THE USE OF SHORT STORIES
FOR CLT IN SENIOR ESL CLASSES IN ZAMBIA
by
DENSON CHIPILI
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for
the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS WITH SPECIALIZATION IN TESOL
(TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES)
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
SUPERVISOR: MR C. NDLAMANGANDLA
FEBRUARY 2012
1
ABSTRACT
Teaching ESL continues to pose a big challenge in most schools in Zambia. This is due to
the paucity of teaching resources. While the number of schools has increased, there has
not been a corresponding increase in funding due to economic reasons. This study arose
from the desire to find alternative resources to teach English as a second language
effectively within the communicative language teaching (CLT) framework. A review of
available literature has shown that literature can help students to acquire the four
language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. Hypothesizing that materials
prepared around a short story book could be used to teach ESL communicatively in
senior English classes in Zambia, the study set out to design materials and testing them to
determine their effectiveness in realizing syllabus objectives. The findings indicate that
designed material is a pedagogically informed decision to exploit the benefits of literature
based language teaching in promoting the acquisition of ESL skills.
Key terms:
literature, literary text, short story book, ESL, prescribed course book, language
skills, CLT approach, principles, communicative competence, schema theory,
schemata, input theory, text selection
2
DEDICATION
To my late mum and dad
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
While doing my project, I received help and support from a number of people and institutions
which made it possible for me to undertake and conclude this study. A few people and
institutions, however, played a pivotal role in this study and I would like to give them a special
mention:

Clifford Ndlangamandla, my supervisor, who generously and graciously lent time,
patience, support, encouragement and expertise to the endeavour. Above all I appreciate
his unshaken encouragement and belief in me.

Canon Collins Education Trust, my sponsors, who provided financial resources that
enabled me pay tuition fees and carry out research without which this study would have
remained a pipedream. My sincere thanks to you.

Dawie Malan, my subject librarian, who did not only conduct widespread library searches
on my behalf, but also offered precious advice and promptly responded to my queries.
Thank you to you.

Mr and Mrs D J Armitage for their material support.

My family, who gave me encouragement and time that enable me carry on with my
studies. Completing this study would have not been possible without their love,
encouragement and support.

Kalulushi Trust School Administration for allowing me to use the school facilities during
my research and Grade 10 students for participating in this project and for their help and
cooperation, which made the completion of this project possible
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1 Background
1
1.2
1.1.1
Linguistic situation in Zambia
1
1.1.2
Language policy in Zambia – historical perspective
2
1.1.3
The current status of local languages
5
1.1.4
The Place of English in Zambian Education system
6
1.1.5
Methodology in use
7
1.1.6
Situation at the time of independence
8
1.1.7
Massification of secondary schooling
10
The study
12
1.2.1
13
Motivation for the study
1.3
Research problem
14
1.4
Research objectives
15
1.5
Thesis statement
15
1.6
Assumptions
16
1.7
Delineation
16
1.8
Limitation
16
1.9
Definition of terms and concepts
17
1.10
Rationale of the research
19
1.11
Contribution of the research
21
1.12
Chapter overview
21
1.13
Conclusion
22
5
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
23
2.1
Introduction
23
2.2
Literature in the language classroom: historical perspectives
24
2.2.1
Argument against inclusion of literature in ESL programme
26
2.2.2
Argument for the inclusion of literature in ESL programme
28
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Theoretical considerations supporting the use of literary materials
34
2.3.1
The schematic structure of short stories (story grammar)
35
2.3.2
Meaning in stories
38
General guidelines for text selection
40
2.4.1
Difficulty level of text (language versus content)
40
2.4.2
Simplification and abridgement
41
2.4.3
Extracts
42
2.4.4
Cultural considerations in text selection
42
2.4.5
Purpose of the text
44
Teaching ESL skills through short story/literary texts
45
2.5.1
Vocabulary acquisition without instruction
45
2.5.2
Teaching vocabulary through short story text/literary texts
46
2.5.4
Reading and the schema theory
50
Suggested methodology
50
2.6.1
Communicative language teaching (CLT)
51
2.6.2
Challenges in CLT implementation
52
2.6.3
The use of dictionaries and cloze exercises in reading narrative
text
2.7
55
Introducing and presenting short story
56
2.7.1
Teaching post-teaching strategies
57
2.7.2
Reading and composition
59
2.7.3
Literary texts and development of oral skills
60
2.7.4
Drama and oral activities
61
6
2.7.5
2.8
63
Practical application – Case studies
2.8.1
2.9
Group activities
64
The ESL teaching – Hong Kong case studies
Conclusion
64
68
CHAPTER 3
3.0
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
70
3.2
Research design - Mixed method
70
3.2.1
Strengths of qualitative research designs
74
3.2.2
Advantages of qualitative research design
76
3.2.3
Weaknesses of qualitative research designs
76
3.3
3.4
Case studies
77
3.3.1
79
Weaknesses of the case study
Research methodology
79
3.4.1
Quantitative research instruments
80
3.4.2
Pre-test: Proficiency test
80
3.4.3
Post-test
81
3.4.2
Qualitative research instruments
81
3.4.2.1
Field-notes and diaries
81
3.4.2.2
Classroom based tasks
83
3.4.2.3
Documents
84
3.4.3 Application of research techniques
84
3.4.3.1
Lesson reports
84
3.4.3.2
Classroom observation
85
3.4.3.3
Designing materials
85
3.5
Treatment of the Subjects
85
7
3.6
3.5.1
Control group
85
3.5.2
Treatment group
86
3.5.3
Designing materials according to syllabus the assessment
criteria
87
3.5.4
Evaluation of designed material
88
3.5.5
Post-use material evaluation
90
3.5.6
Designed material versus syllabus objectives
91
3.5.6.1
Oral communication skills
91
3.5.6.2
Note-taking and note-making
92
3.5.6.3
Dictation
93
3.5.6.4
Reading comprehension
95
3.5.6.5
Writing skills
95
3.5.6.6
Cloze exercises
95
3.5.6.7
Project Work
96
3.5.6.8
Grammatical skills
96
Research population
97
3.6.1
97
Population characteristics
3.6.
Sampling techniques
98
3.7
Data collection procedures
99
3.7.1
Research instrument or task sensitivity
100
3.7.2
Time frame
100
3.7.3
Interaction of subject selection and research
100
3.7.4
Effect of the research environment
100
3.7.5
Effect of time
101
3.7.6
Rating procedure and scale
101
3.7.7
Data analysis
101
3.7.8
Student ‘t’-test analysis
102
8
3.8
Validity of research instruments
103
3.9
Reliability of the test research instrument
103
3.9.1
104
External reliability
3.10 Ethical considerations
105
3.11 Conclusion
106
CHAPTER 4
4.0
RESULTS
107
4.1
Introduction
107
4.2
Short story and ESL skills teaching
108
4.2.1
108
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Pre-test
English Language teaching in Grade 10
111
4.3.1
Syllabus aims
112
4.3.2
Teaching ESL skills through literature
112
4.3.3
Language awareness
113
4.3.4
Sequence of activities
116
4.3.5
Grammar awareness
128
4.3.6
Communicative language teaching: results and analysis
131
Group work
132
4.4.1
Before reading activities
135
4.4.2
Language skills
135
4.4.3
Vocabulary
135
Presentation and interpretation of post-test results
136
4.5.1
Reading comprehension
138
4.5.2
Rewrites
138
4.5.3
Cloze test
139
Paired‘t’test results
140
9
4.7
Statistical significance of differences in performance
143
4.8
Testing of research hypothesis
144
4.8.1
144
4.9
Research hypothesis
Conclusion
144
CHAPTER 5
5.0
CONCLUSION
145
5.1
Summary of the study
145
5.2
Pupil background
147
5.3
Meeting syllabus objectives
150
5.4
Meeting intended purpose
153
5.5
Reflexive research in teaching
154
5.6
Implication of the study: CLT
157
5.7
Conclusion
158
REFERENCES
160
APPENDICES
175
A
Pre-test – Sample Test Paper
175
B
Post-test- Sample Test Paper
191
C
Designed Materials
192
D
Senior Secondary English language syllabus
246
E
Letter of authority
10
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
1.1.1 Linguistic situation in Zambia
The 1969 census of population revealed that Zambia is a multilingual state with approximately
eighty Bantu dialects classified on the basis of lexical, phonological and syntactic similarity into
a much smaller number of more or less mutually unintelligible clusters or languages. According
to Kashoki (1990:109), these clusters number slightly more than twenty. In relative size, the 80
or so dialects range from those claimed to be spoken as mother tongue by as many as 700 000
people (for example Bemba, 741, 114) to those claimed by as few as 900 (for example LundaNdembu, 993).
In addition to information on Zambian languages, the linguistic data derived from the 1969
census also gave some indication of the number and relative size of the non-Zambian languages
found in the country. These may be divided into three major groups: African, European and
Asian. Of the non-Zambian, African languages, perhaps the most significant is Kiswahili,
claimed in the census to be spoken as a mother tongue by some 7, 495 persons (Kashoki
1990:109). In addition, there was rather a large number of 117, 495 respondents that Kashoki
(1990:109) lists under ‘other Africans’. European languages include English (41 400), Italian
(1 337), German (1 332), French (906) and Portuguese (325). Other European languages
accounted for the remaining 3 015. Asian languages include Gujarat (7 2276), Hindi (1 112),
Urdu (414) and ‘Other’ (2 134).
The foregoing language situation explains why since the emergence of Zambia as an
independent, sovereign state in 1964 and being a multi-cultural nation no issue has given the
country (Zambia), or any similarly placed country, a darker tunnel to grope about than does the
question of language. Language as most countries of the world have come to appreciate is always
an extremely sensitive and volatile issue. For Zambia, language is quite clearly a dilemma, a
11
paradox and a challenge. As Kashoki (1990:6) observes, the nation, at least that segment of it
which is interested in the matter, is sharply divided on these as on other related issues. There is,
for example, a ‘vocal’ section of the community which, in view of the public pronouncements on
the need to preserve the nation’s cultural heritage, has maintained that since language is an
integral and indispensable element of culture, and the nation has already committed itself to the
preservation of its cultural heritage (presumably in all its facets), Zambia has perforce an
obligation to preserve and promote her indigenous languages. More vocal advocates have gone
further to contend that the preservation of Zambia’s cultures would be meaningless unless it is
accompanied by a corresponding development of her languages (Kashoki 1990:7).
On the contrary, critics have argued that culture, since it is a dynamic and not a static force, is
capable of being preserved in a foreign language and cites the Caribbean cultural life as a
relevant example. Proponents of this view have insisted that the West Indies have had a pattern
of life of their own although they have retained little of their own original African linguistic
heritage. This being the case, they have argued that given the trend of cultural change in much of
Africa today, a similar fate befalls Zambia despite all that one may do “to dam the tide of
change” (Linehan 2004:2)
1.1.2 Language policy in Zambia – historical perspective
The issue of language and education in Zambia was fairly straight forward throughout the
colonial and much of the federal period. According to Linehan (2004:2) from 1927, only three
years after the Colonial Office took over the responsibility for what was then Northern Rhodesia
up to 1963 and just before the break-up of the federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, the policy
on education was consistent: “mother tongue was used for the first two years of primary
education, followed by a dominant vernacular up to Standard 5, and English thereafter” (Linehan
2004:2). However, in 1963, a group of Australian educationists sponsored by UNESCO,
reviewed the education system in what was to become Zambia, and recommended that, “The
medium of instruction should be English from the beginning of a child’s schooling” (UNESCO
1964:105). The Australian educationists further recommended that there was need to set up a
pilot scheme that was going to commence the introduction of English as medium of instruction.
12
This recommendation was endorsed in 1965 by the Hardman report, written by a language
officer, seconded by the United Kingdom to investigate the challenges of teaching English to
primary school children.
In 1965, in the newly established Republic of Zambia, cabinet approved to legislate on the
Hardman recommendation, which became enshrined in the 1966 Education Act. For reasons of
national unity plus a belief that the earlier a language was started the better, English was
formally adopted, for the first time, as the medium of instruction from the beginning of Grade
One to the end of tertiary education. Following this adoption, considerable resources were
committed over the following years to establishing and running what was initially called, “The
English Medium Scheme, later to be called, the New Zambia Primary Course” (Linehan 2004:2).
The thirty-year period that followed (between 1965 and 1995) saw a number of moves to reverse
this ‘straight-for-English’ approach. In two major reviews of educational policy, in 1977 and
again in 1991, the case for vernacular languages and their role in ensuring quality in education
was made.
In 1977, although there was a broad agreement that learning through the medium of English was
detrimental to educational achievement, educational principles were subordinated to the
pragmatic considerations of political harmony, and the final report, ‘Educational Reform:
Proposals and Recommendations’ while acknowledging that “it is generally accepted by
educationists that learning is best done in the mother tongue”, decided that “this situation is
found to be impracticable in multi-lingual societies such as the Zambian society” (Ministry of
Education 1977:32). However, the new policy allowed the teachers to explain concepts that
might not be understood through the medium of English, in one of the seven official local
languages, provided majority of pupils in class could understand this vernacular language.
The 1991 Zambia policy response to the 1990 World Conference on Education For All, also
referred to as Focus on Learning, resolved to tackle the issue of the appropriate language of
instruction stating that the arguments for the use of local languages in education were proven
beyond doubt and that, despite the administrative difficulties in implementing the vernacular
policy, the major local languages should be the basic languages of education from Grades One to
13
Grade Four. This language policy document, Focus on Learning, was formally adopted by the
Zambian Government in October 1992 (replacing the 1977 education policy). However, no
attempt was made to implement this new policy till 1995, despite a number of studies that had
shown increasing signs of reading disability in primary schools in both English and local
languages (Williams, 1993).
A major study which was commissioned in 1993 by Britain’s Overseas Development
Administration (ODA) and conducted by the University of Reading looked at reading levels in
selected Zambian schools in both English and a Zambian language (Chinyanja) at Grades 3, 4
and 6. The study revealed that on average, pupils were unable to read texts two levels below their
own grade level (William, 1993). Following this report, another study was undertaken by the
Zambian Ministry of Education under the auspices of the Southern Africa consortium for
Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) in 1995 (Linehan 2004:3). The study revealed that
only 25% of Grade 6 pupils who participated in the study could read at defined minimum levels
and only 3% could read at defined desirable levels (William, 1993:14). From the two studies
(reported), it was evident that the first thirty years of English medium had been less satisfactory.
The studies further revealed that teaching and learning in an alien language had meant that, for
the vast majority, school was unrelated to real life. As a result “rote learning was the only way to
approach a situation where understanding was absent from school, with mindless repetition
replacing problem solving and inventiveness” (Linehan 2004:4).
Not that the language policy could be blamed for everything. Other factors were at work. Kelly
(1995:6) argues that the colossal neglect of education during years of economic collapse, drought
and sickness are among other adverse factors. However, Kelly further contends that “were it not
for the language policy, we would have had better educated people who would have known
better how to cope with the adverse economic problems, and even with those arising from
drought, AIDS, and extrinsic factors” (Kelly, 1995:6).
By 1995, there was a growing awareness within the Ministry of Education that reading and
writing were better developed first in a language with which children were familiar. The
pedagogical advantages of this were becoming accepted. Amongst the reasons given were that
14
there is a basic principle of working from known (a child’s mother tongue) to the unknown
(English language). The other reason advanced was that if pupils were first taught in the mother
tongue, it would enable them to express themselves in a meaningful way and therefore
participate in their own learning processes (Linehan 2004:4). The other argument advanced was
that if pupils are first taught in their first language, it would prevent cognitive overload in pupils
since they are only concerned with only one thing at a time, that of learning to read and write in a
familiar language instead of having to negotiate both the reading skill and the new language. The
other reason is that first language reinforces pupils’ self-esteem by validating what Linehan
refers to as “their cultural identity” (Linehan 2004:4). The next section looks at the current status
of local languages.
