character of Yahweh and his prescriptive commands for
mankind. God uses nature in the rumblings and light show at Mount Sinai and prescribes the use
of art technologies and even visits an outpouring of His Spirit upon two who would be specially
gifted to carry out his plans for the Tabernacle and its furnishings. By contrast, the handiwork of
Man outside of God's will is judged. Graven images are forbidden in the same passage aesthetic
and artistic artifacts of technology are prescribed for his worship.
Secondarily, it is the witness of scripture that in the Exodus account, these artifacts of
man are a reflection of the reality of heaven. Hebrews 8:5 says these are creations "who serve a
copy and shadow of the heavenly things, just as Moses was warned by God when he was about
to erect the tabernacle; for, "See," He says, "That you make all things according to the pattern
which was shown you on the Mountain." We are told that this initial portrayal and artifacts of
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the first covenant were rendered obsolete by its fulfillment in Christ. In addition, some
technologies are so laden with history that they may not be appropriate for Christian service
(Veith, 1991, 165). This does not mean, however that God has forbidden the use of technologies
in His worship. Even the cup and the bread, the sign of the new covenant, are artifacts of man
which speak of a spiritual reality. Jesus Himself pointed to the brazen serpent that Moses was
commanded by God (Numbers 21:8-9) to create as a picture of His own coming crucifixion. It is
especially instructive to note that the later became perverted as an object of worship itself and
was destroyed on that count by Hezekiah in 2 Kings 18:4. Here we see the concern for the
visual portrayal of beauty and truth in the scriptures which can provide a basis for a theology of
the visual arts. Although it is impossible to accurately portray God who is Spirit, God allows a
representative, even symbolic portrayal on earth of the greater reality of His reign in heaven.
The invention of the Hebrew alphabet and writing materials deserve attention as a
technology that impacts theological discourse. Derrick de Kerckhove, who carried on Marshall
McLuhan’s work at the University of Toronto, posits that the alphabet is a mental tool to make
possible the written transmission of ideas (de Kerckhove, 1995, 79). This semiotic mental tool is
incarnated in the use of graphic technologies from stone carvings to papyrus to paper, pen and
ink, printing presses, and computers as tools and physical artifacts by which these processes are
carried out.
The Bible does not draw a fine line between a technology and a mental technique. By
most definitions, artistic endeavor should be considered a technology. Biblically we see a
primacy set upon the written and spoken word, with images set in subordinate role as
handmaiden to illustrate the ideas conveyed by words. The point of the accoutrements of the
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tabernacle were to visually illustrate the precepts found in the first commandment and the plan of
redemption, as reflections of heavenly reality on earth.
Technological change can be viewed as a sort of instrumentality- and instrumental cause of
a social effect. Every instance of God’s prescriptive use of technologies had this effect. One
might define community as a group of people, living together in a particular place, having
common interests, work values, etc. Communities can be good or bad. For our purposes we shall
define a good community as one free of oppression yet equipped with responsible authorities. A
good objective would be the advancement of internal cohesiveness and grace , where peace and
justice reign. (Wolterstorff, 1984, 21). The effect of technology on community is not only a
direct assault on personality and populations as such. In more indirect ways, the influence will
become ubiquitous, reaching to the fabric of society. It may seem obvious, but technology in the
bible is always a social construct.
Precepts for the proper use of technology
On multiple occasions, God prescribed the use of technologies by man to glorify himself.
It also pleases God to prescribe the use of technologies in order to show the weakness of man I
contrast to his power. With Gideon, a coward hiding out in a winepress is transformed into a
mighty leader by the prescription of limited resources and the equivalent of flashlights and hot
water bottles! Yet used in the prescription of God, they become instruments of victory time and
again God demonstrates his power over nature and man's instruments meant to control and
subvert nature. In the hands of Samson, even the jawbone of a dead jackass gives victory.
We are not to put our trust in technology, but the Lord. David Wells has written that
technology can potentially mitigate our view of providence (Wells, 161) and confuse efficiency
with what is ethical (Wells, 7). In 1 Samuel 17: 45, over and against sword and shield and the
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best armament of the day worn by a giant, David raised the name of the Lord and with a sling
and a few stones felled Goliath. He later declared in Psalm 20:7 that "some trust in
chariots…but we will remember the name of the Lord our God.” David advanced a technology
when he built an aqueduct system in his Kingdom. Jesus used carpentry technologies in his
earthly vocation. Solomon utilizes the technologies of his day to erect the first temple. Cyrus the
Persian performs the Lord’s will and fulfills prophecy in rerouting the Euphrates River. (Isa.
41:25; 45:1-4).
God also uses technologies to illustrate his precepts. God uses the technology of pottery
making to illustrate his designation of man’s purpose. Controlling man's tongue is contrasted
with a horse's bridle. Architectural, military, and agricultural metaphors abound in Paul's
writings. The imagery of a winepress is given to show a picture of God's chastening power.
Jeremiah carries a symbolic yoke to illustrate the Word of the Lord.
Therefore, we can see that technologies are not condemned in the Bible, which is one
clear indicator that there is not a disapproval of technology by God. There are many other uses of
technology being used in the Bible, such as the fashioning of nets, the use of boats, and even the
swords and other weaponry that is used throughout the Bible. Jesus was crucified on an object of
technology, the cross. The Bible itself is a technological artifact.
Misuse of Technologies in the Bible
It has often been argued that the Judeo-Christian tradition was a key influence on the
development of technology in the western world. Opinions differ widely, however, as to exactly
what that influence was and how it was applied. For our purposes, a focus on the biblical misuse
of technologies is also key. This paper has already made mention of Man's reaction to the fall
and immediate abuse of technologies. There seem to be one special category of negative uses of
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technology described in the scriptures: Worshipping the creation of man's hands is absolutely
forbidden. Idol making is lampooned in Isaiah 44-9-20. Nebuchadnezzar's pride in building
Babylon led to his humbling by the most High God in Daniel 4:30-32. Exalting oneself in
importance based on one's abilities or skills leads to destruction. The builders of the tower of
Babel (Genesis 11:5-9) sought to elevate themselves to God’s level by their accomplishments. In
all these cases, men are using the products of their own creation to displace or replace God in
their culture.
Conclusions
The way we interact with and utilize technology will necessarily be informed by our view
of God. God prescribes the use of technologies to subdue the earth in man's role as steward. He
prescribes the use of technologies in his preservation of the redemptive seed through the line of
Noah. He prescribes the use of technologies in the worship of Yahweh. He prescribes the use of
technology in the preservation and transmission of His Word. With Gideon, he prescribes a
method in the process of the conquest of the promised land. With the cross, he prescribes the
execution technology by which the work of Christ would be completed.