1.1.3 The current status of local languages
The status of local languages was raised by including vernacular (local) languages amongst
subjects that counted towards selection to Grade 8 (formerly Lower Secondary, but now Upper
Basic). Previously, although Zambian languages were taught up to Grade 7, they were not part of
the package of selection subjects for the limited places at secondary school level. This policy
change greatly boosted the status of local languages and the morale of local language teachers
and curriculum experts. Consequently, the government in 1996 produced a comprehensive policy
document for education, called Educating Our Future, which states that “initial literacy and
numeracy would be developed through a language which was familiar to children” (Ministry of
Education, 1996:39). This policy position further enhanced the status of Zambian languages and
provided the rationale for future initiatives.
Against this background, and in light of these considerations, the Government of the Republic of
Zambia has now come up with an educational language policy to guide education providers
regarding the official language in which English language skills and other subjects should be
taught. As a matter of policy, from 1997, all pupils have been given an opportunity to learn
initial basic skills of reading and writing in their specific ethnic (local) languages up to Grade
Four after which all the teaching is done in English except the teaching of ethnic languages as
subjects. There are seventy three ethnic tribes in Zambia. For education purposes, the country
15
has been divided into seven regional language zones. The local languages used as lingua francae
for educational purposes in these language zones are as follows: Icibemba (Northern, Luapula,
Central and Copperbelt Provinces). Others are: Lunda, Luvale and Kikaonde (in North Western
Province), Ichitonga (Southern Province), Chinyanja (Eastern Province) and Silozi (Western
Province). However, the policy states, in part, that English shall still remain the official language
of instruction in the teaching of other subjects and in the higher grades after Grade Four. By
providing for the use of a local language for initial literacy acquisition, children’s learning of
essential reading and writing skills are assumed to be better equipped. On the other hand, by
providing for the use of English as an official language of instruction for other content subjects
areas, children’s preparations for the use of this language in school and subsequent life is
assumed to be facilitated (Ministry of Education 1992:3; Linehan 2004:2-5).
1.1.4 The Place of English in Zambian Education system
In considering the place of English in the Zambian education system, especially as regards
pedagogy, it might be useful to do this at two levels, policy formulation, and actual programme
implementation. At the level of policy, since 1965, English has officially been prescribed as the
medium of instruction throughout Zambia’s formal education system. This has, however, not
forever put to rest the ever recurrent question as to what ought to be the medium of instruction in
a multilingual country which is also an independent African state. According to Kashoki
(1990:81), the disquiet about the present policy seems to spring from political, cultural, social,
and psychological considerations.
At the level of programme implementation, on the other hand, the basic and crucial questions
relate to: the aims and objectives of language teaching, the methodology or methodologies to be
used, the choice of mode or variety of the language to be taught, the complex and varied
linguistic and social background of the learners, the degree of language proficiency envisaged,
the suitability, training and competence of the classroom model, that is the teacher and the
effectiveness of the aids used (Kashoki ibid). However, this section will focus only on the
methodology in use.
16
1.1.5 Methodology in use
Part of the problem in attempting to select for pedagogy purposes an appropriate and effective
methodology, a methodology calculated to yield optimal results in the teacher’s transmission of
language skills to the learners, is that despite the contribution of neurology, physiology,
psychology and recent studies in language learning, Zambia is just beginning to get to grips with
how learning takes place and in particular on how languages are acquired. Insights are still
required which would enable teachers to tackle the particular problem areas that need to receive
special attention when language learning takes place in an alien and unnatural environment such
as the walled confines of the classroom. Compounding the problem, and although in recent years
the situation has changed considerably for the better, is the fact that competing and sometimes
conflicting linguistic theories as they have developed divergently have proved to be hindrances
rather than useful aids to language teaching and language learning. The result is that products or
protagonists of one school have tended to apply to language teaching and learning the ‘religious’
tenets of their particular brand of linguistics and to make little more than ‘grudging reference’ to
the claims of the ‘rival linguistic school’ (Kashoki, 1990:83).
Judging from the structure of the English course as gauged from the format adopted from both
the learners’ readers and the teachers’ guides, it would appear that the methodology preferred or
in use in Zambia is the behaviouristic-structural approach as elaborated during the 1950’s and
1960’s. The contributions of transformation-generative grammar appear to feature little or not at
all. The reasons for this may be partly that curriculum developers sufficiently familiar with
transformational-generative grammar are few and far between and partly because the insights
derived from this linguistic theory are just beginning to filter into language pedagogy.
In order to meet the above targets of enhancing the development of literacy, teaching materials
are a necessary prerequisite and one of the key elements needed in achieving this goal. Through
effective teaching of the four English language skills (listening and speaking, reading and
writing) and by using appropriate learning tools and methodologies, pupils can expand their
knowledge of the language and other subjects. However, these benefits seem to elude many
students for a number of reasons, one of which is the way English language skills are taught due
17
to inadequate teaching and learning resources prescribed by the Ministry of Education through
the Curriculum Development Centre (C.D.C). At present, the situation is that many government
run schools have continued to lack teaching and learning materials due to inadequate funding.
However, the government has now realized that the current state of affairs is not in the interest of
the pupils in Zambia and should not be allowed to continue. Thus, urgent solutions or measures
to mitigate the difficulties schools have been experiencing have to be sought. In addition, it has
now been realized by many educationists in Zambia that if the teaching of English as a second
language does not satisfy purposes that make sense to the pupils due to non-availability of
teaching and learning materials, it is unlikely to satisfy general curriculum purposes because the
pupils will lack motivation, a basic pre-requisite for effective learning (Ministry of Education
1992:8).
Another issue that has been debated over the years has been the issue of communicative
competence. Some scholars have argued that children are leaving schools in Zambia without
attaining appropriate communicative competence levels (Kashoki, 1990; Linehan, 2004; Sakala,
1994). Defining communicative competence, Brown (2000:246) observes that ‘communicative
competence is that aspect of our four competences that enables us to survey and interpret
messages and negotiates meaning within specific contexts’. In order to achieve this therefore, the
syllabus recommends the teaching of English skills using a communicative language teaching
approach (CLT). The Communicative Approach is formulated on the premise that in order for
language learners to become proficient, learners need to use a language. This, however, is
further explored in Chapter 2. It is important to discuss briefly how government run-schools in
Zambia have found themselves in this unfortunate situation of lack of adequate teaching and
learning resources.
1.1.6 Situation at the time of Independence
At the time of independence, one of the challenges the new government had was to provide
education to the many African children who were not in school due to the neglect of African
education by the colonial masters. In addition, in order to gain support from the electorate during
the struggle for independence, the party in power then, United National Independence Party, had
18
promised accelerated expansion of education facilities, which was seen to have both economic
and social benefits. So on assuming office, the new government’s first priority was to translate
this promise into reality. Little did the government, then, realize the implication of the envisaged
accelerated expansion and ‘massification’ of education on the education facilities (Mwanakatwe
1968).
At the time of independence Zambia faced an urgent need to expand its education facilities to
provide the much needed manpower in the shortest possible time and also fulfil the preindependence campaign promise of increased school places. Schools, therefore, became (and still
are) “….principal instruments through which those individuals who were to take up positions of
leadership, power, privilege and status within the society were selected” (Mwanakatwe,
1968:48). This entailed an expansion of the education system, aiming at universal primary, and
later junior secondary education for all eligible children. But above all, there was an urgent need
to expand the secondary school sector to accommodate a substantial number of the primary
school population in pre-independence schools. This expansion was reflected in the main
objectives of the Transitional Development Plan: 1st January 1965 to 30th June 1966 and the First
National Development Plan: 1ST July 1966 to 30th June 1970 (Mwanakatwe 1968:61).
As a result of the above situation, several measures were taken to try and remedy this negative
situation. Class sizes were nearly doubled in some schools from forty and thirty five to about
seventy and eighty at junior and senior secondary schools levels, respectively. More junior
(Grade 8 and 9) secondary schools were built; and some primary schools were upgraded to go up
to junior secondary school level (Grade 9) and became known as basic schools (Sakala, 1994:7).
At this stage, all seemed to be well as the economy of Zambia then was very strong and
provision of resources was not a major problem. As the population grew bigger and the economy
started weakening due to falling copper prices in the early 1970s, things begun to deteriorate
slowly and government started encouraging communities, through their Parent Teachers’
Associations to construct schools through ‘self-help’. This resulted into ‘massification’ of
secondary schools (Sakala, 1994:6)
19
1.1.7 Massification of secondary schooling
This massive expansion that had taken place has created a lot of problems in terms of financial,
material and infrastructure requirements. The fundamental goal of the Ministry of Education is to
ensure that every eligible individual should have access to education of good quality by the year
2015 being one of the Millennium Development Goals (M.D.Gs). According to the M.D.G on
education, it is envisaged that ‘by the year 2015, all the school going primary children should be
able to complete a full course of primary schooling’ (Ministry of Education, 1996:17). To
achieve this goal, the education system requires adequate human, material and financial
resources. While considerable progress has been made in ensuring the human and material
required are made available, the Ministry’s efforts to reach its goal have been inhibited for
several years by mainly inadequacy of funds due to the weakening economy which has resulted
into reduced funding to key sectors of the economy such as education and health. For example,
during 1987 and 1991, at the time when enrolments at all levels continued to grow, the real
public spending on the education sector fell to less than half of what it had been in 1981-1985,
while in 1994 real spending per primary pupil was less than 60% of what it had been in 1985.
Since 1989 annual real spending on the sector has been US$70-80 million for a system which has
some 1.5 million students in the primary schools, 200 000 in the secondary schools and 12 000 in
third level Education (Ministry of Education, 1996:163).
This reduction to the education sector has a lot of implications. One of them is that low funding
to the educational sector coupled with the rapid expansion mentioned earlier, though in the
interest of many parents and politicians, has brought about many problems, which directly affect
the quality of education provided by the system. This is because the expansion referred to has not
corresponded with an expansion of learning facilities and resources such as: teaching materials,
equipment, buildings, furniture and staffing. The result of this imbalance has been a rapid
depreciation of existing facilities due to overuse and increased frustration amongst the teachers
caused by overwork, rises in student indiscipline caused by low motivation and a critical
shortage of teaching and learning materials and equipment (Ministry of Education, 1992:39).
20
The rapid depreciation of education facilities has had an adverse effect on the country’s
education standard so that ‘poor standard… very low standards…’ (Sakala 1994:6) are often the
words on the lips of teachers, lecturers and employers at every transition stage – Grade 8, 10,
First Year of college or university (Sakala ibid). It is not surprising that attempts have been made
to try and provide solutions to the reported low education standards in the country. One way of
achieving this is by finding alternative teaching resources to the course books which are usually
in short supply (Curriculum Development Centre, 1997:4).
In undertaking this study, the researcher was encouraged by a number of studies that have
attributed enhanced English as a second language (ESL) skills by learners where literature has
been used as a basis for ESL teaching communicatively (Elley 2000; Basiga 2009; Butler 2006).
In view of the reported positive research studies and the unprecedented popularity and wide
availability of short story books, the thought of using a collection of short story book, Winners
instead of conventional course books or even in conjunction with commercially available texts
came to mind. It was envisaged that the use of materials designed around a collection of short
story book, Winners would not only provide a solid material base for a course, but would expose
learners to authentic reading and literature, from which, according to my experience, they would
benefit. In doing so, I had in mind the Ministry of Education’s recommendation to use
communicative language teaching (CLT) framework in teaching English as a second language
(Curriculum Development Centre, 1997:2). One of the activities I embarked on therefore was
designing teaching materials based on CLT principles which would act as model to classroom
practitioners.
During my teaching career I have never taught literature in any form to which learners did not
respond positively. Whether it was teaching Things Fall Apart to Grade 11 pupils, analyzing
House Boy with an adult General Certificate of Education class or simply reading A Mother in
Mannville with a group of Grade 10 pupils, learners have always shown a heightened desire to
read, a heightened interest in and an awareness of language use as a result of introducing
literature in classes. The positive results of these efforts strengthened my desire to develop a
course built around a collection of short stories – Winners. The concept of this study was further
generated by the idea of story grammar which explains the relationship between literature, story
21
and grammar. Richards and Schmidt (2002:515) explain the concept of story grammar and
biology determinism as one to which the human brain is wired. This concept generated interest
and the desire for an investigation into the benefits that may be accrued when teaching of English
language skills is based around a literary text instead of course books. This study (therefore), is
an attempt to try and contribute to establishing as to whether English language skills could be
taught communicatively using literature based alternative resources such as short stories.
1.2 The Study
Studies have revealed a number of constraints that teachers in countries where English is either
taught as a second language or foreign language have faced which have affected their effective
teaching of English language skills communicatively. Amongst them is the failure to access
teaching and learning materials designed based on communicative language teaching principles.
This is because, while the syllabus advocates for communicative language teaching, the course
books in use are patterned on the basis of behavioural language teaching theories such as the
audio-lingual approach. The solution therefore lies in equipping the teacher with capacity to
enable him/her to design literature based teaching materials to be able to meet syllabus demands.
This study, therefore, is of relevance in that its main focus is to design teaching materials based
on other alternative sources such as a collection of short stories, ‘Winners’ within the
communicative language teaching framework as suggested in the Senior Secondary School
English Language syllabus. It is the researcher’s hope that teachers in many schools in Zambia
(and elsewhere), some of whom may not have adequate knowledge on how to prepare teaching
materials as suggested in the syllabus, will find the designed materials useful which should act as
a guide in their own (teachers’) preparation of classroom activities in their respective schools
especially those in government-run institutions where paucity of resources is a major problem.
22
1.2.1 Motivation for the study
“Stories give children language experiences that enable them gradually to think
about and comprehend their environment. When language is internalized, it
becomes thought; when thought is externalized, it becomes language” (Basiga
2009:24).
Comments like this are very tempting for a language teacher to gloss-over; more so that they are
from a more reliable source and not simply one that is aimed at promoting someone’s language
material that may be on the market. Elley (2000:234) reports improved English language skills
where teaching of the ESL has been based on story books and other alternative literature related
reading materials while Boshoff (2007:8) reports that majority of Harry Potter’s readers have
claimed that the books have raised their interest in reading other books and have helped
improved their overall school performance. Harry Potter’s series has had huge impact on readers
worldwide and this reading crazy is not limited to children only (Boshoff 2007:8). Based on
these studies, it seemed possible that literature based designed materials and other alternative
texts could contribution to the provision of teaching resources when prescribed course books are
unavailable or do not conform to the communicative language teaching principles.
The majority of English as second language learners that I have taught are unfortunately not very
open to the use of other alternative texts in the language courses. This is mainly due the way
English language skills are taught. Studies have shown that traditional English as a second
language instruction in Zambia focuses on teacher-centred, audio-lingual and examination
oriented approaches that fail to meet pupils’ needs when they communicate with English
speakers (Kashoki 1990:81-87). Training pupils to obtain good grades in the school certificate
examinations become one of the most vital criteria for being a good teacher of English. It is
generally acknowledged that the higher the marks, the higher the pupils’ English proficiency
(Wu 2009:98). However, examination-guided instruction and the premium placed on
grammatical rule explanation have led to the failure in learning real-life communicative English
as has been advocated for in the English language senior secondary syllabus.
23
1.3 Research problem
On first registering for this degree and on recommendation contained in the senior secondary
English language syllabus on the need to use authentic materials such as news paper extracts,
media based teaching materials such as films, literary texts and other subject-based materials in
the teaching of English language skills within the context of communicative language teaching, it
was my intention to investigate to what extent materials designed around a short story book
could replace wholly prescribed course books in syllabus implementation in senior secondary
English as a second language classes in Zambia.
The main problem underlying my research was to investigate the possibility of using other
resources in communicative English language skills’ teaching. An anthology of short stories that
was chosen provided the basis for material design which was used to teach English language
skills in an integrative manner, serving as a source of input for a variety of integrative skills
activities directed at advancing the communicative competence of the experimental group in
comparison with the control group using the prescribed course book. Randomly investigating the
use of other alternative texts in teaching English skills was considered impractical within the
given time frame as there are so many alternative texts available. To make this study practical,
therefore, it was decided to pick on a short story book (Elley, 2000:235, Basiga, 2009:24) and to
focus on that text as a case study representative of other alternative texts in general. The
emphasis of this study is material design and testing based on a single text within communicative
language teaching framework.