Just as God prescribes the use of technologies, the history of fallen man is replete with
the misuse and abuse of the creations of man's hand. In our day, much has been written about the
technological transformation of culture into a vehicle set in opposition to the sovereignty of
God, and man's surreptitious seeking of salvation in technology. In the light of this, this writer
posits that Christians must proceed with using technologies within the context of Christian
education and mission with extreme forethought (Foster, A Theology of Technology). We must
never see them as an end in themselves. Whether one starts from scripture, or references the
writings of critically appropriate secular sources, issues of truth and reality (Groothuis, 1998),
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ethical use, (Groothuis, 1997, 73.) community (Rheingold, 1993, 5), identity (Turkle, 1995, 25),
and relationships (Boase, 2006, 2-5) all are impacted by the potentials and dangers in
technology.
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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Resources Relating to the Research Question
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd ed. 1992. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.
Barnes, Robert LaRue. 1995. Barriers as determinants of theological education. Ed.D. diss.,
Virginia University.
This study looks at those factors referred to in this study as barriers, and their application to
technology enabled distance education. This study looks at barriers to theological education
in: The Old Testament; First Century; Ante-Nicean Period, First Century to 315 A.D.;
Patristic Period, 314-451; Middle Ages; Continental Reformation; Puritan Age in England;
Evangelical Conception in America; and the Modern Church--1850-Present. The study
concludes that schools using distance education do, for the most part, overcome most or all
of the listed barriers to theological education. The totally distance education schools appear
to do the best job of overcoming barriers.
Brown, Ruth E. 2001. The process of community-building in distance learning classes. Journal
of Asynchronous Learning Networks. 5: 2.
The purpose of this study was to develop a theory about the process through which
community formed in adult computer-mediated asynchronous distance learning classes. A
grounded theory design incorporated archived class input as well as interviews with twentyone students and three faculty members from three graduate-level distance education
classes.
Carver, Carol. 1999. Building a virtual community for a tele-learning environment.
Communications Magazine, IEEE 37:3:114 – 118.
This article presents the results of a research project that requires students and faculty to
evolve a virtual community in a university class.
Collard, Dianne B. 2004. The role of visual art in the (Free) Evangelical Churches of Germany
and Spain. D. Miss. diss., School of Intercultural Studies, Biola University.
Artists who are Christians and pastors of (free) Evangelical churches participated in this
qualitative research to ascertain the role of visual art in the (free) Evangelical churches of
Germany and Spain. The majority of artists expressed frustration and alienation from the
(free) Evangelical churches regarding the use of their creative gifts.
Conrad, Dianne. 2002. Deep in the hearts of learners: Insights into the nature of online
community. Journal of Distance Education 17 (1):1-19.
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Recent literature on online learning gives credence to the difficulty inherent in
understanding the sense of online community. Quantitative studies especially have
concluded with calls for deeper, more intensive explorations into what really happens in
online learning environments. In this article the results of an interpretive study conducted
among adult learners engaged in online study present an intensive and revealing look into
learners’ interaction with online community. Online learning is demanding and
unforgiving; in feeling its relentless pull, learners construct their own lines of defense that
allow them to complete their studies successfully while maintaining their independence and
integrity.
Dea, Shannon Jennifer. 2003. Beyond the restricted horizon: Interrogating Gadamer's fear of
science (Hans-Georg Gadamer). M.A. Thesis, Queen's University at Kingston (Canada).
Hans-Georg Gadamer's Truth and Method extends the horizon of hermeneutics beyond its
traditional concerns with history, theology and law to consider the very possibility of
understanding. It is the contention of this thesis that Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics
are as useful for engaging the structure of understanding in the sciences as in the arts.
Demy, Timothy James. 2004. Technology, progress, and the human condition in the life and
thought of C. S. Lewis. Ph. D. diss.,Salve Regina University.
This dissertation examines C. S. Lewis's interpretation of technology, progress, and the
human condition through an analysis of his life and writings. The thesis of this study is that
Lewis understood technology to be an instrument of power that was increasingly used as a
tool of manipulation and control in the twentieth century. Lewis believed that the
propensity for using technology in a destructive manner was a result of universal pride and
greed in humanity. The study focuses on the non-fiction writings of Lewis and
demonstrates that much of his thought pertaining to technology stems from his concern that
natural law was being abandoned in modern culture.
Deitrich, Richard Allen.1989. Technology And Tillich: His importance for the science,
technology, and society enterprise. Ph.D. diss., The Pennsylvania State University.
Tillich is widely known as the foremost theologian of culture in this century, and should be
as widely known as an important philosopher of technical culture. This study contains
information on Tillich's thought and influence on the church.
Ennis, Leslie Sturdivant. 2002. Environmental factors in the development of a community of
learning in doctoral-level theological instruction. Ed.D. diss.,The Southern Baptist
Theological Seminary.
The self-explanatory title evidences a correlation to the present research methodology.
Fenimore, James Alan, Jr. 2001. How a congregation's identity is affected by the introduction of
technology-based ministries. D.Min. diss.,Drew University.
The introduction of technology-based ministries (i.e. cyberminsitries, multimedia worship
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services) is an increasing phenomenon in the church today. Through the use of surveys and
focus groups a congregation study was produced to answer the question, How has Christ
Church's identity been affected by the introduction of these ministries? The paper begins
with an overview of the philosophy of technology and a brief discussion of communication
theory. The paper concludes with a series of four conclusions on the impact of the
technology-based ministries on the identity of Christ Church.
Harris, Timothy Wade. 1996. Localized visual images and their theological signification in
twentieth-century North American Christian art. Ph. D. diss.,The Southern Baptist
Theological Seminary.
The purpose of the dissertation was to explore the aesthetical, theological, and practical
viability of localized images as cultural expressions of the Christian faith and to test the
hypothesis that localization can function toward a discovery of theological and cultural
relevance in North American Christian art.
Hollon, Vicki Lynn. 2004. Thriving in the whirlwind: Connected learning as an approach to
lifelong learning for ministry. D. Min. Project thesis., Drew University.
This project thesis addresses the lifelong learning challenges encountered by congregational
leaders seeking to stay relevant in the midst of cultural transitions by exploring Connected
Learning opportunities emerging from the convergence of new educational methods and
online technologies. It further explores the theological and biblical basis for lifelong
learning as critical to the practice of ministry.
Hood, James Robin. 2003. Worship arts technology used by early twenty-first century urban
Baptist churches in Northwestern Texas: An analysis. Ph. D. diss.,Texas Tech University.