My choice of the short story book should not be taken to mean that other alternative texts could
not be used for the same purpose. However, my motivation to choose a short story book,
‘Winners’ arose from the studies Elley (2000:235) reports that confirmed that English language
skills amongst learners could be raised if language programmes were based on short story books.
The focus of this study is to investigate whether the short story based communicative language
teaching materials could suffice as teaching materials for ESL skills in senior secondary classes
in Zambia.
24
1.4 Research Objectives
(i)
The main aim of this study is to ascertain to what extent materials designed around a
collection of short stories entitled ‘Winners’ could be used to meet senior secondary ESL
objectives within the CLT framework.
(ii)
A further aim is to test how the designed materials can be applied according to
what is suggested in the literature in terms of teaching vocabulary, the four
language skills and the main aspect of communicative competence.
1.5 Thesis Statement
The present study examined the feasibility of using literary texts (alternative sources) such as
short story books as an alternative to ESL teaching in senior English classes in Zambia. Material
designed around a literary text was employed to teach English as a second language (skills)
instead of a prescribed course book. The effectiveness of the material produced in meeting
syllabus objectives was investigated. This study was motivated by the following hypothesis:
“Designed teaching materials based on short story books can be used to teach ESL skills
communicatively in senior secondary classes in Zambia in the absence of prescribed course
books (texts)”.
Based on theoretical and empirical studies on the role of literature in ESL teaching, the
researcher expected students taught using materials designed around a literary text such as short
storybooks to do as well as the students following the course of study based on the prescribed
textbook. Given the rationale provided by the schema theory of reading and empirical results in
ESL reading studies, the researcher predicted that if students are given texts with culturally
familiar background, difficulties that are normally experienced by ESL students would be
minimized. The researcher further contends that the benefits of using texts whose themes are
familiar would not only enable students perform well in comprehension but also in other
language skills.
25
1.6 Assumptions
In undertaking this study, the following assumptions were made: it was assumed that if Grade 10
students can learn ESL skills using alternative materials designed around a collection of short
stories, the same can be said to be true for Grades 11 and 12. The last assumption was that since
the subjects involved in the study were a product of the national examinations, they are a good
representative of other Grade 10 pupils not captured in the study but majority of those who
passed through a similar process (national wide).
1.7 Delineation
(i)
This study did not attempt to investigate how literature in English is taught in our
schools.
(ii)
The study did not attempt to analyze and predict the effectiveness of the teaching
materials currently in use (the prescribed course book).
(iii)
This study did attempt to investigate other intervening/extra factors that may have
influenced the results for both the control and the experimental groups. It is possible
that other factors such as psychological and social-cultural may have been at play as
well.
1.8 Limitations
(i)
The success and effectiveness of the designed material can only be measured using Grade
10 pupils.
(ii)
Due to time and financial constraints, the researcher could not do a large-scale study and
opted to do a small scale investigation.
26
1.9 Definition of terms
Key concepts will be defined in this section. The concepts to be defined include: CLT, ESL,
literature, narrative and story, language skills and communicative competence.
(i) English as a second language (ESL)
ESL is an abbreviation for English as a second language. For the purpose of this study, the field
of teaching English to none speakers in general will be referred to as ESL. ESL – English as a
Second Language - a basic term with several somewhat different definitions. According to
Richards and Schmidt (2002:180), ESL refers to a scenario where an individual learns English
after they have learnt their mother tongue.
(ii) Literature, narrative and story
It is important to not only define the three terms: literature, narrative and story but to clarify the
manner in which they overlap and relate to one another other. According to the South African
Concise Oxford Dictionary (Kavanagh and Pearsall 2002:676), literature refers to ‘written
works, especially those considered of superior or lasting artistic merit’. For the purpose of this
study, literature includes modern works of popular fiction and short stories.
Most of what we think of as literature is in narrative form. The word narrative originates from
the Latin narrativus, which means “telling a story’. Although it will be delineated further in later
chapters, on the whole, the South African Concise Oxford Dictionary’s definition of narrative ‘as
an account of connected events; a story” applies (Kavanagh & Pearsall, 2002:773).
Further explanation of narrative entails the defining of story. According to the South African
Concise Oxford Dictionary (Kavanagh & Pearsall, 2002:1158), story is ‘an account of imaginary
or real people told for entertainment … a plot or story line’. As will be made clear in review of
the current research, using story in the form of narrative can lend the same advantages to ESL as
literature can (Boshoff, 2007:15).
27
(iii) Language skills
Language skills are understood to refer to listening, speaking, reading and writing.
(iv) Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Communicative Language Teaching – This is an approach to second language teaching that
emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence. CLT seeks to make
meaningful communication and language-use a focus of all classroom activities (Richards and
Schmidt, 2002:90).
(v) Task-based Language Teaching
This is a teaching approach based on the use of communicative and interactive tasks as the
central units for the planning and delivery of instruction. Such tasks are said to provide an
effective basis for language learning since they involve meaningful communication and
interaction, and negotiation (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:540).
(vi) Literary Text
This includes text books such as short stories, novels, and poetry, magazines and newspapers and
alternative teaching materials.
(vii)
Communicative Competence
Communicative Competence means, ‘knowledge of not only if something is formally possible in
a language, but also the knowledge of whether it is feasible, appropriate, or done in a particular
speech community’ (Richards and Schmidt 2002:90). Communicative competence includes:
“Grammatical competence also referred to as formal competence, which is knowledge of the
grammar, vocabulary, phonology, and semantics of a language”. Communicative competence
also includes sociolinguistic competence or socio-cultural competence which is knowledge of the
28
relationship between language and non-linguistic context, knowing how to use and respond
appropriately to different types of speech acts such as requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations
(Richards and Schmidt, 2002:90).
Having set out the research objectives and the hypothesis of this study and having defined the
relevant terms and concepts, it is fitting to examine the significance of the wider contribution that
the research could have.
1.10 Rationale for the research
The rationale for undertaking this study emanated from the evidence that supports the teaching of
English as a second language through literature. This is because literature and language are
integrated and it is difficult to separate one from the other. Gajdusek (1988:228) argues that any
language teacher of intermediate pupils can use a literary text to develop and achieve
communicative and interactive skills amongst English as second language learners. Apart from
serving as a stimulus for the development of writing and composition skills (Spack 1985),
exploration of literature in the ESL classroom constitutes real content. ESL literature based
course provides a manageable answer to the need for content-based classes when
interdepartmental scheduling is not feasible. In the classroom, literature is a good resource for
communicative language teaching. This is because (according to Gajdusek 1988:229), literature
“encourages talking, active problem solving and it generates purposeful, referential questions”.
Gajdusek (1988) further employs the use of literature in the ESL classroom because, unlike a
course book, literature designed material can be adapted to suit the classroom situation.
The other reason for teaching skills ESL through a literature based ESL course is because it
provides the basis for highly motivated small-group work (Gajdusek 1988:229) and according to
Basiga, it is the most natural approach to teaching the language (Basiga 2009:25). This is
because “a literature based language course does not only develop a love of learning itself, but it
also immerses the pupils into a repertoire of experiences, first hand or vicariously, through a
variety of literary genres” (Basiga 2009:25) and this in turn facilitates an appreciation for and the
acquisition of the English as a second language. In supporting the use of stories in English
29
language teaching, The National Storytelling Association asserts that “stories give children
language experiences that enable them (children) to not only think about their environment but
also to comprehend it”. The reason for this state of affairs is that “when language is internalized
by the learner it eventually becomes thought; and when thought is internalized, it becomes
language” (ibid. 1994:38).
In justifying the teaching of language through literature, The National Storytelling Association
(1994:7) argues that language and intellectual development are closely linked together. This is
because literature “contributes significantly to the development of young children’s thinking and
language development including the understanding of not only the understanding of self and
their world but also their communication skills as well as encouraging positive relationships with
those close to them. Basiga (2009:25) further argues that if the teaching of the English language
is based on literature, this in itself would help in avoiding pitfalls of avoiding the teaching of
English language in what he refers to as didactic and mechanical way. This is because literature
introduces the language in a meaningful manner by providing the “building blocks and structures
– vocabulary, the semantics and syntax necessary for the learner’s self-expression and
communication with others” (Basiga 2009:25). The other justification for basing language
teaching on literature material is that literature enables pupils to find and express meaning
through words.
Another reason why English language can be taught communicatively and successfully using
designed materials based on a short story book is that through literature, children are able to find
appropriate vocabulary and expression to convey their own thoughts and ideas without the
tedious task of analyzing the language and memorizing rules. From the foregoing, it is clear that
literature can serve as a catalyst for further creative uses of the English language. As Basiga
(2009:25) observes, a pupil who is inspired by a poem or dramatization may be encouraged to
create his/her own story or poem or dramatization. In justifying the designing of material based
on literature, Basiga (ibid.) recommends that “literature should be frequent in a classroom that
endeavours to teach English as a second language”.
30
This negative state of affairs can be mitigated if teachers were empowered with skills that can
make them develop own teaching and learning materials as recommended in the syllabus. This
study is therefore important in that it seeks to practically demonstrate how teachers can actually
prepare own materials within a CLT approach to teach ESL skills in the event that they failed to
access prescribed course books. It is an area (as far as the researcher is aware of) that has not
been explored widely in Zambia.
1.11 Contribution of the research
Regardless of the findings, the research hopes to draw attention to the various ways in which
effective ways of teaching English language skills could be achieved using alternative teaching
and learning resources instead of prescribed course books. The study hopes to contribute to the
teaching of English as a second language courses and aims at providing a framework for further
examining the roles that alternative resources can play in language teaching within
communicative teaching framework.
Notwithstanding the outcome, this study hopes to build a strong case not only for inclusion of
alternative texts in English language programmes, but also for the possibility of building an
English as a second language course around alternative texts such as (but not limited to) short
story books. There might be hope for alternative texts in English language teaching after all.
1.12. Chapter over view
Chapter 2 of this study is literature review of relevant research. The chapter first deals with what
exactly the current research considers the role of literature in the language classroom to be
touching on both the historical and current perspectives including the arguments for and against
the inclusion of literature in English as a second language classroom. This is followed by the
main theoretical considerations underlying the application of literature in language classes as
discussed. A closer examination of the practical application of literature in the English as a
second language classroom with specific reference to selection suitable texts, vocabulary
acquisition, the teaching of language skills and communicative competence is discussed. The
31
debate surrounding communicative language teaching is then explored. The chapter is concluded
with a review of selected case studies involving alternative texts in language teaching and
learning.
Chapter 3 is devoted to research methodology. In this chapter, an in-depth look is taken at the
research design of this study as well as at the methodology involved in executing the study. The
research instrument together with detailed procedure for applying the instrument is discussed. In
Chapter 4 the findings and interpretation of the data are presented. In this chapter a reflection is
given of the extent to which alternative texts such as a collection of short stories, Winners
conforms to the expectations that were raised in the literature review in Chapter 2. Chapter 5
starts with a brief summary of the findings. The final conclusion is then discussed, followed by a
summary of the contributions of the study and some suggestions of the further possible further
research.
1.13
Conclusion
The desire to effectively contribute to the teaching of English Language skills by designing
teaching materials (within CLT framework) as core materials in the syllabus implementation in
order to benefit the learners and subsequent difficulties experienced in executing the plan
highlighted the fact that this aspect being investigated lacks adequate research literature material.
While this deficit may be understandable within the logistical constraints of mainstream ESL
teaching, it is not all understandable in view of the potential benefits that are lost through none
availability of teaching materials and through the exclusion of literature. The lack of prescribed
course books in most schools to serve as the sources of teaching materials for ESL seems to be a
glaring short fall in the composition of mainstream ESL courses, and merits a closer
investigation and finding a solution to. In order to test the hypothesis of the current research
regarding the practicability of implementing the teaching of ESL skills (wholly)
communicatively based on the materials designed based on a short story text, this study will set
out to find out to what extent ESL skills can be taught within CLT framework based on the short
storybook. The next chapter reviews available literature and theoretical assumptions on this
subject.
32
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Literature can serve as a catalyst for further creative uses of the English
language. A child who is inspired by a poem or a story may be encouraged to
create his /her own story or poem or dramatization. Other feelings stirred by
literature may lead to the conception of other literary pieces. Opportunities to
experience literature should be frequent in a classroom that endeavours to
teach English as a second language.
(Basiga 2009:25)
This statement made in a North American country in 2009 is as relevant today to the Zambian’s
situation as it was to a North American (then) when it was made. After a brief survey of the
changing attitude to the relationship between English language and literature since the mid1960s, an attempt will be made to represent the scope of discussion especially during the last two
decades. This latter period has witnessed, on both sides of the language/literature divide, a
growing interest in the idea of integration. An exhaustive annotated bibliography of everything
that has been written on the topic is clearly beyond the scope of the present study.
Literature pertaining to the present study is reviewed in this chapter. The review has been
divided into several sections which relate to various aspects of this study which include amongst
other areas arguments against and in support of the inclusion of literature in ESL programme,
teaching ESL skills through literature as a resource, literary texts and development of ESL skills
to name but a few. It has been recognized by many researchers that literature offers potential
benefits for English as a second language (ESL). The study of language through literature as a
‘vehicle’ can help students master the vocabulary and grammar of that language as well as the
four language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking (Stern 1987:47). Despite this
potential, the use of literature materials as a ‘vehicle’ for teaching communicative skills has,
however, been received with a lot of apprehension due to a number of reasons discussed in
33
section 2.2.1. As a result very few schools in Zambia (if any) have tried to use other resources
other than the prescribed course books in their teaching of ESL skills (Kashoki 1990:81-87). It is
against this background that an attempt was made to try and investigate the use of a short story
text as a resource for material design to teach English a second language in senior ESL classes in
Zambia. It is important to put into context what we mean by literature and a brief historical
background on the teaching approaches in relation to the place of literature as a resource in an
ESL programme is worth mentioning.
2.2
Literature in the language classroom –historical perspective
Many writers have commented on the changing attitudes to the inclusion of literature in an ESL
language context. A convenient summary is offered by Durant (1993:150-171) and Butler
(2006:45) who distinguish three phases through which the teaching of literature in an ESL
classroom has passed. The first phase is what they refer to as the ‘traditional phase’. During this
period, the study of literature was seen as the ultimate goal of all language teaching and was
given a consequently high status. The second phase which occurred in the 1960s and 1970s saw
a dramatic change as literature was down-graded if not entirely excluded from language courses
which became increasingly functional in their orientation. The third, which Durant (1993:150155) describes as characterized by ‘discourse stylistics approaches’ emerged in the late 1970s
and 1980s and was a reaction against the functionalism of the previous phase. There was once
again a place for literature in ESL classroom. The approach was however, now significantly
different: literature was studied in conjunction with other kinds of non-literary discourse, and
presented in various innovative ways.
Durant’s (1993) broad outline is also generally indicative of trends in ESL teaching
internationally. This is evident in a survey of publications in scholarly and professional journals
over the last forty years. Many publications in the 1960s and 1970s (Durant’s second phase)
attest to the complete separation of language and literature teaching. Topping (1968) rejects the
use of literary texts in the ESL classrooms on the grounds that it does not improve language
proficiency and does not provide students with cultural exposure and is not wanted by them
anyway. Arthur (1968:199) mentions the reluctance of language teachers to include literature and
34
literature materials in the syllabus, while Allen (1976:17) notes the deep division between
linguistics and literature.