Historically, the Church has responded cautiously to the implementation of new
technology. This dissertation is an investigation into the utilization of worship arts
technology by Baptist churches.
Lee, Chien-Chih James. 2001. Perceptions of instructors and students toward interactive video
distance education classroom design in higher education. Ed. D. diss., Mississippi State
University.
The primary purpose of the study was to determine the perceptions of instructors and
students toward interactive video distance education classroom design in higher education.
In addition, differences in perceptions among institutions, respondents' status, gender, class
standings, major fields of study, and teaching experiences in interactive video distance
education classes were determined. A standard interactive video distance education
classroom design model was recommended that would satisfy the different needs of
instructors and students and provide guidance for various situations.
Lehikoinen, Taisto. 2004. Religious media theory: Understanding mediated faith and Christian
applications of modern media (Finland, Italy, Russia, United States). Dr.Phil. diss.,
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University of Jyvaskyla, Finland.
The study presents basic research into the recently formed field of studies on media and
religion, and it generates universal descriptions and explanations as well as more
operational models on religious media communication, for the first time in the field. The
scope and setting is exceptionally large in order to be able to provide comprehensive and
valid data for theory construction. The study is an inter-disciplinary effort that draws from
the fields of sociology, media studies, cultural studies and theology. In all traditions there is
a high degree of convergence taking place as they each move to utilize and capitalize on the
positive aspects of virtual religiosity and virtual religious communities. In the future,
religion is moving towards becoming an increasingly technological phenomenon.
Lim, Cheong San2003. Christian Education Utilizing Cartoon and Animation. D. Min. diss.,Oral
Roberts University, 2003.
This study first examines the biblical, theological and historical backgrounds of Christian
education utilizing cartoon & animation. For its theoretical basis, this study examines
theories of cartoon & animation-related Christian educational technology, audio-visual
education and cultural art.
Lynch, Alice Coleen. 1998. In the eye of the beholder: The theology of culture of Paul Tillich as
related to the visual arts. M. Th. thesis, St. Stephen's College (Canada).
Examines the relationship of the theology of culture of Paul Tillich in relation to the visual
arts. Through a presentation of Tillich's method of correlation and his theological language
and concepts, key themes emerge in Tillich's theology of culture as related to the visual
arts. Having established this groundwork, the thesis proceeds to explore the visual arts as a
focused expression of Tillich's theology of culture
Martin, Stephen Douglas. 1999. The Arts And The Church: Rediscovering the value of creativity
in theological praxis (Paul Tillich, Friedrich Schleiermacher). D. Min diss.,Drew
University.
The research of this project discloses an effort to integrate the creative aspects of both
artistic expression and theological reflection. If the Church accepts the responsibility of the
incarnation of Christ seriously, then the Church must also take seriously the transformation
of faith into culture by creativity and ingenuity.
Merriam-Webster. 1963. Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, MA: G. &
C. Merriam-Webster.
An old standard that made it to an electronic version.
Nicholson, Michael Wayne. 1995. A theological analysis and critique of the postmodernism
debate: Mapping the labyrinth. Ph. D. diss.,The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary.
18
The purpose of this dissertation was to analyze and critique the academic debate on
postmodernism in order to elucidate the questions and issues at stake. It explores the
historical beginnings of modernity and the modern era, the rise of the notions of
postmodernism and a postmodern era, postmodernism and the arts, in the areas of literature,
architecture, and the visual arts, and postmodern philosophers.
Petoskey, Indira A. Cadasse. 2004. Bible And Christian college faculty perceptions of
multimedia technologies as instructional tools. Ph. D. diss., The University of Southern
Mississippi.
The purpose of this study was to identify and examine faculty perceptions of multimedia
technologies as teaching and learning tools. The results of this study will provide
knowledge for the development and implementation of multimedia technologies in the
Bible and Christian college classroom. With this knowledge, more effective technological
tools for instruction may be chosen and proper training for faculty can further be developed.
Ramsey, Richard Adrian. 2003. An analysis of evangelical theological presuppositions and
educational practices of students in a doctoral level community of learning. Ph.D. diss., The
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary.
This dissertation explored the relationship of theological presuppositions as they relate to
educational practice. The purpose of the research is to evaluate the way in which
evangelical theology and philosophy inform evangelical higher education. This research,
through a descriptive study, analyzed the presuppositions of a community of learners in
Internet-enhanced and face-to-face doctoral education.
Ray, Kenneth Lyle. 2001. Building a web-enhanced connected faith community within the
priesthood of all believers: Church as theotechnic faith community. D.Min. diss., Drew
University.
This paper: (1) considers the historical, theological and spiritual aspects of care and
community within the priesthood of all believers, (2) reviews the office/role of pastor and
laity in light of this doctrine, and (3) considers the role new technology such as the Internet
and a congregational web site may play in lay and ordained ministry The project recalls
Luther's view of church community (Communio sanctorum ) while looking forward to a
Postmodern Reformation leveraging the Internet, an interactive printing press.
Robertson, Owen Druce. 2001. Evaluating connections between audience faith capacities and
dramatic functions in a dramatic production. Ed.D. diss., The Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary.
The dissertation potentially intersects with this writer’s research in the area of visual
learning and interpersonal interaction.
Rodin, Scott, Manfred Brauch, Marsha Brown-Woodard, Donna Hailson, Ron Sider, and Phil
Ellmore. 2001. A Theology of Technology. The Eastern Baptist Theological Seminary.
19
Retrieved from http://www.ebts.edu/theologyoftechnologypdf.pdf 03 Sept 2006. Now
available at
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=cache:LYg06YBvKz4J:www.ebts.edu/theologyoftech
nology.htm+%22theology+of+technology%22&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&oe=ISO-88591&strip=1.
This paper is an attempt to move into a dialogue that will help us and others identify the
positive possibilities and the potential perils in the use of information technology. The
authors attempt to articulate a Theology of Technology for their Seminary environment.
Topics include: Raising the Theological Questions , Creating a Theological Context and
Living out the Practical Implications.
Scott, Benjamin Graham. 2003. Faculty attitudes toward residential and distance learning: a case
study in instructional mode preferences among theological seminary faculty (Texas). Ph. D.
diss., University of North Texas.
Because the faculty plays a pivotal role in the successful or unsuccessful implementation of
online courses (McKenzie, Mims, Bennett, & Waugh, 2000), the present study uncovered
the attitudes of full-time, graduate theological faculty at Dallas Theological Seminary
(DTS) regarding distance learning and the likelihood of faculty to adopt this delivery
innovation.
Tinnes, Carmel.2003. Or in other forms which can be understood by the people: Reclaiming the
arts in worship and education in the Presbyterian Church (USA). Ed.D. diss., Union
Theological Seminary & Presbyterian School of Christian Education.
This dissertation explores the impact of the contemporary visual culture on the worship of
the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.); issues of the inclusion of arts in worship are explored.
Willis, Russell Edward. 1990. Toward a theological ethics of technology: An analysis in
dialogue with Jacques Ellul, James Gustafson, and philosophy of technology.
Ph.D. diss., Emory University.
The general purpose of this dissertation is to construct an analytical framework for a
theological ethics of technology. A theological ethics of technology is conceived here as an
attempt to coherently and critically relate three base points: (1) fundamental theology, (2)
social ethics, and (3) a critical assessment of technology. The point of departure for a
theological ethics of technology is the critical assessment of technology. In Part I,
philosophy of technology is used to construct a broad-based, multifaceted,
phenomenological model of technology. Part II consists of a comparative study of two
contemporary theological ethicists--Jacques Ellul and James Gustafson. In Part III a vision
for a theological ethics is sketched which would promote the maintenance and nurture of
the dialectic of limit and possibility embodied in technology.
20
Wilson, William Michael. 2002. Faculty and administrator attitudes and perceptions toward
distance learning in Southern Baptist- related educational institutions. Ed.D. diss., The
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary.
Research from this dissertation intersects with research methodologies being considered.
Wyndham, Michael Adair. CyberChurch: Christian Community in Cyberspace. 1996. Ph.D.
diss., The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary.
The purpose of the dissertation was to examine new ways of conceptualizing community in
light of rapidly expanding modes of personal communication facilitated by the use of
computers and to consider the implications of such changing community concepts for the
ministry of the Church. The purpose was accomplished by establishing a theoretical and
historical context, from sociological and theological perspectives, for the reporting of the
findings of a participant-observation study of Christian interactions in cyberspace.
Secondary Sources- Peer Reviewed- Relating to the Research Question
Berger, David O. 1993. The Theology of Technology and vice versa. Concordia Journal 19 (O):
323-344.
David O. Berger perceives a threat in the potential for technology "to replace our faith in
and need for God with a never ending stream of goods, cures, conveniences, and
entertaining diversions." This article holds potential input for the current research in the
areas of technology and anthropology.
Boase, Jeffrey. 2006. The strength of internet ties the internet and email aid users in
maintaining their social networks and provide pathways to help when people face big
decisions January 25, 2006. Washington, D. C. : Pew Internet & American Life Project,
2006. Retrieved 01 September 2006 from
http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Internet_ties.pdf.
This report confronts one of the great debates about the Internet: What is it doing to the
relationships and social capital that Americans have with friends, relatives, neighbors,
and workmates? Those on one side of the debate extol the Internet’s ability to expand
relationships — socially and geographically. Those on the other side of the debate fear
that the internet will alienate people from their richer, more authentic relations. The report
gives evidences to the positive position.
Brewster, Charles E. Editor. 1966. Technology and Theology. Union Seminary Quarterly
Review 21: My: 377-461.
This journal issue was dedicated to the studies of Technology and civilization and informs
the research from a historical standpoint.. Content includes: “The Social Impact Of
21
Computers,” by D. Sarnoff; “Work And Human Values In A Cybernated Age,” by R.
Helstein; “The Computer, Basic Economic Security And Institutional Change,” by R.
Theobald; “Value Questions And Policy Proposals For A Society Of Abundance,” by H. B.
Clark ; and a Discussion Of Technology, Theology And The Christian Faith, by M. R.
Shaull, J. C. Hoekendijk, And K. Cragg. Also Included Is “The Christian Ministry In An
Advanced Technological Age,” by M. L. Scott., And “The New Leisure And The Glorious
Whitewasher,” by R E Neale. It concludes with a substantial, if now dated, bibliography on
technology and social change.
Bryant, Barry E. 2005. Trinity, technology and the meaning of personhood. Memphis
Theological Seminary Journal 38:5-14.
This looks at the social aspects of technology, and the author try to demonstrate is how the
notion of personhood constitutive to the concept of “cyber-community” is essentially a
Gnostic one. On the other hand, the notion of Christian personhood must ultimately be
grounded in the doctrine of the Trinity. The first thing discussed, is “relationality,
community, and the concept of personhood.”
Campbell, Heidi. 2005.Exploring Religious Community Online. New York: Peter Lang.
This work explores how online religious experience compares to traditional modes of
expression.
Castells, Manuel. 2000. The Rise of the Network Society. 2 ed. Oxford: Blackwell.
This former Marist sociologist looks at the economic restructuring of society by the use of
networked technologies. His research looks at the bipolar opposition and conflict of net and
self. It is an important voice in the debate over the sociological impact of the Internet, if
filtered through a Christian worldview.
Cox, Harvey. 1962. Religion and technology: The influence of religion on attitudes toward
technology with special reference to Paul Tillich and Gabriel Marcel. Ph. D. Diss., Harvard
University.
This presents the seminal views of Cox on technology and his take on Paul Tillich’s
contribution to the theology/technology debate. This is from a socialist perspective.
DeWitt, Calvin B. 2003. Science, theology and technology: responsible praxis within the
ecological order. Princeton Seminary Bulletin 24 :1:55-83.
This paper, first given at Princeton as a lecture delivered at inaugural consultation of the
Abraham Kuyper Institute for Public Theology, examines a Kuyperian approach to a
theology of technology, rooting it in creation. The privilege and responsibility we have as
stewards of conducting our lives and our Technology, within the ecological order of
Creation, and the gifts and capacities we have been given than enable us to address the
unwanted consequences that arise from our relationships within Creation.
22
Frey, Robert Seitz, editor. 1998. The impact of information technologies on contemporary life
and decision making. Bridges 5 (Fall-Wint): xv-xxvii,1-272.
Content in this issue on social aspects of technology with pertinence to this research
includes: “Introduction: The Impact of Information Technologies on Contemporary Life
and Decision Making,” by L. DeThomasis; “Preface: Navigating the Virtual Age,” by R.
Frey; “Network Technology and the Individual: Who Pays the Toll on the Information
Highway?,” by S. Hagen; “Information and Education at the Turn of the Century,” by A.
Borgmann; “Prolegomena to a Theology of Technology,” by D. Gill; “Virtual Realism,” by
M. Heim; “Computer Systems: The Uncertainty of their Reliability,” by J. Fetzer. “Buttonpushing toothless prone posthuman: Cybernetics & the Conquest of Linearity in the Second
Age of Writing (A midrash on post-writing)”, by D. Porush.