Such attitudes are succinctly and forcefully summed up by Blatchford (1972:16) who rejects the
study of English literature as a “luxury that cannot be indulged, an expensive jig-saw”. It is far
more important, he insists, that students be given every opportunity to develop communication
skills. Blatchford (ibid.) qualifies these sweeping statements with an acknowledgement that they
might not hold in all situations, such as where English is taught as a second language rather than
foreign language. His stance, nevertheless, seems to have been representative of a pervasive
attitude amongst writers and practitioners in the field thirty to forty years ago that literature and
studies based on literary materials were irrelevant to the teaching of English as a second
language (Butler 2006:46). Their position was, ironically enough, as Durant (1993) suggests, in
explaining the earlier view that regarded basing ESL teaching on literary texts as the principal
justification for learning a language. Strevens (1977:60), describing then current British English
language teaching practice, makes this clear when he argues that “over the past twenty five
years, the strength of this justification has evaporated; nowadays, a much stronger justification
for learning English is provided by evident usefulness of having a practical, communicative
command of the language”.
Despite this general tendency, there were also, even then, voices claiming a place for literature in
the language classroom. Holland (1973), referring specifically to the teaching of ESL in South
Africa, argues for the inclusion of literature on psychological and linguistic grounds. Marckwardt
(1978:19) and Basiga (2009:24-29) argue that there is a justification and profitable place in ESL,
adding that ‘the place and purpose of a literary component with the English curriculum will
differ with the place and purpose of teaching English’.
It is quite clear from this debate that within the paradigm of communicative language teaching,
there are arguments for and against the inclusion of literature and literary materials in ESL
syllabuses. Both points of view will be discussed here.
35
2.2.1 Arguments against inclusion of literature in ESL programme
There are many reasons to explain why literature was excluded in the ESL courses. However,
since it is not the focus of this study, only few will be mentioned.
One of the critics of the inclusion of literature in the ESL programmes is Topping (1968:95).
Topping is against the use of literature in ESL classroom and actively pleads for its exclusion on
the grounds of what he refers to as ‘its structural complexity, lack of conformity to standard
grammatical rules and remote cultural perspective’. Cook (1986:150) supports Topping arguing
that the study of literary English is often unsuited to the needs of foreign students since
mastering literary texts “has little relevance to the learners’ aim of understanding and producing
more functional forms of the language”. This supports Blatchford’s (1972:6) take on literature in
SL classrooms as a “luxury that cannot be indulged if learners have to be given a functional
command of English to enable them to deal with simple language situations”. Burke and Brumfit
(1986:173-174) also suggest that “literature be taught as a completely separate subject area from
the English language”.
Another reason that contributed to the banishing of literature and literature materials from the
ESL classroom is the way English language was taught to foreign students. Most of the methods
were based on what is referred to as ‘structural approaches’ (Gajdusek (1988:27). The structural
approaches to language learning, with their emphasis on discrete-point teaching, ‘correctness’ in
grammatical form and repetition of a range of graded structures, restricted lexis, represented a
methodology unsuited to literature teaching. This is the more reason why such methods wherever
they have been used have failed to accommodate literary texts because literary texts are
perceived to contain ungraded and ‘ungrammatical structures’ (Shaaban 2006:377-403;
1997:165-174; Brumfit and Carter, 1986:42). In supporting this view, Cook (1986:150) says that
it is the “very deviation from the English grammatical and lexical usage which lends excellence
to literature that can only aid in confusing foreign learners”.
The third reason (related to the one mentioned above) concerns lack of consistent methodology.
For a long time, literature teaching has lacked a consistent methodology for the presentation to
36
non-native speakers of English. It has been observed that too often, literary texts have been
presented with great enthusiasm as if to native speakers, with the result that, learners have been
too busy writing in translations of unfamiliar words to respond to the text (Shanahan 1997:165174).
Other researchers such as Edmondson (1997), for example, have expressed scepticism at the
claims made for literature in developing language competence. His argument is, however, not
against the inclusion of literature and literary texts in language courses per se, but rather against
the belief that it has an essential component that can aid ESL learners. Even in more recent years,
the third period in Durant’s (1993) outline, nearly all writers advocating the use of literature in
ESL classrooms have prefaced their discussion with an acknowledgement of the widely held
belief that literature does not have a place in language pedagogy. They implicitly defend
themselves against anticipated objections by pointing to current changes in thinking (for
example, Povey 1980; Tomlinson 1986; Gajdusek 1988). As recent as 2000, Bates (2000c:13)
sees it necessary to argue that poetry, for example, is not, as is often supposed, completely
removed from learning or teaching a language:
In fact, poetry can handle all kinds of experience connected with ESL and
irradiate the experience, providing thought or comic relief, making the
experience more real, and perhaps making the language learning more creative
(Bates 2000c:13).
In the same year, Belcher and Hirvela (2000) writing specifically of the inclusion of literature in
ESL courses, show that this is still a matter of fierce debate (Butler 2006:47). Maley (2001:180)
confirms that the divide was still evident in the following year (2001), especially at college and
university level.
For literature teachers, the initiative for the integration with language has also had a more
pragmatic basis. Although Butler (ibid) and Durant’s (1993) model of three phases was
conceived from the point of view of the language teacher, it is equally valid from the perspective
of the development of literary studies. Traditionally, as in the first phase, the study of literature
was seen as an end in itself. This position has, however, become increasingly difficult to justify.
37
The acknowledgement by both language and literature teachers that their disciplines can
complement rather than oppose each other leads naturally to the idea of teaching one through the
other, and the educational benefits to be gained from it. In the following section the possibilities
and advantages of teaching ESL using literature materials such as short story books are explored
and examined in more detail.
2.2.2 Argument for the inclusion of literature in ESL programme
The possibility of teaching ESL through ‘literature’ are captured succinctly by Carter (1985:9)
and Tomlinson (1985:9) in two articles in the EFL Gazette, under the shared heading of
‘Language through literature and literature through language’. The phrase suggests two
contrasting pedagogical foci (‘language’ and ‘literature’). As Butler (2006:49) puts it ‘the
symmetrical reversal of the elements on either side of the conjunction neatly encapsulates the
mutual benefits of integration’. Their catch-phrase has been taken up in numerous studies (for
example, Bassnett & Grundy 1993; Simpson 1997) and this will also be used as a means of
categorization in this study.
A number of scholars have argued in favour of using literature as resource in the teaching of ESL
(language through literature). For example, Tomlinson (1985:9), Basiga (2009) and Butler
(2006:49) have suggested a number of benefits to be derived if this approach was to be used.
They argue that poems, stories, extracts from plays, novels and autobiographies’ can involve
students as individual human beings who can gain exposure to authentic English as well as
opportunities to develop communication skills as a result of motivated interaction with texts and
with their fellow students. This is what this study is trying to explore. Butler (2006:49) observes
that “language through literature has includes using literary texts as resources for grammar
teaching and raising language awareness”. Scholars have generally agreed that the interaction of
language and literature has a positive rather than a negative effective on the teaching and
learning of both components (see, for example, Carter and Long 1991:101; Stern 1991:330).
Various specific claims have been made about the benefits of integrating language and literature,
whether the focus is on language or literature. Butler (2006: 50), for example has classified them
38
as ‘language through literature’ and ‘literature through language’. Since the focus for the current
study is on the former, this is the only aspect that will be discussed here.
The teaching of language through literature means the teaching of ESL with literature or literary
materials as the means by which this is to be achieved. Language learning is understood by
writers advocating this approach in a number of ways: for some, it is the mastery and application
of the structures and forms of pedagogical grammar and the acquisition of vocabulary; for others,
it means the development of communicative competence; still others are concerned with a more
reflective knowledge about language or language awareness. Some approaches will encompass
all these elements of language learning; others will concentrate on one or some of them (Butler
2006:50).
For most writers, a literature based approach to language teaching also involves a reconceptualization of both the term ‘literature’ and the motivation for teaching it. In this way they
attempt to counter the argument usually put forward for not including literary works in an ESL
context. The definition of ‘literature’ is extended beyond the traditional canon of ‘great works’
(Heath 1996:776; Martin 2000:11; Hanauer 2001:297) and is presented, often somewhat
controversial (for example, Povey 1979:163), as a resource to be exploited, rather than as
something to be studied in its own right and for its own sake. In defining literature this way, they
aim at removing the intimidating mystique that sometimes surrounds literature in the classroom.
It becomes, in the memorable title of McRae’s (1991) book, “literature with a small ‘l’, taken
down from its pedestal”. Thus Widdowson (1983:31), while arguing in favour of the value of
teaching ESL through literature adds that this does not necessarily mean ‘good literature’.
Similarly, Pereira (1976:35), speaking in the context of Afrikaans-medium high schools in South
Africa, suggests that appealing to the readers’ own interests is more important than teaching the
‘great classics’. A number of scholars, amongst them Butler (2006) and Basiga (2009), have
defended and justified the use of literature as a resource in ESL classroom. The following are
some of the reasons advanced.
In supporting the inclusion of literature in ESL classroom, proponents of the use of literature in
ESL classroom have argued that literature provides a resource or authentic context for the
39
teaching of grammar and vocabulary. The most frequently cited reason for using literary texts
and related materials for teaching language in an ESL classroom pedagogy is that literary texts
can be a good vehicle for teaching grammar and vocabulary. Stern (1987:47), Povey (1967: 42)
and Basiga (2009) all agree that the study of literature can extend the pupils’ knowledge of
vocabulary and syntax. Sowden (1987:28) suggests that literary texts can be used in teaching
language “by linguistic manipulation of literary texts chosen for their real literary worth, but with
an eye to their suitability for such manipulation”. He goes on to list examples of manipulation
exercises that include cloze test, vocabulary recognition and development, grammar
reinforcement and extension, sentence building and pronunciation practice. These, he claims,
“will challenge the student, ensuring s/he completely gets involved in the language and style of
the text, so increasing his familiarity with the language and improving the facility and accuracy
with which he uses it” (Sowden, 1987:32).
Similar claims can be linked to the renewed interest in the teaching of grammar within a broadly
communicative approach. What distinguishes this from the older pre-communicative language
teaching (CLT) methods is the importance of an authentic and meaningful context (Carter 1990).
Thus Helfrich (1993) uses fables as resources to illustrate and practise basic language structures.
Supporting the use of short stories in the teaching of ESL skills, Karant (1994:3) argues that
while “students may have problems remembering unrelated sentences; they tend to remember
stories’. Similarly, Deacon and Murphy (2001:23) present stories as a context for learning new
vocabulary and language forms, engaging ‘our narrative minds in the service of language
learning in the classroom”. Most of these writers promote the idea of creating literary texts as a
means of practising the grammatical structures. This approach is exploited to great effect by
Spiro (2000) and Holmes & Moulton (2001) who propose simple poetry as a way of teaching and
practising grammatical structures. The other issue that is important to language learning is the
aspect of motivation.
The second reason cited by those who advocate for the use of literature in ESL classroom is that
the use of short stories as resource provides motivation for language learning. They claim that
different types of literary materials can be used to provide context for language teaching and the
40
unique suitability of literary texts is, however, implied in the following: “Teaching language
through literature has a lot of linguistic benefits” (Butler 2006:54) and that “through its appeal to
the imagination, literature can motivate and stimulate learners” (Elliot 1990:191), and “so act as
an aid to language acquisition” (Tomlinson 1986:33). This is because, as Basiga (20009:26)
explains, “our parents’ effort to expose us to literature through reading material and through
storytelling made us become enthusiastic about learning to read and to acquire new knowledge”.
Those who advocate for the use of literature in ESL classes contend that the themes and plots of
literary works provide stimuli for oral language activities which develop the learner’s linguistic
and communicative competence (Butler 2006:52). Equally, researchers and proponents who
support the use of literature as resource for teaching ESL skills have suggested the use of themes
and plots of literary works as a basis for oral language activities as they provide stimuli for oral
language work. For example, Butler (2006:52) observes that some literature based language
work can help stimulate the development of communicative skills, rather than the
acknowledgement of forms and functions emphasized earlier in statement. Here again, the role
that literature as a resource and a point of departure for various language activities designed to
promote communication in the classroom cannot be over emphasized. Thus Collie and Slater
(1987:10) describe their overall aim of integrating language and literature as “to let the student
derive the benefits of communicative and other activities for language improvement within the
context of suitable works of literature”. Tomlinson (1986:41) suggests that poetry “can break
down the barriers and involve learners in thinking, feeling and interacting in ways which are
conducive to language acquisition”. Numerous course books adopt this approach, often in the
form of extension activities following on from others that involve textual analysis (for example,
Maley & Duff 1989). Fonseca (2006) uses literature as a springboard for creative writing and
Kim (2004) argues that “literature discussions can promote language development”.
The claim that “literature provides learners with authentic models for the norms of language use”
(Tomlinson 1985:9) is the forth reason those who advocate for its use in language teaching and
learning advance. Basiga (2009:24-29), for example, argues that the above claim has its roots in
the communicative approach to language teaching and once again the literary text is viewed
primarily as a resource through which the goal of communicative competence can be achieved.
41
Tomlinson (1985:9) refers to the ‘rich exposure to authentic English’ that literary texts provide.
Similarly, Butler (2006) refers to ‘real language, such as that found in literature’. The statement
needs to be treated with some caution, however. Insofar as literary text is one of the many kinds
of authentic text, the mastery of which is necessary for the competent user of the language, the
statement is not controversial, except in terms of the degree of importance attached to it in
overall language competence (Blatchford 1972:6). It is in this sense that Widdowson (1973) sees
literature as a communicative act, one among many others. A more debatable claim is that the
literary text, with its fictional characters and situations, can provide learners with a vicarious
experience of how real people use language in everyday life. Supporting the role drama plays in
language development, Butler (2006) argues that drama, with its natural-sounding conversation
can provide a model for spoken English, a view shared by McRae (1987) and Robinson (2005).
Butler (2006:56) reports on a study Watts conducted amongst Ghanaian students. He describes
how, in a project involving Ghanaian students, their use of grammar actually improved as a
result of exposure to poetry. Lazar (1990) argues that the way in which poetry typically subverts
the norms of language use can, in fact, be used to develop students’ language awareness.
Parkinson (1990), while also acknowledging the problems that linguistic deviance in poetry
presents for the non-native pupils, argues that they can be overcome. Boggs (1997:64) goes
further by arguing that the very creativity of literary texts is a sign of authenticity, in contrast to
the bland ‘correctness’ of specially written ESL textbooks. Supporting Boggs, Butler observes
that:
The literary text is refreshingly different. Any observer of language will see
how idiosyncratic and creative people can be in their individual use of
language, whether in casual conversation or texts in magazines: words
frequently take on meaning unique to that particular text or context of use. In
their creativity and their apparent breaking of language rules, literary texts
reflect the norms of language and it is in their strict observance of the
apparent rules that ESL texts are false. Literary texts reflect the norms of
language; it is the ESL texts which are deviant (Butler 2006:56).
42
Researchers such as Hanaur 2001:320), contend that literature assists learners in developing
overall language awareness and knowledge about language. Proponents of the use of literature
materials to teach ESL skills have suggested that literature assist learners in developing language
awareness and what they term ‘knowledge about language’ (Hanaur 2001:3230). According to
Richards & Schmidt (2002:286), Language Awareness (LA) “seeks to stimulate curiosity about
language and to provide links among the different kinds of language experiences children
encounter in school”. Examples include (amongst others) literature and Science. Many writers
see the traditional blurring of the distinction between language and literature as a perfect
opportunity for raising awareness of the nature of language itself through literature. Hanauer
(2001:320) for example suggests that poetry can be used in the ESL classroom to focus attention
on formal language structures, “a task that can enhance linguistic and cultural knowledge of the
target language”. Wales (1990:97) sees stylistics, as simultaneously offering a ‘way in’ to
literature study and an opportunity to sharpen language awareness. Similar claims have been
made by Lima (2005), in his treatment of literature as a form of discourse, he further argues that
the language awareness that students develop as a result of this approach assists in the process of
language acquisition.
The sixth reason proponents of the use of literature in the second language classroom have
advanced is that literature helps develop learners’ interpretive and analytical skills. Basiga
(2009:24-29) and Widdowson (1983:31) see the benefits of teaching language through literary
texts from a pedagogical perspective. Its use derives from the process of literary study and
analysis, rather than from the linguistic resources in the text itself. Widdowson (1983:31) argues
that because literature does not usually conform to conventional language schemata, the
procedures that the learner has to use to make sense of literary discourse are more obvious: this,
as stated earlier, “helps develop the learners’ interpretative and analytical skills… which can be
applied to other language-related activities”. Martin (2000:11) takes up the argument with
regard to poetry. She argues that poetry develops the pupils’ abilities rather than just providing
them with knowledge about language. The process is also motivating: “the confidence gained in
one’s own-problem solving strategies is probably at least as important as the results of
interpretations themselves” (Martin 2000:11).