Foley, Edward. 2005. Theological reflection, theology and technology: when baby boomer
theologians teach Generations X & Y. Theological Education 41:1:45-56.
This author posits that before assessing contemporary technology for the theological
enterprise, it is necessary for theological educators to explore their own presuppositions
about technology in order to engage in theological reflection on technology. He asks, “How
does a phronetic perspective prepare us not only to teach with technology but also to
theologize from technology in a more missional and appreciative manner?”
Grote, Jim., and Carl Mitcham. 1984. Theology and Technology: Essays in Christian analysis
and exegesis. Lanham, Md : University Press of America.
A Seminal work on Theology and Technology takes an overall negative stance on the
possibility of peaceful coexistance between the two discourses. The essays depict the
relations of theology and technology today. They variously argue that authentic Christian
theology does not justify modern technologies. These writers trace enthusiasm for
technology to the negative impact of the Enlightenment. A feature of this text is its
extensive annotated bibliography of books and articles on theology and technology on
pages 325-502. Articles include: “Technology As A Theological Problem In The Christian
Tradition,” By C. Mitcham; “Aspects Of Christian Exegesis: Hermeneutics, The
Theological Virtues, And Technology,” by C. Mitcham And J Grote; “Faith Outside
Technique,” G. Blair; “Through Technological Christianity To Christian Technology,” by
W. Fudpucker; “Bernard Lonergan: A Context For Technology,” by T. Tekippe; “The
Believer In The Presence Of Technique,” by A. Malet; “A Christian Philosophical
Perspective On Technology,” by E Schuurman; “Technique And The Opening Chapters Of
Genesis,” by Jaques Ellul; “The Relation Of Man To Creation According To The Bible,” by
J. Ellul; “Biblical Hermeneutics And The Critique Of Technology,” by C. Mabee. “Notes
On How To Begin To Think About Technology In A Theological Way,” by P. Sun;
“Augustine, The Arts, And Human Progress,” by E. Fortin; “Thomism And Technology:
Natural Law Theory And The Problems Of A Technological Society,” by P. Durbin; “Two
Fragments: Theological Transformation Of Law, Technological Transformation Of
23
Nature,” by W. Dulap; “Justice And Technology,: by G. Grant; “Toward An Indigenous
Theology Of The Cross,” by D. Hall; “The New Story: Meaning And Value In The
Technological World,” by T. Berry; “Process Theology And Technology,” by G. Shields;
“Technology And Theodicy: Is God Present In The History Of Technology?,” by F. Sontag;
“Prospects For The Theology Of Technology,” by A.Borgmann; and “Bibliography Of
Theology And Technology,” by C. Mitcham And J. Grote.
Grubb, Dawn J. 2001. Wired for the World: Digital dogma has Potter's House churchgoers
plugging in to God's word. Science and Spirit, January/February, 30.
The represents and in-depth look at high-technology applied to corporate worship and
instruction.
Hopper, David H. 1991. Technology, Theology, and the Idea of Progress. Louisville, Ky :
Westminster/John Knox Press.
This text explores the notion that the idea of progress has itself "progressed." Until the
Reformation, the idea of progress was primarily spiritual, otherworldly and theological;
now, it is predominantly material, this-worldly, and technological in content. The chapter
headings are as follows: Has Technology Become Our History?, Technology and the Idea
of Progress, Disillusion and Power, Technology and Values, Technology and Theology,
Summation and Theological Postscript. In regard to this researcher’s work, it constitutes an
important work that informs the articulation of a theology of technology.
Larsen, Elena. 2000. Wired churches, wired temples:taking congregations and missions into
cyberspace. Washington, D. C. : Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved 01 Sept
2006 from http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Religion_Report.pdf.
This document represents the first extensive quantitative effort to discover how churches
and synagogues in the United States use the Internet. Over 1,300 congregations responded
to an email from the Pew Internet & American Life Project and filled out an online survey
that asked how they built and use their Web sites, how congregations and leaders use
email, and whether their use of Internet tools has helped the spiritual and everyday life of
their members.
Mann, Gary. 1995. Tech-Gnosticism : Disembodying technology and embodying theology.
Dialog 34 (Sum):206-212.
This article deals with the Gnostic underpinnings and implications of virtual reality in the
debate between theology and technology.
Marshall, Paul. 1986. Modern technology: Idol or divine gift? Evangelical Review of Theology
10: 3:258-269.
This is a self explanatory title. The topic touches upon this researchers theology of
technology.
24
Moriarty, Sandra E. and Keith Kenney. 2001. Visual communication: A taxonomy and
bibliography. Retrieved 01 September, 2006 from http://www.ivla.org/resources.htm.
Rudimentary but helpful bibliographic source which impinges upon the visual aspects of
the application of educational technologies.
Padgett, Alan G. 2005. God versus technology? Science, secularity, and the theology of
technology. Zygon 40:3 (S):577-584.
This article explores the techno-secularist worldview and its inherent propensity to
dehumanize. As a complete worldview, techno-secularism is antireligious, but it also
destructive of our environment. The author holds that religion may provide a transcendent
source for a humanizing morality that might move technology in a more ecofriendly,
humane direction.
Richardson, Kurt A. 1995. The naturalness of creation and redemptive interests in theology,
science, and technology. Zygon 30 (Je):281-291.
This article consists of anthropological interaction with nature from a theological
standpoint and may directly relate to the research at hand.
Rustum , Roy. 2002. Religion/technology, not theology/science, as the defining dichotomy.
Zygon 37: 3 (S):667-676.
This article represents the view of an important voice in the technology/religion dialogue
for 35 years. He sees technology as an autonomous force, run by the marketplace, run by
international collaboration and competition, trampling on the traditions of all of humankind.
Shaull, Richard. 1966. Technology and theology. Theology Today 23 (Jl):271-275.
This addresses the concerns of theologians in the context of the technological revolution of
the 1960's in the west, particcularly focusing on the shift from philosophical concerns over
materialism to the recognition that self was the emergent zeitgeist of the day. Important
from a historical perspective to the research.
Mangum, John M. 1989. The New Faith-Science Debate : Probing Cosmology, Technology, And
Theology. Minneapolis : Fortress Press ; Geneva : WCC Publications.
This is a widely recognized, cited and reviewed treatment. The editor reflects, “today’s
churches have no other place to fulfill their mission than a world whose basic assumptions
are pervaded more and more by science.” This book contains material from a 1987
conference entitled The New Scientific/Technological World: What Difference Does It
Make for the Churches?" The proceedings reflect a wide diversity of views and disciplines.
25
Swanson, Scott A. 1997. "Fuller Integrates Theology, Technology." Christianity Today 41 (Oct
6):79.
This article explores Fuller Theological Seminary’s progress with instituting Internet
technologies in theological education, and its impact on the curriculum.
Veenker, Jody. 2001. Not just for visitors. Christianity Today (February 19): 17.
An early evangelical perspectve on wired churches is presented with commentary in this
article, which says "about 60 percent have developed websites in the last three years" but
most of these "are little more than glorified maps listing driving directions and service
times."
_________. 2001. Not your grandfather's mission field. Christianity Today (February 10):58-59.
This article explores how technological advances have impacted missions and biblical
translation projects for Wycliffe Bible Translators.
Waters, Brent P.1987. Technology as a problem for Christian ministry. Word & World 7 :4
(Fall): 385-393.
This article treats the sociological and ethical issues raised by the effect technology has on
the secularization of society.
________. 1991. Truth and virtue in a scientific and technological age. Prism 6:2:21-22.
Waters focuses on the Christian theological perspective as crucial in the contemporary
environment for "when knowledge is removed from an interpretive framework and
technical means are confused with moral ends, the future is devoid of wisdom that goes
beyond survival for its own sake. In a world being formed in a scientific and technological
image, we need to preserve a theocentric perspective . . . At the very least, the church
"needs to consider carefully the scientific and theological contours of our present age, so
that it may order its service of God in a faithful manner."
Wellman, Barry, and Caroline Haythornthwaite (eds.). 2002. The Internet in Everyday Life.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Trends suggest that people not only socialize online, but they incorporate the internet into
seeking information, exchanging advice, and making decisions. They decreasingly depend
on a single “community” for information, advice, and resources,, as people do better when
they actively seek out a variety of appropriate people and web resources for different
situations. Wellman has called the shift away from reliance on a single group “networked
individualism.” He and Manuel Castells (2000) have separately argued that it is a profound
shift in the fabric of western societies. This work looks at a variety of daily activities that
have boon impacted by net technologies.
Willard, Louis Charles, editor. 2005. Technology and educational practices. Theological
26
Education American Theological Society 41:1. Retrieved 3 Sept 2006 from
http://www.ats.edu/projects/TE41-1Articles.asp.
This journal focuses on the integration of theology and technology in the following
articles: “Planning for Innovation: A Framework for Reflective Practice” by Victor
Klimoski; “What Does All This (Technology) Mean for the Church?” by John P. Jewell;
“Not Just One More Good Idea: A Reflection on the Integration of Digital Technology in
Theological Education” by Jan Viktora “Theological Reflection, Theology and Technology:
When Baby Boomer Theologians Teach Generations X & Y” by Edward Foley
“Implications of a Digital Age for Theological Education” by William J. Hook; “Mapping
Structural Change” by David Neidert and John Aukerman; “What Difference Does it
Make? Digital Technology in the Theological Classroom” by Mary Hess; Low Cost Things
One Can Do that Have an Impact by James Rafferty; and “A New Tool or a New Way of
Doing Theological Education?” by Steve Delamarter.
Wind, James P. 2001. Crossing the digital divide: New forms of community on the virtual
frontier. Congregations (May/June): 9.
This article looks at the impact of networked communities on the local church.
Potential secondary resources: non-peer reviewed - Relating to the Research Question
Barbour, Ian G. 1993. Ethics in an Age of Technology. San Francisco: Harper Collins.
Representative article from the mature writings of the so- called “godfather” of science and
religion integration, from a process theology/Roman Catholic stance. It focuses on
technology, ethics, and theology.
_________. Toward a Theology of Technology. 1984. CTNS Bulletin 4 (Winter):1-13.
Another representative article from the “godfather” of science and religion, from a process
theology/Roman Catholic stance. It focuses on technology, ethics, and religion.
Barrett, William. 1979. The Illusion of Technique: A Search for Meaning in a Technological
Society. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books.
This text addresses the right techniques (and technologies) for effecting behavioral change,
focusing on the negative ethical concerns of Skinnerian behaviorism. Pertinent to the
research in the area of affective response to technology.
Birkerts, Sven. 1994. The Gutenberg Elegies: The Fate of Reading in an Electronic Age. Boston:
Faber and Faber.
The author's main problem is not with hypertextuality per se, but rather the demise of close
27
reading and critical thinking brought about by high technologies. This work adds balance to
any treatment of the integration of technologies into ancient forms of communication.
Cobb, Jennifer. 1998. Cybergrace: The Search for God in the Digital World. New York: Crown.
This book addresses the differences in Man created in the image of God and man's creations
and technologies. It looks at the nature of creativity and inspiration, taking the discussion
back to spirituality and faith, and examines how technologies extend man's influence into
the world. It is an attempt at a theology of the Internet.
de Kerckhove, Derrick. 1995. The Skin of Culture: Investigating the New Electronic Reality,
Toronto: Somerville House.
The author carries on Marshall McLuhan's work at the University of Toronto. This is a
book on the social aspects of computing. Derick de Kerckhove is especially taken by virtual
reality (VR), which he sees as a multisensory electronic extension of self, and by neural
networks, collections of self-adjusting elements that "learn" correct responses to inputs. It
addresses the ethics of technology.
Drucker, Peter F. 1994. The Age of Social Transformation. The Atlantic Monthly, Nov: 72.
The author posits that technologies have all but replaced the "old communities"- family,
village, parish, and so on- with the new unit of social integration, the organization. Where
community was fate, organization is voluntary membership. Where community claimed the
entire person, organization is a means to a person's ends, a tool. For 200 years a hot debate
has been raging, especially in the West: are communities "organic" or are they simply
extensions of the people of which they are made? Nobody would claim that the new
organization is "organic". It is clearly an artifact, a creation of man, a social technology.
Ellul, Jaques. 1974. The Technological Society, New York, NY: Vintage.
Ellul does not deny the positive benefits of technology, but focuses on what has been lost in
human terms by the redefinition of progress. This seminal work cannot be ignored in any
treatment of technology's social effects.
Ferre, Frederick. 1993. Hellfire and Lightning Rods: Liberating Science, Technology, and
Religion. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books.
This author declares that need exists to liberate science and technology from scientism and
technolatry and to develop a new paradigm built upon creativity, limits, and holism. The
path to a postmodern consciousness, Ferre argues, lies through religion. His definition of
religion is not a Christian one by any means. This applies to the research in the area of
prescriptive use of technology.
Foster, Anthony W. (2005). The Imago Dei. Retrieved September 1, 2006 from
http://anthonyfoster.com/charter/af/imago_dei.doc.
28
This theological treatment of the imago Dei by the author includes much more pertinent
information and primary source material than can be alluded to in this treatment.