43
Proponents of the use of literature in the language classroom have argued that the study of
literature educates the ‘whole person’ in a way that more functional approaches to language
teaching do not (Butler 2006:58). Arguments of this kind can be seen as part of the historical
reaction against the functional approaches that characterized Durant’s (1993) second phase:
implicit in them is the assumption that “language learning involves more than acquiring specific
intellectual skills” (Butler 2006:58). Adamson et al. (1999:112) seem to have this in mind when
they make a case for connecting ESL and poetry.
Poetry has a sense of permanence and performance not afforded to a
letter, memo or other communicative classroom exercise. It also gives
permission to intimate feelings which don’t necessarily have a place
elsewhere in the language classroom. For these reasons, language
learners have much to offer poetry, and poetry has to offer them.
French (1979), writing of ESL in South Africa, arrives at a similar conclusion in answering his
own rhetorical question, “Why teach English poetry in an ESL course?” English, he suggests,
“should not simply be taught for technical purposes: learners gain insight into humanity via
poetry, as well as gaining a sense of ownership of the language” (French 1979:44).
Having looked at what available literature has to say on the benefits of teaching English
language through the use of literary materials, it is important that we look at the theoretical
assumptions supporting the use of literary materials in ESL classrooms. This is discussed in the
next section.
2.3
Theoretical Considerations supporting use of literary materials
Several theoretical considerations underlie the use of literary texts in the ESL classroom.
However, for the purpose of this study, only the theory of ‘story grammar’ (Richards & Schmidt
2002:515) will be discussed here. The theory of story grammar was chosen due to the close
relationship that exists among literature, narrative and story which are all relevant to this study.
44
2.3.1 The schematic structure of short stories (story grammar)
One of the ways in which language is learnt from short stories such as ‘Winners’ is due to the
unique characteristics of story grammar, which is defined by Richards and Schmidt (2002:515)
as “a theory of the cognitive representation of narrative texts, including simple stories, folktales,
fables and narratives”. In supporting the suitability of short stories in ESL teaching, Butler
(2006) posits that some or all characteristics of the structure of stories is said to be incorporated
into people’s knowledge system as a SCHEMA for stories. This describes the elements common
to most stories, the kinds of situations, events, actors, actions and goals that occur in stories and
the inter-relationships among the elements of a story. According to Richards and Schmidt
(2002:515), “people access story grammar consciously or unconsciously when encountering
different types of stories”. This serves as a source of prediction, inference, comparison,
evaluation in understanding and following stories and narrative.
Randell is a children’s author who has sold more than 25 million books around the world and
whose books are mainly for use with 5-, 6- and 7- year old observes children who are learning to
read. Randell (1999:3) observes that traditional stories have two main elements. Firstly, there is a
central character or characters that has or have a problem and secondly, the problem is resolved.
To refine this simple concept of story, there is also the climax, or the pivotal moment in a story,
which means the story has three parts: the tension created by the problem, the pivotal of crisis
and finally the resolution of the problem. This ‘recipe’ for story is very old and is the same
recipe used by Homer and by Aesop more than 2 500 years ago (Randell 1999:3). It is the same
recipe used in great works of literature like the plays of Shakespeare.
While the use of novels and other extended pieces of literature such as Shakespeare’s plays
might not be possible in most ESL classes due to the kind of language used which may pose a
big challenge to pupils whose mother tongue is not English, the use of that same recipe in the
form of shorter narratives is a viable possibility. While most commercially available textbooks
do not contain components on extended literature (since they are not meant to be literature
books), it is possible for textbooks to make use of shorter narrative texts in order to tap into story
45
grammar and thus derive the same kinds of benefits that might be derived from the teaching of
ESL based on literary texts.
The use of traditional story structure, or narrative, has many advantages that can exploited in the
teaching of English language skills in the ESL classroom: “it is highly motivational in that
learners want to continue reading in order to find out what happens next; the conclusion is
usually satisfying to readers, it allows for the development of logical thought processes and it
requires proper and precise use of language” (Randell 1999:3). From high literature to traditional
stories to modern science-fiction stories all tap into the same narrative structure and can therefore
be applied successfully for language teaching purposes (Yang 2001:63-72).
Justifying the use of short story in ESL teaching, Cate (1977:25) posits that telling tales and
indulging in literature, “is a habit that seems as integral a part of our nature as breathing and
sleeping.’ Britton (1977:40) refers to humans as deliberate ‘proliferators of images”. He observes
that “stories read and told to children give them the ‘age-old inheritance’ of their culture –
whatever they make of it – and the templates, patterns, and symbolic outlines for their personal
story-making”. Many other studies touch on the schematic structure of story and its influence on
comprehension (Kintsch & Van Dijk 1978; Mandler & Johnson 1977; Boshoff 2007).
Story grammar is not merely an aid to comprehension. Meek (1995:6) notes that stories allow
children to be “intensely preoccupied with the present while teaching them verb tenses of the
past and the future”. Ghosn (2002:172-177) is in agreement and states that the familiar “story
grammar of stories provides an ‘ideal context for verb tense acquisition”.
Literary texts can be used as a basis for exemplification of grammatical points, too. Ghosn
(2004:109) observes that literary texts contain many particular grammatical points which may
seem conspicuous in a text designed for language teaching. As can be seen from the above
example, using a literary text is one of the best ways to show pupils how to reply and react in
certain situations which cannot or may not be included in language teaching courses. A literary
work can also demonstrate unexpected situations and proper responses and answers which
cannot be illustrated in a class environment. Tarakcioglu (2003:216) observes that, “in literary
46
writing, it is common to find instances of language use which cannot be accounted for by
grammatical rules” but which can be very useful and common in everyday use.
It is clear therefore, that a literary text helps the learners to gain and expand articulacy, accuracy,
and fluency in the target language by improving their linguistic competence. Carter and Long
(1991:217) claim that teaching ESL through literature is essential and indispensable “for the
development of necessary capacities of close reading, analysis and detailed, language-based
interpretation” since “once one text has been read accurately then greater fluency will ensue”.
This means that by reading literary pieces intensively and extensively, students improve their
skills related to their linguistic skills, because a literary work of art can be considered to be an
ideal piece on which many grammatical items can be modelled and studied.
Through a literary text, pupils get familiarized with not only vocabulary and structures but the
variety of their application in different situations as well. In this way, students manage to express
themselves in a variety of ways articulately and appropriately. Besides, their expressions may
well get more fluent since they are supposed to acquire an extensive store of words as well as a
wide range of grammatical rules, variations, deviations and forms, because literature
demonstrates all-inclusive, wide-ranging, complete, and discerning vocabulary usage as well as
convoluted literal syntax. Tarakcloglu (2003:217) argues that while other styles show recurrent
features, literature is distinguished by what he calls “pattern”. This is because in a literary text, it
(the text) will show selection and arrangement of items that contribute to the total effect;
“...elements that would be absent or incidental in other styles are important for the fulfilment of
the purpose…. Figures of rhetoric will give unusual prominence to certain items… the use of
special devices which heighten the effect of linguistic acts through patterning” Tarakcloglu
(2003:217).
Spack (1985:705) who has done studies in the area of ESL teaching and the value of literature in
an ESL situation argues that the linguistic difficulty of literature has been overstated as readers
do not need to experience total comprehension to gain something from the text. In fact, literature,
with its extensive and connotative vocabulary and its complex syntax, can expand all language
skills (Spack, 1985:705). Apart from the obvious advantages that story grammar can hold for
47
language learning, there are other aspects to fantasy in children’s stories which can aid in the
acquisition of language. The next section will focus on ‘meaning in stories’.
2.3.2 Meaning in stories
Elley and Mangubhai (1983:54) identify three main reasons why first language (L1) acquisition
takes place at a much faster rate than second language (L2) acquisition. The three reasons that
they give are: “strength of motivation, emphasis on meaning rather than form and the amount of
exposure to the language in question” (1983:54). They suggest that in order to make L2 learning
more effective, teachers should try to reduce these differences between L1 and L2 acquisition
and suggest that this can be done through the use of “an abundance of high-interest, illustrated
story books, printed in the target language” (ibid).
Elley and Mangubhai (ibid) further hold that:
Good books provide strong intrinsic motivation for children and an emphasis on
meaning rather than form. When read often, these books increase exposure to the
target language. They become the basis for discussion about the pictures and the
story. Through expressive activities, the stories assist children to learn naturally,
from context and provide excellent models of written English (Elley & Mangubhai
1983:54)).
These findings support the earlier findings of Cohen (1968:212) that children who were read to
everyday gained over a control group (who were not read to) in vocabulary, word knowledge,
reading comprehension and quality of vocabulary. Other studies have shown that elementary
school students who regularly listen to stories being read aloud show measurable gains in reading
and listening skills (Elley 1980; Elley 1989:176; Elley 2000). Ghosn (2002:174) agrees and
suggests including pictures, which should be pleasing while clarifying the text and providing
“opportunity for discussion in which the key vocabulary can be exploited”.
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Studies that have been done to investigate the effect of extensive reading on language acquisition
have revealed that learners unambiguously preferred story books while information-based books
did not elicit very favourable reactions. Elley and Mangubhai’s study (1983) on the influence of
extensive reading on language acquisition found that “entertainment value” of the text motivated
readers to read compared to the education value. Elley (1989:176) and Boshoff (2006:29) deduce
that children would learn and retain more from activities that are as entertaining as listening to
stories being read aloud than from “working at contrived exercises”. If an appealing 8-10
minutes story, read three times, with only brief explanation of word meanings, can produce 40%
gains in vocabulary for typical children, there are clearly good linguistic grounds for increasing
this activity, over and above the recreational and cultural reasons for doing so (ibid:186).
Studies have further revealed that generally children find literature very interesting. In
supporting this assertion, Ghosn (2002:174) mentions three characteristics of story which
conform to the theory of natural language acquisition. Making a case for a literature based
language course, Ghosn (2002) observes that “literature is not only interesting to children, but
also facilitates integration of the language skills” and often offers “predictable yet natural
language” through which word recognition, as well as opportunities for authentic reading and
writing may be promoted and that literature offers language which is not “grammatically
sequenced”.
Allowing learners to make meaning is one of the communicative language teaching strategies, so
where story and story structure provide such opportunities, there is a strong case for the use of
literary texts such as short story books in the ESL classroom as a basis for CLT. How to select a
short story book is what will be discussed in the following section. It must be mentioned that
teachers are often responsible for not only needs analysis, but for the actual selection of texts
through choosing, editing, modifying and even designing suitable materials (Eskeys & Grabe
1988:229). There are many guidelines in the literature as to the selection of suitable narrative
texts.
49
2.4
General Guidelines for text selection
Nuttall (1982:25) cites readability, suitability of content and exploitability as the three main
things to be considered when selecting a text for material design for the purpose of teaching ESL
skills through short stories. Under suitability of content, she mentions some very specific,
relevant issues to take into consideration when selecting a text. The following are some of the
questions that should be addressed: Will the text tell learners things they do not already know
and make them think of things they have not thought of before? Will it help them develop
understanding for the way people with different problems, attitudes and backgrounds than their
own think and feel? Will the text inspire learners to want to read further on their own? She poses
the question of whether the text challenges learners’ intelligence while not making unreasonable
demands on their foreign knowledge (Nuttall 1982:30).
2.4.1 Difficulty level of texts (language versus content)
Brookes (1989:10) found that while learners had difficulty with texts that were relatively easy in
terms of structure and vocabulary, they seemed to have much less trouble with a complicated text
such as Conrad’s The Lagoon. She attributes this to the learners being able to identify with the grand
universal themes such as (but not limited to) fear, courage and love used by Conrad which made it
possible for the learners to successfully handle large amounts of vocabulary and syntax that might
otherwise have been impossible for them to deal with. Johnson (1982:514) feels that a very high
percentage of difficult vocabulary would be necessary in order to have a significant influence on
reading comprehension and that normal text redundancy will enable learners deal with unfamiliar
words with it interfering too much with their comprehension. General background knowledge of
topic and theme of a text allows learners to construct meanings for unknown vocabulary items.
Ghosn (2002:174) suggests making use of universal themes such us “fear, courage, hope, love,
belonging, and the need to achieve”. These findings tie with schema theory which states that:
Reading is an active two way process of matching incoming data with our existing
knowledge, not only of the language system, but of the world. We organize this
knowledge into conceptually coherent systems called schemata and interpret or
50
understand incoming language signals by matching them to these schemata. Additionally
and simultaneously, we use the meaning thus produced and the schemata activated by the
incoming data to predict and interpret subsequent incoming data signal. Thus,
comprehension never occurs in a vacuum, and the reader’s prior knowledge, experience,
and even emotional state are an important part of the process by which meaning is
actively created (Gajdusek 1988:231).
Cody (1979:12) feels that strong semantic input together with background knowledge can
compensate for a weakness for syntactic ability and that interesting enough subject matter will
overcome any syntactic difficulty that learners may have. Eskey (1988:96) does not agree with
this view. He feels that if a learner is not familiar with the language of a text, no amount of
background knowledge will enable understanding. However, the researcher feels that where
narratives are considered too difficult or too long for learners, they are often modified by means
of simplification, abridgement or the use of extracts. These methods are commonly applied in L2
readers and textbooks and this merits closer inspection.
2.4.2 Simplification and abridgement
Povey (1987:56) bemoans the fact that it is assumed with very little empirical evidence that
learners find shorter words and sentences easier to read than longer ones. However, a number of
studies have shown that semantically oversimplified texts can impede reading comprehension.
Devine (1988:272) recommends that beginning L2 learners should be exposed to texts which
allow “complete self-contained examples of actual written language”. Adeyanju (1978:136),
Nuttall (1982:31), Moyra (1992:41) and Widdowson (1982:205) all support this argument as
does Vincent, who argues that reduction, an essential feature of simplification, may have a
negative impact: “[In text simplification], the original book is shortened, the number of
characters, situations, and events cut, the vocabulary restricted, and the use of structures
controlled. More significantly, perhaps, any unusual use of language (idiom, metaphor, allusion)
ends to be ruthlessly expunged, and any ambiguity or uncertainty in the text resolved” (Vincent,
1986:211).
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Boshoff (2007:40) refers to simplification as an “act that does unwanted violence to the author’s
intent and lulls the reader into a false sense of security” while Honeyfield (1977:434-435) labels
the product of simplification as “homogenized”, containing “diluted” information and thus
making no contribution to developing reading skills.
Abridgement, as type of simplification, does not receive much support either. Marckwart
(1978:57-59) compared The invisible Man by H.G Wells to an abridgement of it done by
Williams (1959). While there are some gains in terms of “ease reading” and the speed at which
the book can be completed, Marckwardt (1978:59) found the result of the abridgement to be a
‘loss of virtually all concrete, descriptive detail, and a reduction to whatever bare statements are
necessary to keep the narrative moving’.
2.4.3 Extracts
When it comes to the use of extract selected from short stories or any literary texts, Cook
(1986:164) provides several guidelines, namely that extracts should not create “false texture”
allowing for interpretations which seem true within the extract but are false in the context of the
whole. Cook (ibid) further argues that extracts should be introductory and not continuing or
conclusive; should have “internally created moods” which do not show “unusual or peripheral
facets” of characters; should not be chosen on literary merit and should not be rich in allusions to
information provided in preceding text. Instead of any of the above, Hirvela (1990:245) suggests
that texts to be chosen should be short enough to be viably taught within the given amount of
time, and also for learners to read without “undue expenditure of time and effort”. Next to the
difficulty level, a factor that carries much weight in the selection of suitable texts is that of the
cultural consideration.