__________(1998). A Theology of Technology. Retrieved September 1, 2006 from
http://anthonyfoster.com/charter/af/.
This theological treatment of Technology by the author includes much more pertinent
information than can be alluded to in this treatment of Technology. It's basis is from a
course in which the author interacted with Philosophers James Ingram (French L'Abri) and
Douglas Groothuis (Denver Seminary) in a special seminar the author participated in at
Covenant Theological Seminary.
Goethals, Gregor. 1990. The Electronic Golden Calf. Cambridge, MA:Cowley Publications.
This work provides a point of intersection of theology and technology with technology as
the purveyor of popular theology which is disseminated to the people directly without the
input of a gatekeeper mechanism such as the filters of scholarship, reflection, or integration.
Groothuis Douglas. 1997. The Soul in Cyberspace. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker.
This is a much-needed Christian critique of the implications of computer technology for all
people. Far from being a reactionary diatribe against the computer as antichrist, this is a
sane, well-researched, and thought-provoking study of the difficulties that computer
dependency brings to the realization of human community made in the image of God.
_________. 1998. Christian scholarship and the philosophical analysis of cyberspace
technologies. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 41:4 (December): 631-640.
Those who hold a Christian worldview need to discern the nature and function of
cyberspace interactions in order to appraise rightly their significance, worth, and potential
for the Christian cause and the culture at large. The author gives special acknowledgement
to Marshall McLuhan's assertation that any technology or extension of man creates a new
environment” after the image of that technology.
Heidegger, Martin. 1977. The Question Concerning Technology, and other essays. New York:
Harper & Row.
The work of Martin Heidegger is essential. The idea of technology's role in "enframing" as
an unwelcome mediation of truth is the subject of his essay "The Question Concerning
Technology." In it he cogently expresses the true nature of the current debate:" What is
dangerous is not technology. Technology is not demonic; but its essence is mysterious. The
essence of technology as a destining of revealing, is the danger...The rule of enframing
threatens man with the possibility that it could be denied to him to enter into a more
original revealing and hence to experience the call of a more primal truth." Heidegger saw
technology as a worldview and a mindset, not just a collection of means geared towards an
end. Technology was an Archimides' lever to Heidegger. By the pervasive use of
29
technology, we encounter a world that is enframed and defined by our ability to shape it.
Heie, Harold, and David L Wolfe, eds. 1987. The Reality of Christian Learning. Grand
Rapids,MI:Eerdmans.
This is a work concerned with strategies for faith -discipline integration with important
contributions in the area of practical application in education. Especially helpful are entries
by Best and Coppenger on the differences in God's creativity and ours.
Heim, Michael. 1993. The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality. New York: Oxford University Press.
An analysis of the increasing presence of computer technology in everyday life. This
philosopher looks at the potential for technology to change the notion or reality. It informs
any discussion of the ontological and epistemological aspects of the research.
Hoekema, Anthony A. God's Image in Man. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986.
This is a balanced and thoroughgoing anthropology from a Reformed perspective. The
imago Dei is doctrinally linked with technology and man’s creative mirroring of the God he
was created in the image of.
Ihara, Randall H. 1975–76. Redeeming the time: theology, technology and politics in the
thought of Jacques Ellul. Ph.D. Diss., University of Tennessee.
This dissertation looks at Ellul's negative views of technology cast against his optimistic
theological hope of universal salvation and his journey through Calvinism.
LeTourneau, R. G. 1968. Foundations for change. Bibliotheca Sacra 125:499 (Jul):227-239.
This is a dated but philosophically sound evangelical articulation of a theology of
technology.
Lochhead, David. 1997. Shifting Realities: Information Technology and the Church. Geneva:
WCC Publications.
This work addresses the attitudes, and the messianic and demonic labels present in the
discourse on theology and technology. Lochhead is a theologian coming from a multi-faith,
liberal perspective. He outlines how Christians appropriate computers as an aid to ministry
and he asks questions about how perceptions of reality are also being altered, the dangers
of the culture it creates, as well as the benefits, and what it means for Christians to critically
appropriate technology.
Mangum, John, ed. 1989. The New Faith-Science Debate: Probing Cosmology, Technology, and
Theology. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress; Geneva: WCC Publications.
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This book attempts to discern the proper relationship of science, and therefore technology
to religion.
Morris, Henry. 1968. Biblical naturalism and modern science Part III. Bibliotheca Sacra 125:499
(Jul):195-206.
Science, which seeks to understand the processes of nature, and technology (i.e.,
engineering, medicine, agriculture, etc.), which seeks to utilize them in the service of
mankind, are thus legitimate and necessary aspects of man’s stewardship under God’s
providence.
Mumford, Lewis. 1963. Technics and Civilization. New York: Harbinger Book, Harcourt, Brace
& World.
This is a history of the machine and a critical study of its sociological effects on Western
civilization. He traces the effect of technology and attempts to trace its social results. An
important and seminal look at technological progress.
Newman, Jay. 1997. Religion and Technology: A Study in the Philosophy of Culture. Westport,
Conn.: Praeger.
This provides one philosophical perspective on the intersection and juxtaposition of religion
and technology in western culture.
Noble, David. 1997. The Religion of Technology: The Divinity of Man and the Spirit of
Invention. New York : A.A. Knopf.
Ong, Walter J. 1988. Orality and Literacy : The Technologizing of the Wor d. New York:
Routledge.
Explores some of the profound changes in our thought processes, personality and social
structures which are the result of the development of speech, writing and print. Ong says,
"the computer is the technology by which literacy will be carried into a new age", and
speaks of an "electronic literacy " , and proposes that "the logic of print" will be replaced by
this.
Pearcey, Nancy. 2004. Total Truth: Liberating Christianity from Its Cultural Captivity.
Wheaton, IL: Crossway.
This follow up to the Pearcey/Colson work How Now Shall We Live is both a crystallization
of the thought to Francis Schaeffer and an updated application of it to a new generation in
the postmodern milieu.
Postman, Neil. 1992.Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York : Alfred
A. Knopf.
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Postman offers lively insight and challenges to the pervasive use of technologies and their
effects on human communication and community.
Rheingold, Howard. 1993. The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Cyber pundit who established himself as a primary commentating voice on the effects of
the Internet on community and its use in building virtual community.
Rookmaaker, H.R.1978. Art Needs No Justification. Downers Grove, InterVarsity Press.
A prophetic call to Christian artists, craftsmen, and musicians to "weep, pray, think, and
work" to see that their God-given talents are used to the glory of the Giver before it is too
late. May impact the visual representation aspect of the research art hand.