2.4.4 Cultural consideration in text selection
It is widely agreed that L2 students have a better understanding of texts based on their own
culture than of texts based on other cultures. This is thought to be true even if culturally different
texts may be of equal difficulty linguistically and rhetorically (Carrell & Eisterhold 1983; Evans
52
1992:43; Hudson 1982; Steffensen & Joag-Dev 1984:60). It is the shared cultural assumptions
between writer and reader and the knowledge of social systems and ritual which allows a higher
level of reader interaction with a text (Boshoff 2007:40; Steffensen & Colker 1982; Steffensen
1982).
Researchers such as Kachru (1986) and Marquardt (1978) observe that using culture as a
measure of text gradation is not only feasible, but also necessary in order to make texts more
accessible to ESL students. Mckay (1986; 1989), however, feels that such gradation would be
impossible. As Evans (1992:45) states, it would be impossible for selectors to predict which (if
any) cultural barriers to comprehension a specific narrative text might contain. In some cases,
however, cultural barriers are very clear. Marchwardt (1978:46) uses the example of marriage,
which, while “common to most societies”, vary greatly in terms of relationship and ceremony
between cultures. He points out specific examples in literature, citing Robert Frost’s “something
there is that doesn’t love a wall” and the problems it could pose in a culture where “unmarked
property boundaries” are totally outside the norm. Marckwardt (1978:47) holds that by
addressing possible areas of cultural difference, the teacher can create opportunities for learners
to extend their vocabulary “by expressing ideas that are familiar” to them, but also to determine
whether learners understand “the values and assumptions that are implicit in the literary
selection”.
With cultural content as selection criteria, there is always concern that certain phrases might be
offensive to members of certain cultures (Carrell & Eisterhold 1983:563-564). Also when
selecting texts and deciding about “good” or “bad” literature, it should be kept in mind that
because values are subject to change, value judgments are not immutable and texts should be
selected with a clear understanding that “different cultures will value different things” (Brumfit
& Carter 1986:17).
For ESL learners to gain insight into the culture of their target language, it is important that they
are exposed to contemporary literary fiction where characters are shown in contexts which are
accurate reflections of the English-speaking communities. Ghosn (2002:177) warns that in the
selection of, for example, folktales, caution should be exercised and stories chosen which ‘mirror
53
the prevailing cultural values and traditions of people’ while stories that ‘portray outdated
customs and beliefs’ should be avoided as they could lead to an impression of the target culture
being ‘funny’, 'weird’ or even ‘dump’ (Ghosn, 2002:177). When the difficulty level and cultural
content of a text have been taken into consideration, an important factor to look at is the intention
with which a text has been written. What purpose a text can play is a major factor to consider in
the suitability of that text for ESL classes. This is explored in the next section.
2.4.5 Purpose of the text
Nuttall (1982:20) advocates the selection of texts which have not been written for language
teaching purposes, but for one of the “authentic purposes” of writing, such as informing or
entertaining. This view is supported by Widdowson (1982:208) and also the findings of Greany
(1980:354) which reveal that even learners who spend their leisure time reading comic books,
which is considered “impoverished language” by many, still show a relationship between their
level of reading competence and the amount of leisure reading they do.
Spack (1985:710) finds it best to select stories which she herself liked to read and teach and
supports the choice of stories that had been made into movies as the movies can provide learners
with a visual interpretation of the story and make the story come to life in terms of scenery,
costume and sound. Ghosn (2002:174) mentions the importance of “clear, uncompleted” storylined and ‘satisfying, unmelodramatic’ conclusions, which would help to make even children’s
stories accessible for adult readers. Widdowson (1983:32) states that apart from the text
engaging the interest of the reader, the text has to be ‘in some sense consistent with traditions
that the learners are familiar with’. Marckwardt (1978:70) holds that with age and interest in
mind the selection should be ‘primary narrative, where the story interest – what happens –
outweighs everything else’.
Following these guidelines and taking all factors into consideration should enable teachers to
make informed decisions when selecting narrative texts to use as basis for language learning in
ESL classrooms.
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2.5
Teaching ESL skills through short story/literary texts
It will become evident in the following pages that when using literary texts as a resource for ESL
teaching, the teaching of vocabulary and the four main language skills are all interwoven and
only to some degree separable. While vocabulary is not a language skill as such, the manner in
which the teaching of reading, writing, listening and speaking are all interdependent with the
teaching
of
vocabulary
justifies
discussing
them
under
the
same
heading.
The next section examines the acquisition of vocabulary without formal instruction, the explicit
teaching of vocabulary through short stories as well as the practical use of vocabulary in
narrative texts.
2.5.1 Vocabulary acquisition without instruction
Working with Krashen’s (1985; 1989) input hypothesis, many researchers have found that the
acquisition of spelling and vocabulary can occur ‘without learning’ (Krashen 1985:442). Spack
(1985:721) refers to such acquisition as learners’ assimilation of vocabulary. Through informal
observation of vocabulary acquisition without instruction among junior high school students,
Miller (1941:665-666) and Boshoff (2006:38) found that ‘extensive reading by pupils having
definite information goals ahead is most conducive to vocabulary growth’. These findings are
confirmed by the work of Nagy and Anderson (1984:327), Nagy, Anderson and Herman
(1987:264) and also by Elley (1989:180; 2000) who found that stories that are read aloud may be
a “potential source for ready vocabulary acquisition” and that “repeated exposure and helpful
context” were significant contributors to the acquisition of vocabulary. According to Spack
(1985:72) exploration of literary texts encourages “extraordinary vocabulary”.
Spack’s view is shared with Nagy and Anderson (1984:328) who conclude from their findings
that any programme of direct vocabulary instruction ought to be conceived in full recognition
that it can cover only a small fraction of the words that children need to know. They claim that
trying to expand children’s vocabulary by teaching them words one by one, ten by ten, or even
hundred by hundred would appear to be an exercise in futility. Vocabulary instruction ought,
instead, to teach skills and strategies that would help children become independent word
learners.
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Johnson (1982:504) does not recommend the pre-teaching of vocabulary. She claims that preteaching of vocabulary is not only ineffectual but actually detrimental to the improvement of
comprehension through enforcing a word-by-word approach to the text. She finds pre-reading
activities such as word maps and brain storming which establish relationships between words
and ideas much more helpful. Vocabulary knowledge will influence comprehension on word
level and sentence level, but it seems that background knowledge has a far greater effect on
reading comprehension than vocabulary difficulty does.
While he does not promote the explicit teaching of vocabulary, Elley’s (1989:184) research does
show that additional explanations by teachers of unknown words as they occur in the story can
more than double vocabulary gains. Even learners with very low level vocabulary show the same
amount of gains as the other learners and, based on post-test results, the learning that takes place
in such a manner can be seen as permanent.
Gajdusek (1988:235) finds pre-reading vocabulary to be necessary, if only to activate certain
schemata that learners will need when negotiating the text. She identifies three types of
vocabulary items, namely; words of which the meaning is to be derived from the text; words
which contain clues vital to the emotional or cultural context of the text, and words which
proficient ‘merely readers categorize’ (ibid.).
With regard to the final category, Povey
(1979:167) and Boshoff (2006:39) suggest that these words be ignored as far as students will
permit. Gajdusek’s (1988:237) second category, which involves very specific information,
necessitates the teacher acting as ‘informant rather than facilitator’.
When teaching or presenting those vocabulary items which might seriously impede
comprehension of narrative text, several communicative methods and activities are suggested by
the literature.
2.5.2 Teaching vocabulary through a short story/literary text
Carrell (1988:252) suggests several activities for teaching vocabulary items from short story
texts, including discussion of the text and key vocabulary, text previewing, key-word association
games and word maps. He suggests that word maps be used to teach synonyms, homophones,
super-ordinates, subordinates and even attributes, definitions and reverses. He does, however,
56
stress that such pre-reading activities should have two aims: building new knowledge, but also
tapping into existing background knowledge so as to facilitate the actual reading of the narrative
text.
One danger when teaching vocabulary through a short story is the over use of dictionaries.
Instead of such over-dependence, learners should be taught skills with which to approach
unknown words in texts. After learning which words can be ignored without compromising
comprehension, other unknown words can be made more accessible through the study of
phonics, structural clues and morphology or affixes (Nuttall 1982:67-75; Marckwardt 1978:53;
Boshoff 2007:40). These are all skills that need to be honed prior to actual reading, which is why
they are discussed under vocabulary building. Learners should, however, know how to skilfully
and effectively use their dictionaries. Marckwardt (ibid.) warns against the use of condensed
bilingual dictionaries as they might be misleading and instead recommends the use of
dictionaries that supply the meaning of English words in English.
When using short story texts or any narrative as input, certain words are identified as possibly
causing difficulty to learners of ESL and might have to be taught more explicitly. Nuttall
(1982:76-77), mentions idioms and metaphors and words with more than one possible meaning.
He says that “vocabulary items such as average, approximate, effect, combination and so forth
need to be conceptually clarified”. Super-ordinates in general and specific terms refer to the
same confusion. An example here is ‘building’ as a super-ordinate to the hyponyms of ‘house’,
‘school’, ‘factory’ or ‘cinema’. Nuttall (1982:78) suggests that instead of simply studying
synonyms and antonyms, learners should be taught to focus on “distinctions between words” as
much as on similarities. Learners should be taught to ask why the author chose a specific word in
a certain context rather than any suitable synonym. Lastly, irony is mentioned as a device with
which ESL learners might need help.
Bull and Wattrock (1973:292) found that learners who produced their own mental pictures or
impressions (images) when learning noun definitions, showed better long term retention of
meaning than those who were given meanings of such words, who in turn did better than those
who had only aural exposure to the words. Vocabulary items in short story books carry meaning
and hold images by virtue of the context in which they are placed, and are thus more likely to be
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remembered. This is an aspect of teaching vocabulary through narrative text which merits further
discussion here as learners can be helped to realize how the new words they learn can have an
immediate effect on their interaction with the narrative and the language.
Scholars such as Carrell Devine and Eskey, (1988:243) have linked knowledge of vocabulary
with the knowledge of schemata, word networks and any other words or concepts associated
with it. In this regard, Widdowson (1983:32) says that when vocabulary is pre-taught, the
reader’s forward projection in the text and making of meaning from the text (because of lack of
outside reference) will cause those structures and vocabulary to be used in the process and they
will not remain loose standing structures and vocabulary items. Readers are thus immediately
relating what they know of language as systemic level with their ability to use the language as a
way of creating meaning. Since a constant search for meaning is the work of a literary text,
Widdowson (ibid.) believes that if resources are provided to a reader and the reader is informed
that those resources will be required to unlock a literary passage then provided to the reader,
requiring him/her to apply maximum linguistic resources, he/she is “much more likely to
consolidate them in his/her mind, not only as items of systemic knowledge, but also as having
‘meaning potential’ and as a resource for making sense at the procedural level”. It becomes
obvious from this discussion that the teaching of vocabulary cannot be separated from teaching
of reading. Therefore, this will be looked at in the next section.
Before discussing what available literature suggests with regard to teaching ESL reading through
literature, it is necessary to touch on the different objectives for introducing narrative text in ESL
classes, and the different expectations learners might have when setting out to read short story
(narrative) texts.
2.5.3 Objectives of reading narrative texts in ESL classes
Setting clear objectives and ensuring that learners and teachers agree on those objectives will
influence the manner in which the teaching of reading based on a short story book is approached.
Maley (1987:103) refers to how the reading of literature and reading programmes are perceived
differently in China from the way they are perceived in the West. Books are considered to be the
“embodiment of knowledge, wisdom and truth” by many Chinese people. This leads to ESL
reading courses which consist of leading learners through texts on a “word by word, phrase by
58
phrase basis, explaining points of vocabulary, syntax, style and content along the way. Basically
texts, including narrative texts, are used in order to examine the language” they contain. ESL
teachers, who plan to follow a communicative approach with development of communicative
competence, reading for enjoyment and increased interest in reading as objectives, will first have
to negotiate a common objective with learners. A balance needs to be established between
reading for enjoyment and reading for language only. Scholars such as Greany and Hegarty
(1987:13) link reading for enjoyment and stimulation with reading achievement and verbal
ability. They argue that while narrative can be very effectively applied to that purpose, it is
important not to let the focus of reading shift too often to pure language teaching. McKay
(1986:196) also pleads against using a poem or novel simply as “basis” for language learning.
Carrell (1988:272) and Devine (1988:75) observe that for language instruction to have a positive
impact on reading performance, the different components of language should not be isolated. For
an increase in reading performance, instruction should be integrative or holistic in nature, rather
than skills-oriented or discrete-point. Petrosky (1982:20) suggests that in order to help students
understand the texts they read, we need to ask them to write about the texts they read”. Literature
is neither used to teach writing nor writing to teach literature, but in an integrated manner the
teaching of the one includes the teaching of the other.
Nuttall (1982:146) suggests certain objectives that a reading programme should have. These
apply directly to what the objectives of ESL lessons built around a literary text should be. He
recommends that learners should be able to make use of skimming to ensure relevancy and to aid
comprehension; make use of non-textual information such as diagrams as supplement to the text
and to aid comprehension, read differently according to the purpose of the reading and the type
of text; realize that it is not necessary to understand every word in the text; recognize that words
are carefully selected by the author to carry specific meanings; make use of discourse markers to
decode difficult passages; know that one sentence may have different meanings in different
contexts; make use of the rhetorical organization of the text; be able to use inference where
required; be aware that interpretation differs based on the expectations of the reader, realize
where incomprehension took place and be able to identify the misunderstanding; respond to the
text in whatever way is required. Apart from clarifying the objectives of reading lessons, it is
59
necessary for teachers to know how reading ties in with schema theory and how this affects the
practical application of reading a short story in the classroom.
2.5.4 Reading and the schema theory
From the schema theory point of view, if the schema is repeatedly accessed it (schema) may be
expanded and refined which will result in increased comprehension (Carrel & Eisterhold
1983:567; Gajdusek 1988:231). Clarke and Silberstein (1977:136) and Moyra (1992:39) observe
that reading skill depends on “efficient interaction” between knowledge of the world (schemata)
and linguistic knowledge. Eskey (1988:97) supports this view and argues that teaching reading is
not simply a matter of providing the applicable background knowledge for decoding, but that
language is actually a “major problem” in L2 reading. Supporting the foregoing, Brumfit and
Carter (1986:29) observe that below a certain level of cultural and linguistic competence, there is
no point in trying to get a reader respond to literature. It is important to keep in mind that some
researchers are very much against learning language through reading (Elley & Mangubhai
1983:56).
Nuttall (1982:17) argues that readers make sense of texts through coherence, cohesion, discourse
markers as well as skills of interpretation. Carrell (1988:239) and Moyra (1992:39) and also
Eskey and Grabe (1988:227) propose the joint development of top-down and bottom-up skills
and strategies when reading literary texts. Other researchers supporting the interactive use of
reading strategies include
Kintsch & Van Dijk (1978). Stevens (1982:382) sees a reading
teacher not only as a teacher of relevant information, but also as a teacher of reading skills.
Much has been written as to the methodology teachers can choose to apply to teach reading. It
has to be borne in mind throughout that much of what is written with regard to communicative
teaching of reading by means of narrative text is also applicable to the teaching of the other
language skills such as listening and speaking and writing (Boshoff 2006:44).
2.6
Methodology suggested for teaching reading (using short story narrative texts)
According to Basiga (2009:24), language is a social construct. It is learned through interaction
with others, with social structures and with social forces. It allows one to communicate with
60
others and it plays a key role in the development and the maintenance of culture). Students can
learn to interact through the application of CLT principles. This should be a preferred option.
When applying the principles of communicative language teaching, reading of literature or in the
case of ESL text books, narrative, ought to be considered central as “the most obvious source of
authentic second language (SL) input and contexts for discussion, interaction, and writing
exercises” (ibid), yet it is often avoided in favour of pair work with the emphasis on grammar,
vocabulary and other functional interactions (Aski 2000:495; Boshoff 2006:495).