_________. 1981. The Creative Gift: Essays on Art and the Christian Life. Westchester, IL:
Cornerstone Books.
Thoughtful reflections, though not strictly academic, on art and freedom, history and
authority, and culture and creativity that will lead the Christian artist to be the salt of the
earth where God has placed him.
Roxborogh. John. 1999. The Information Superhighway as a missiological tool of the trade.
Missiology 27 (1):117-122.
Scholarly article on the appropriation of the Internet in Missions work, addressing attitudes
toward and impact of the technology being explored.
Schaeffer, Francis A. 1981. A Christian Manifesto Westchester, IL: Crossway Books, 1981.
This is Schaeffer’s response to the Humanist Manifesto wherein he extends his contention
that the shift in worldview in our culture. A key quote: “True spirituality covers all of
reality. There are things the Bible tells us as absolutes which are sinful which do not
conform to the character of God. But aside from these the Lordship of Christ covers all of
life equally . . . Christianity is not just a series of truths but Truth-Truth about all of reality.
And holding to that Truth intellectually brings forth not only certain personal results, but
also certain governmental and legal results.”
Schuurman, Egbert. 1996. A confrontation with technicism as the spiritual climate of the west.
Westminster Theological Journal 58:1 (Spr ): 63-73.
The author holds that uncritical efforts are made to solve problems by introducing new
forms of high technology, including information technology. He holds that culture has
become marked by "technicization" in all fields, and asks whether technology is suitable to
solve all of our problems, especially the ones technology itself has created. The author
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explores the sense of a deification of scientific-technological control , and of the material
welfare associated with it.
Stahl, William. 1999.God and the Chip: Religion and the Culture of Technology. Waterloo:
Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
This professor of sociology at Luther College argues that a defining aspect of the age in
which we live is reliance on technology that takes the form of a highly mythologized
culture of technology, which he describes as an "implicit religion." The implicitly religious
tone of modern culture's view of technology's role in human history is part of modernity,
and it has to be considered when attempting to discern attitudes toward a particular
technology.
The Journal of Technology and Culture. 2001. Retrieved 1 September 2006 from
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture.
Technology and Culture is the preeminent journal for the history of technology. Drawing on
scholarship in diverse disciplines, Technology and Culture publishes insightful pieces
intended for general readers as well as specialists.
Tillich, Paul. 1987. On Art and Architecture. Edited and with an introduction by John
Dillenberger, in collaboration with Jane Dillenberger. New York: Crossroad.
A four part anthology of the late theologian's views on the arts and architecture covering
both his German and American periods of writing in addition to his statements for
exhibitions and journals.
Turkle, Sherry. 1995. Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet. New York; Toronto:
Simon & Schuster.
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology sociologist and psychoanalyst argues that
computers and the Internet are redefining human identity, as people explore the boundaries
of their personalities, adopt multiple selves, and form online relationships that can be more
intense than real ones. The World Wide Web is ''redefining our sense of community and
where we find our peers,'' she says. This is an important "people side" view of the
technologies in question. The author explores the exponentially expanding power of the
computer to mediate relationships and the view of reality. Turkle looks at how how
computers are causing us to reevaluate our identities and our evolving ideas about minds,
bodies, and machines. What is emerging, Turkle says, is a new sense of identity--as decentered and multiple.
Veith, Jr., Gene Edward. 1991. State of the Arts: From Bezalel to Mapplethorpe. Wheaton, IL:
Crossway, 1991.
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This work chronicles the biblical foundations of the visual arts and a basis for making
aesthetic judgments. Informs the visual arts aspect of technology.
Vitz, Paul C. and Arnold B. Glimcher. 1984. Modern Art and Modern Science: Parallel
Analysis of Vision. New York: Praeger.
The authors show how new perceptions of reality reflect themselves in a parallel fashion in
the arts and sciences that are concerned with human visual thinking. This study intersects
with both the visual and technological aspects of the research.
Wasserman, Christof, Richard Kirby and Bernard Rordoff, eds. 1992. The Science and Theology
of Information. Geneva: Labor et Fides.
This book is based on the Proceedings of the Third European Conference on Science and
Theology held in Geneva March 29 to April 1, 1990, which discussed information from a
Christian perspective. As such it is all over the board in approach, definitions, and content.
Important to the research at hand are two articles concerning the negative/positive aspects
of communications/ information technology.
Wells, David F. 1994.God in the Wasteland: The Reality of Truth in a World of Fading Dreams.
Grand Rapids:MI: Wm. B. Eeerdmans Publishing Co.
A further critique of modern internalized culture from a distinctive evangelical voice. The
strengths of this book that can impinge upon the research at hand is Wells' biblical
exposition of texts regarding providence and his cultural analysis of technology, as well as
modernity's impact on worship and theological education.
White, Susan J. 1994. Christian Worship and Technological Change. Nashville: Abingdon
Press.
White, a member of the Faculty of Divinity at Cambridge University, describes three major
approaches to the interplay between worship and technology: pessimism (technology as a
threat), optimism (technology as the means), contextualism (technology and religious life in
symbiosis). She espouses the third option.
Wiener, Norbert. 1964. God and Golem, Inc.: A comment on certain points where cybernetics
impinges on religion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
This dated but pertinent text from the father of cybernetics addresses the issues involved
when man casts himself in a god-like role in his creative ventures and the possibility that
man's creations (his technologies and machines) one day may potentially perpetuate this
abuse of stewardship, i. e., seeking autonomy from man. This alludes to the idolatry
technology inculcates in culture.
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Wolterstorff, Nicholas. 1984. Reason Within the Bounds of Religion. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Eerdmans.
In regard to community, Wolterstorff notes that the Christian scholar finds oneself in two
communities: the community of fellow scholars and the community of fellow Christians.
Since each of these communities has its own characteristic beliefs and practices, he will
want to ask the following question: how does my membership in these two communities
cohere or fit together?
Nicholas Wolterstorff, 1987. “Teaching for Justice,” in Making Higher Education Christian:
The History and Mission of Evangelical Colleges in America, ed. Joel A. Carpenter and Kenneth
Shipps. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Nicholas Wolterstorff observes that teaching and scholarship must go hand in hand. What is
needed. Wolterstorff argues. Is praxis oriented scholarship- that is, scholarship that analyzes
social structures with an eye to the call for justice.
Zaleski, Jeff. 1997. The Soul of Cyberspace: How New Technology is Changing our Spiritual
Lives. San Francisco: HarperEdge.
This is an anecdotal, qualitatively based book of interviews of people who are deeply
engaged with the technologies in question from a spiritual/religious viewpoint. As such it
gives insights into the uses of the power users appropriation of online technologies.
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