Explaining the Taiwan situation, Chung (2009:67-76) notes that traditional ESL instruction in
Taiwan focuses on teacher-centred, grammar-translation, audio-lingua, and exam-oriented
approaches that fail to meet pupils’ needs when they communicate with English speakers. Chung
(2009) argues that traditional grammar-translation teaching/learning approach has caused both
teachers and students to neglect the value of communicative competence. Training students to
obtain good grades on English tests becomes one of the most vital criteria for being a good
English teacher. It is generally acknowledged that the higher the marks, the higher the pupils’
English proficiency. However, examination-guided instruction and the premium placed on
lecturing on selected textbook materials have led to failure in learning real-life communicative
English. In Zambia, critics of the education system have attributed this failure to the teaching
methodology employed by teachers (behaviourist-structural approaches) resulting in a number of
school leavers with high marks in the School Certificate Examinations failing to attain
communicative competence. Due to such discrepancies, the Ministry of Education has added to
the syllabus the component of CLT. However, its implementation remains a pipe dream as there
has been resistance by teachers. Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT) is
discussed below.
2.6.1 Communicative language teaching (CLT)
CLT begins with a theory of language as communication, which aims to develop learners’
communicative competence. This was a notion first proposed by Hymes (Chung 2009:67) to
represent the use of language in the social context and the observance of sociolinguistic norms of
appropriacy. Since Hymes proposed this notion, numerous interpretations have been proposed to
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define the term “communicative competence” from the time it was introduced into the language
teaching literature. One of the best-known definitions of communicative competence was the one
proposed by Canale and Swain in 1980 (Chung 2009:68). Canale refined the definition and
identified the four components of communicative competence: grammatical, sociolinguistic,
discourse and strategic competence. They argued that a communicative approach must provide
learners with the opportunity “to respond to genuine communicative needs in realistic second
language situations (Savignon 2002:22). In theory, a communicative language teaching
programme aims at developing interpretation, expression and negotiation of meaning. Learners
are expected to be active participants in meaningful interaction in class. Despite the theoretical
development of CLT, however, the literature shows that understanding among teachers and
learners remains limited (Kumaravadivelu, 1993:12-21; Chung, 2009:68).
In Zambia, The Ministry of Education published the Senior Secondary English Language
Syllabus in 1996. The main feature exhibited in the new curricular, is the focus to raise
communicative competence amongst the learners. Despite the Zambian government’s great
efforts in making CLT the mainstream in English language teaching, a growing number of
studies (elsewhere) suggest that the promotion of CLT in English as second language classroom
is difficult and the rate of its successful implementation is low (Anderson, 1993; Ellis, 1996; Li,
1998; LoCastro, 1996; Sato, 2002; Shamim, 1996; Wang & Savignon, 2001; Kashoki, 1990).
Research has highlighted the challenges encountered in the implementation of communicative
language teaching (CLT) in English as second language situations.
2.6.2 Challenges in CLT implementation
There many reasons why the implementation of CLT poses a big a challenge. Chung (2009),
while recognizing the useful function that CLT has played as a corrective tool to shortcomings in
previous methodologies, he feels that CLT is having a “negative effect on language teaching and
needs to be replaced as our main focus” (ibid). He argues that CLT has always neglected one key
aspect of language teaching – namely the context in which language teaching takes place. He
claims that the consequences of this (neglect) are serious to the extent that “we need to demote
62
CLT as our main paradigm and adopt something more similar to what he terms a ‘Context
Approach’ (2009:76).
Another challenge that CLT practitioners have cited in their quest to implement CLT in their
classroom is the apparent gap that seems to exist between the pupils’ short-term goal or need of
passing examinations and long-term goal of attaining communicative competence. Critics have
argued that “a more communicative way of teaching cannot seem to guarantee high examination
achievements which the tradition teacher-dominating class can” (Chung 2009:76). As a result,
the pupils’ long term-goal is hardly achieved by the present English teaching strategies in school.
Critics of CLT teaching have also cited what they call ‘a mismatch’ between the imported
terminology (CLT) and the reality of the situation in which terminology is mapped (LoCastro
1996:40). LoCastro (1996) cites an instance where an education system encourages teachers to
adopt CLT without providing an environment where the same teachers could feel ‘safe’ to do so.
The reason for this failure to feel ‘safe’ arises from the fact that they are expected to produce
good examination results (as they operate in an intensive examination-driven environment).
Where literature has been integrated as the basis of ESL course, it has often been taught in a
teacher-centred manner with the role of learners mostly limited to translation. Marckwardt
(1978:38) advocates instead the use of a method that will enable learners get involvement in the
learning process as much as possible. The aim is to let the pupils learn “how to be moved” by the
story they read and this cannot be “taught” through lecture-type lessons or tedious translation
activities (ibid.67-68). The teacher should act as a facilitator who should aid learners in weighing
their arguments in terms of validity and weaknesses by constantly referring discussion back to
the text (Larsen-Freeman 2000; Gajdusek 1988:241). The teacher should enjoy teaching the text
and the teacher’s enthusiasm should be motivating so as to lead learners to an enjoyment of the
text (Povey 1979:164).
For Gajdusek (1988:254) the main aim of teaching literature is to lead learners to discovery.
Within the framework of communicative language teaching, learner involvement and learner
discovery of significant points make careful planning very important. The teacher should act as a
facilitator. The teacher should introduce a well-structured sequence of activities, questions and
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issues, giving guidance as learners draw inference about the narrative text and negotiate the
worth of those inferences by constantly referring to the text. Gajdusek (ibid.) observes that good
planning and systematic procedure on the part of the teacher will allow work with literary texts
to culminate in classes which are truly communicative and which will increase learner
involvement and development (Larsen-Freeman 2000).
In keeping with communicative language teaching, the teacher should endeavour to create an
atmosphere where learners should feel safe to learn, explore and express themselves. Oster
(1989:86) argues that literature provides the “ideal vehicle” for teaching the art of “seeing from
different perspectives” since “fiction conflicts, complexities, and points of view” are outside of
the learner’s reality so learners can understand and explore them “at no great personal risk”.
When asking learners to take another point of view or to express their opinions on narrative text,
the teacher must keep in mind that someone’s point of view is influenced by cultural
suppositions and in many cultures, having and expressing a strong opinion is not necessarily
acceptable (Oster.:87). As Oster observes, taking a different point of view from the teacher,
having open class discussions, debates or freedom to question are things not necessarily
“encouraged in all countries or in all educational systems” (1989:67). So the teacher should be
aware of this. In the same manner “self-disclosure” as expected by some response to narrative
activities can also be seen as a threat by ESL learners from different cultures. The teacher should
keep in mind that cultural background may have a significant influence on how learners react not
only to the course material, but also to the teaching method (Oster 1989:67).
Where the mode of presentation of a literary text is more teacher-centred, the advantages of a
whole class presentation are that it enables a teacher to detect problems, to involve learners who
are holding back, to draw attention to “clues” in the text and in general to help learners gain
comprehension (Nuttall 1982:162). It is very important that the traditional classroom approach to
a short story does not “kill the joy” (Nuttall 1982:162). Much has been said in the literature about
the interference of dictionaries with reading a short story or any literary text for joy, as will be
discussed in the following section.
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2.6.3 The use of dictionaries and cloze exercises in reading narrative text
Nuttal (1982:162) observes that lack of impact during the initial reading of a narrative text may
force learners to consult their dictionaries. He stresses the importance of learners being
convinced and ‘encouraged... to have the confidence to read doggedly through patches of
miscomprehension waiting for the eventual support of overall revelation that comes as the
sequence of the story provides its own momentum’ (Nuttall 1982:162). Instead of dictionary use,
Nuttall (ibid: 70) suggests extensive reading and teaching learners to infer meaning from context.
This skill would greatly aid learners in comprehension as well as lead to an increase in their
reading speed. Aski (2000:499) supports this view and believes top-down processing should be
encouraged at earlier levels so that learners can move away from word level. She suggests that
learners can gain independence from their dictionaries through activities that use cognitive
identifiers, guessing meaning from context and interpreting morphological information from the
text.
Some scholars such as Eskey & Grabe (1988:235), Nuttall (1982:69) and Vincent (1986:209)
plead against the use of dictionaries when reading narrative texts, grouping dictionary work
together with the use of cloze exercises and saying that both interfere with the reading process.
Carter (1986:112-113) advocates the use of the cloze procedure as a type of prediction activity
with its focus on separate words and sequences of words rather than on longer stretches of text.
He observes that for a prediction activity to be both reasonable and supportable, learners have to
be aware of not only the story as a whole, but also of the “immediate verbal context” in which
separate words occur. In cloze activities, learners may benefit from a list of possible answers to
fill the gaps, but then it is better to ask learners to account for their choices (Carter 1986: 113).
Cloze test as a way of teaching reading is also mentioned by Boyle (1986:201) in his article on
language testing.
The teaching of specific reading strategies has also been suggested as a way in which to avoid
dependence on dictionaries. This idea is further developed in the next section.
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2.7
Introducing and presenting a short story book
The introduction of a short story book is important as this will set the tone for the whole
exercise. In accordance with the principles of communicative language teaching, the introduction
should never take the form of a lecture by the teacher. The introduction should not include any
information that can be derived from the text by pupils. This is because pupils are encouraged to
search for information and talk about it instead of being given such information by the teacher.
Nuttall (1982:154) says that while introduction could be used to introduce new words, it is more
suited to involve learners, relating the text to their own interests and experiences through
interest-arousing questions. Summaries of action or statement of them do not belong in the
introduction (Gajdusek 1988:235). The way a text is presented should be planned in such a way
as to eliminate possible problems in advance, thereby making possible some measure of impact
during the initial reading.
For ESL learners, longer narratives should preferably be broken into shorter parts. Nuttall
(1982:156) suggests sections of about 250 words or 20 lines. Understanding each section and
how it contributes to the whole aids learners’ comprehension of the completed text. Such
breakdown of the text also aids in the development of anticipation skills and prediction skills.
Length is, however, a very relative factor, related to the level of L2 proficiency of a specific class
as well as to other factors such as their age and their “perseverance in reading” (Hafiz & Tudor
1989:10).
There are several ways in which a narrative text can be presented. Long (1986:47-54) mentions
silent reading, choral reading and the use of pre-recorded readings, but also mentions that
different parts of the text and different questions should be presented in different modes in order
to sustain interest of the learner. He refers to lecture-style presentation as a “uni-directional”
process and suggests that it be replaced by a “multi-directional” presentation mode. Some writers
such as (Gajdusek 1988:238) suggest that learners should begin working with narrative texts at
home before in-class presentation, but Povey (1979:173) argues that learners should not be
expected to pre-read at home since this might lead to over dependency on dictionaries and
66
learners might well be discouraged by discovering “the extent of their own incomprehension of
the tale”. Several strategies are suggested for application after learners have completed reading a
short story text.
2.7.1 Teaching post-reading strategies
Post-reading strategies are considered useful for integrating new knowledge gained from
narrative text with existing schemata. Specific activities suggested are dramatization of key
scenes (Gajdusek 1988:252), text discussions, writing activities and review of themes of the text
(Carrell 1988:248). Post-reading text-mapping, where learners represent information from the
text in any type of visual display to clarify relationships among key concepts as well as timelines
to clarify actions and relationships between events are also recommended (Gajdusek 1988:244).
Carter (1986:113-114) discusses the use of summary as an activity to focus attention on the
general meaning of a story. Through limiting the word count and thus forcing the learners to
select what is significant, a suitable linguistic exercise in “syntactic-restructuring, deletion, and
lexical re-shaping” takes place (Brumfit and Carter 1986:113-114). Brumfit and Carter (ibid)
suggest that summary be used as a device to enable learners in the process of interpretation and
text engagement, seeing summary as an example of the integrated use of language and literature.
Brumfit and Carter (ibid), Gajdusek (1988:252) and Basiga (2009:2429) suggest the use of
debate and discussion of opposite viewpoints, using texts which are relatively open and inexplicit
in order to stimulate oral work in the classroom situation. They claim that such activities
combine syntactical knowledge with textual evidence to support or refute any given argument
and are yet more examples of the integrative use of language and literature. The importance of
point of view should be brought to learners’ attention, especially in classes aimed at developing
writing skills. The use of “guided re-writing” as suggested by Brumfit and Carter (1986:115:116)
is useful in aiding learners in recognizing the broader patterns of discourse in texts, as well as
which styles are appropriate to them. Texts can be re-written with completely different
communicative values, such as changing instructions into descriptions, or poetic language into
formal lecture style. Basiga (2009:24-27) and Gajdusek (1988:245) suggest that learners analyze
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the text they have read in order of structure, theme and style. Articulation of a story’s theme
simultaneously checks comprehension and focuses “on the underlying act of communication
between the writer and the reader” (Gajdusek 1988:245) as learners try to clarify what the writer
has expressed in the text. In the same manner, the exploration of style deepens learners’
awareness of the communication act (ibid.247-248).
In the above discussion, researchers often refer to the use of questions in some form or other.
The use of questions is an aspect of teaching ESL skills such as reading that should be addressed
separately as it can potentially impact on comprehension, amongst other language skills. Prereading questions for teaching a short story are only suggested as a comprehension aid in so far
as they do not lead to ‘selective attention strategy’ whereby learners only read in order to find
answers (James 1987:184). All questions, whether pre- or post-reading, should be in line with
learners’ cognitive level. Long (1986:47) makes several suggestions as to the most beneficial use
of questions. He makes use of pre-reading questions, but only to create a receptive mental
attitude with learners, stimulating a ‘willingness to respond’ to the short story text.
Using comprehension questions as a test for the teaching of language skills based on literary
texts is recommended by Boyle (1986:201) while Nuttall (1982:158) advocates the use of
“signpost questions”, the purpose of which is to guide learners and to direct their focus to areas
of importance in the text - not to test them. Particularly useful in silent reading, signpost
questions should only be answered after having read most of the story. They provide a specific
purpose for reading and do not simply require answers but “conscious consideration of the
meaning of the text” (Nuttall, 1982:158).
Gajdusek (1988:238) argues that factual in-class work should address: who, what, where, and
when - and should include questions on point of view (who the story is related by), character
(who the story is about), the setting (the where and when in which the story takes place), and
finally action (what it is that happens). The answering of these questions will not only establish
certain facts, but will engender an interactive and communicative lesson based on the text (ibid:
239). This confirms Povey’s (1979:177) assertion that progression should take place moving
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from factual questions to interpretive questions but that the “final concern” of the teacher at all
times should be “to elicit the student response to the entire presentation” (Povey, 1979:177).
One way in which a response can be elicited from the learner is through composition, which, as
mentioned before, is very closely linked to literature.
2.7.2 Reading and composition
Petrosky (1982:19) believes that text comprehension (of literary as well as non-literary texts) is
more an “act of composition – for understanding is composing – than of information retrieval,
and that the best possible representation of our understanding of texts begins with certain kinds
of compositions, not multiple-choice tests”. He further argues that reading, responding and
composing are all parts of comprehension and attempting to account for them “outside of their
interactions with each other” might lead to the building “reductive models of human
understanding”. Stern (1987) is also in favour of teaching literature and composition together,
but argues that care should be taken not to steer learners towards becoming better literary critics
instead of better writers. He suggests that teachers could avoid this through a deliberate
integration of the two areas of study, i.e. teaching of literature and composition.
It has become clear that there is a very close link between the teaching of ESL based on a literary
text as resource (literature) and the teaching of writing. Spack (1985:709) goes so far as to call
the separation of the two activities “artificial” while Moran (1981:29) refers to the teaching of
literature in writing classes as a “reintegration” or “recombination” of elements that should never
have been separated.
From the point of view of schema theory, reading stories helps make learners become aware that
when writing, they should take the point of view of their readers into consideration. Spack
(1985:706) argues that an active exploration of this writer/reader interaction can lead students to
realize and internalize the idea that what they write becomes another person’s reading and must
therefore anticipate a reader’s need and meet a reader’s expectations. The resulting anticipation
of a reading audience’s needs and expectations and the influence thereof on a learner’s writing,
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motivates the teaching of literature side by side with composition. This is in line with literature
courses taught by Moran (1981:21) where he treated both the authors and the learners he was
teaching as writers.
A study undertaken by Elley and Mangubhai (1983) to investigate the effect of exposing ESL
students to story books found that learners showed an improvement in both reading and written
English after being exposed to comprehensible input in the form extensive reading of literature.
Hafiz and Tudor (1989:8) ascribe this improvement to two possible reasons: either to exposure to
features of the language found in the text as input which armed learners with new resources
which they then expressed actively in their writing, or else learners may have derived such
pleasure from extensive reading that they underwent an attitude change toward the L2 which in
turn brought about a willingness to become with and experiment with their writing. Research
shows that extensive reading for interest and enjoyment in which the focus is on the message of
the text, combined with the engagement and reading of complex texts, contribute to an increase
in writing ability and an ability to manipulate syntactic structures (Lao and Krashen 2000:261.
Although the focus of this study is not on extensive reading, the results here emphasize the
potential that literary texts as resources for language teaching have in developing ESL skills
which is the interest of the current study.
Attention will now be given to the practical application of short story texts in the development of
the speaking and listening skills of ESL learners. As is the case with writing, much of the
methodology discussed for reading short story texts in the ESL classroom can also be applied to
listening and speaking exercises based on short story input.
2.7.3 Literary texts and development of oral skills
Stern (1987:52) observes that although the study of literary texts in an ESL language class is
traditionally associated with reading and writing, speaking and listening can play an equally
prominent role. She says that once teachers recognize this fact and begin to regard literary texts
as a source and inspiration for listening and speaking as well as reading and writing,
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development of oral activities will flow easily and naturally. This section therefore, explores the
potential literary texts have in developing oral skills.
Stern (1987) recommends reading a literary text aloud to the class as a way of making listening
comprehension interesting and contextualized at upper levels. She recommends listening to a
story being read aloud as this necessitates deciphering words and sentences and interpreting
stress, intonation, and inflection. She further argues that conducting a class discussion
immediately after the reading or written listening comprehension exercises can tell the teacher
how well learners have understood it. Stern (1987) further observes that such listening activities
can also help “attune” learners to the rhythms of the language and its poetry. This is because,
“...readings and recordings (where available) serve as models for students’ oral reading of the
same work” (Stern 1987:52).
Boyle (1986:206) and Stern (1987:52) recommend the use of oral reading of literature by
learners as a way of helping them develop their speaking ability as this lends itself especially
well to improving pronunciation. Stern (ibid.) observes that oral reading can be a “stimulating
supplemental activity to analytical explanations and exercises, integrating pronunciation study
with authentic materials”. Boyle (1986:206) uses conversation and discussion generated by
literary texts to develop oral skills. Asking learners to: “read sections of a story aloud while
imbibing the text with suitable emotion and feeling is another suggestion she makes for teaching
speaking as a language skill” (ibid.:203). Apart from oral reading, drama has been found to be a
useful tool for developing oral communication skills. This is explored in the next section.
2.7.4 Drama and oral skills
Stern (1987:52) argues that dramatization entails classroom performance of scripted materials.
While scripted materials mostly consist of plays, a number of short stories include large portions
of dialogue can be dramatized. Certain verses, such as dialogue poetry or monologue poetry or
monologues, can be dramatized as well. She suggests engaging students in own script writing for
short stories or sections of novels written primarily in narrative, conforming them as closely as
possible to the actual text. Learners should be made to imagine what the characters would say
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and how they would say it, based on the story (Stern ibid.). The criteria for selecting dramatized
materials will largely depend on the course. If the focus is on oral skills, one play can be divided
into scenes for each pupil’s participation, or scenes from different plays can be selected. In some
cases, an entire play can be dramatized as the culminating activity of the course (Via 1976).
Stern (1987:34) advises that learners should be made to read their assigned sections of the
dialogue in advance and they should be able to answer questions about characters and the plot.
As they read, learners should note vocabulary, idioms, or dialogue they do not understand, and
words that they cannot pronounce. He suggests that these issues should be resolved in pairs,
small groups or as a class. This should be followed by pupils rehearsing scenes with their
partner(s). Memorization of scenes at this stage may not be necessary, ‘but pupils should learn it
(script) well enough to the extent that they should be able to say their lines to their partners with
meaning and feeling’ (ibid.). Learners should be engaged in discussing facial expressions,
gestures, and the physical aspects of engaging the scene. Finally, the dramatization is then
presented in front of the class (ibid.). To break the monotony, role playing interviews with the
story characters can add variety to the classroom activities.
Role playing interviews with the characters are an enjoyable and a novel way for pupils to
discuss and analyze the characters and their interrelationships. They adapt easily to any play,
short story, or novel and are possible with some poems as well. In this kind of interview, a pupil
assumes the role of a character and the class interviews him or her, focusing on issues such as
how that character feels about an event or another character, the character’s value judgement
with regard to an issue raised in the story, why the character thinks something happened or
someone acted in a specific fashion, what the character hopes will happen, or how she/he hopes a
dramatic conflict will be resolved. To successfully address these issues, the learner must literally
step into the consciousness of his/her character and view the world through his or her eyes
(Basiga 2009; Stern 1987:53; Gajdusek 1988:233).
Stern (1987) suggests the use of role-playing interviews directly after dramatization of the scene.
The learner-actors maintain their role, and the rest of the class questions them about what they
did and said. He notes that this technique works because psychologically, the actors have not had
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time to step what they refer to as ‘their characters personae’ (Stern 1987:53). Moreover, the rest
of the learners still perceive them as these characters. Because the scene is still fresh in
everyone’s minds, thought provoking interview questions come easily and spontaneously (1987).
Variations to the teaching of drama and oral skills may include an interview with the author, in
which one or several pupils assume the author’s role and answer questions about the work. Boyle
(1986:207) suggests dramatic monologue, in which a learner takes the role of a character and
discusses his/her feelings and thoughts about a particular situation, character or issue. In addition
to the above, literary texts are appropriate for group activities (Gajdusek (1988). This is explored
in the next section.
2.7.5 Group activities
Basiga (2009) observes that in-class study of any literary work should include as much general
class discussion as possible. Through the use of well selected questions, the teacher should:
“draw the learners’ attention into discussion, allowing them to describe, analyze, and explain the
literature”. This can then move down to small group discussions.
Small-group work on the characters, theme(s), and cultural issues a literary work presents makes
it possible to give each learner the maximum opportunity to speak in class. In addition to
facilitating development of the oral skills, small-group work encourages learner-interaction
through the sharing of ideas and teamwork. By collaborating on a project and reporting their
findings to the class, they become: “authorities” (Stern 1987:53) in their individual areas of
investigation. They discover that they are capable of interpreting and expressing complex ideas
in English and that they can learn from one another as well as from the teacher. In addition to the
foregoing, panel discussions can be used to develop oral language skills. According to Gajdusek
(1988), literature based debates should centre on controversial issues related to the theme or
character of the story. The debate topic can be stated as a ‘resolution’. Alternatively, the two
sides can receive opposing interpretations of the work in the form of contradictory.
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2.8
Practical applications - Case studies
The remainder of this chapter will be devoted to case studies, ‘real life’ applications of the principles
explored in this chapter. The relationship between language and literature in an ESL situation is the
subject that often generates a heated debated amongst the academics and researchers who report on it.
A case study may help confirm how related the two are.
2.8.1 ESL teaching – Hong Kong case study
Like Zambia, Hong Kong is a multilingual, multi-ethnic society in which English functions as a
lingua franca. Even though there has been a decline in the number of people using English since
Hong Kong received independence from Britain in 1997, the language continues to be seen as
the language of opportunity (Kwan and Hingman, 2003:151; Butler, 2006:70). A number of
studies in the last two decades have focused on the relationship between language and literature
in English as a second language classroom at secondary and university levels. Hirvela and Boyle
(1988) describe a survey of Hong Kong of university students’ attitudes to the study of literature
in English. The subjects were all Hong Kong Chinese who spoke Cantonese as their first
language. They were all working adults, studying part time for a degree in which English
language and literature were combined. In the first year of their studies the emphasis was on
language; literature courses were only introduced at second and third year levels. The writers’
perception before undertaking the survey was that students were enthusiastic about the language
courses, seeing in them an opportunity to improve their English, but had a more ambivalent
attitude to literature.
The aim of the survey was not, however, was not to question the inclusion of literature in the
English as a second language curriculum; rather it was to develop a better understanding of the
students’ feelings about literature and to act upon them.
Their findings provided detailed confirmation of the students’ ambivalent feelings. Poetry was
the genre least enjoyed and the most feared, while a general preference was expressed for prose
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fiction in the form of short stories and novels. The students’ fears, they found, were based partly,
on a lack of background literary study and “partly on a certain mystique about literature, a sense
that literature was somewhat totally different from other forms of writing in English” (Hirvela &
Boyle 1988:180).
The innovations that Hirvela and Boyle (1988) implemented after the survey had been
undertaken show that students’ opinions had been taken into consideration. In searching for
appropriate texts they moved away the traditional literary canon to include more accessible and
directly relevant texts. The number of texts selected for study was reduced. Methodology was
also adapted to allow for the use of literature as a resource for other language activities. The
writers acknowledge the ways in which their approach to literature differs from the traditional
ones:
Those who have never tried to incorporate a literature component into an
English course in an ESL/EFL may smile in surprise or even derision as they
read of the texts we have chosen. We hope that those who have tried to do so
will have more sympathy with our efforts (Hirvela, 1988:183).
They do, however, point out that, as a result of these changes to the curriculum, literature courses
became more popular than either linguistic or language. In a latter paper, Hirvela (1990) extends
the argument in favour of literature to its inclusion in English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
courses in Hong Kong.
Chan (1990) looks at the relationship between English language and literature teaching in
secondary schools in Honk Hong. Since 1966, the two subjects had been taught and examined
separately. He claims that this separation had resulted in the language curriculum becoming
“emotionally and intellectually impoverished” (1990:109). He describes a utilitarian,
monotonous and irrelevant language syllabus dominated by the examination and containing very
little to excite the interest of the learners (1990:110).
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In contrast to the motivation that Hirvela and Boyle (1988) note in their students, Chan (1990)
sees the language syllabus as responsible for an attitude that is ‘somewhat perfunctory’. English
is merely ‘a requirement or qualification to be sought after’; neither the student nor their teachers
read much English outside the classroom (Chan 1990:110-111). It is for this reason that he
proposes the reinstatement of a literature component in the language curriculum. He
recommends that in order for literature to be taken seriously it should also form part of the
examination.
The kind of literature that Chan (1990) has in mind is not the canon of great texts, literature with
a capital ‘L’. The literature he is proposing is what can be referred to as ‘other alternative texts’
which can include short stories, news paper cuttings, songs, television drama and other forms of
media whose teaching should be “approached from the language point of view and to be studied
for language improvement, (that is: to stimulate sensitivity and interest in language) and for
effective involvement, that is to say, authentic communication of feelings and thoughts” (Chan
1990:114). He recommends the inclusion of literary texts such as these included in a wide range
of authentic texts drawn from a variety of sources. In this way pupils will be exposed to language
use in a range of situations and language becomes ‘a real tool for study, a medium of genuine
communication and of pleasure and entertainment, as well as a valuable asset in everyday life’
(1990:117).
Butler (2006) develops these ideas further. He proposes the inclusion of literature in the language
syllabus: the aim of the study “ways through which literature can be incorporated into the
language syllabus as a means to invigorate the teaching of the language” (Butler 2006:72). The
means by which this is to be done was hinted at in Chan (1994:24): here the methodology is
developed fully, with Chan (1994) acknowledging his debt to the work of Carter and Nash
(1983, 1990) on the idea of a cline of literariness in both ‘literary’ and ‘non-literary’ texts. The
research questions that he now sets himself (1994:134) is stated as follows:
What are the effects of introducing a text and tasks which illustrate and identify differing degrees
of literariness into secondary school ESL classrooms in Hong Kong on:
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 Pupils’ language proficiency and literary competence?
 Pupils’ and teachers’ language perceptions and attitudes?
His hypothesis is that exposure to the texts and tasks will have a positive effect on these areas, as
well promote teacher development, increase pupils’ and teachers’ language awareness and help
forge an interface between language and literature (Chan 1994:135).
Chan (1994:249) believes that his findings confirm his hypotheses, even if there is no direct
evidence linking the texts and tasks to all the changes in performance and attitude that he
observed after completion of the experiment.
Butler (2006) and Chan (1994) outline the pedagogical implications of the findings. He endorses
(with minor modifications) the text-based approach outlined in McCarthy and Carter (1994:166168). He also mentions a number of course books available on the market in which language and
literature teaching are integrated. They have three features in common that make them suitable
for the approach that he envisages: the inclusion of texts not traditionally regarded as literature;
treatment of literature as a resource and the use of language-based approaches to the study of
literature (Chan 1994:294).
In his concluding remarks, Chan (1994) acknowledges the difficulty of implementing changes
such as those he advocates in Hong Kong schools. However, enthusiastic pupils and teachers
might have been in their response to his package of texts and tasks, the examination system,
which compartmentalizes language and literature, ultimately determines the focus of their
interest and energies. Only when literature is included in the examination syllabus can the full
implications of his study be realized (1994:309). Chan’s was not, however, the only voice calling
for the integrating of English language and literature in the Hong Kong education system.
Kennedy (1990), writing about English in the second language situation, reiterates the
instrumental and utilitarian approach to English found in Hong Kong. He nevertheless argues
that “that literature can play a crucial part in fostering enthusiasm for English as a subject and
help to make students who will be future teachers alert and alive to the rich possibility of
language they will be teaching” (Kennedy 1990:100).
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The collection of papers edited by Falvey and Kennedy (1997a), Learning language through
literature: A sourcebook for teachers for teachers of English in Hong Kong, provides a
significant contribution to the realization of English-literature integration in English as a second
language situation. The sharp distinctions between language and literature noted by Chan are,
according to Falvey and Kennedy beginning to break down. Consequently, Falvey and Kennedy
(1997b) set out to convince skeptics that literature has an important role to play in the ESL
classroom. Their approach is neatly summed up in the opening sentence of the Introduction:
‘This book is about using literary texts (with a small “l”) for language teaching [emphasis theirs]
(1997:1b). Literature here is non-canonical, to be used as a resource and situated on a continuum
of literariness that includes many texts not traditionally thought of as ‘literature’. The editors
advance a number of reasons why literary texts should be used as a resource in the Hong Kong
language classroom. These include: having authentic, imaginative content and providing a
resource for grammar study and communicative classroom tasks and activities.
Falvey and Kennedy (1997b) argue that literature in the language class is to be used as a stimulus
not as model. They contend that literature teaches skills such as inference that can be applied in
other contexts. Finally, literature can provide the affective element so often ignored in language
learning: ‘Learning a language entails more than just making grammar deposits in a language
bank account’ (1997b:4). That the developments in Hong Kong described here clearly reflect
international trends and thinking is evident from the discussion in section 2.2.2 (earlier in this
chapter). Its significance for the present study lies in the similarities between Hong Kong and
Zambian society. In spite of the origin of much of the discussion in British and American
contexts, the integration of language and literature would be applicable elsewhere as well.
2.9
Conclusion
The available literature provides convincing motivation for the inclusion of literature in language
teaching, and for the inclusion of literature and other alternative texts as a basis for designing
English language teaching and learning materials in the ESL programmes. This chapter has
attempted to survey the literature on the integration of language and literature in ESL situations
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in a number of ways. A broad survey of the field in the last forty years have revealed changing
attitude to the relationship between language and literature leading to a situation where the
possibilities for integration are being explored from both sides of the traditional divide. A closer
examination of writing in the last three decades has shown the ways in which the very terms
‘language’ and ‘literature’ have come under serious scrutiny and consequence reassessment, thus
providing further impetus for the cause of integration.
The chapter has further explored ways in which alternative texts such as short story books could
be utilized so as to derive maximum benefit in the teaching of language skills. Sub-disciplines
have been explored for their contribution to the discussion: schema theory and communicative
language teaching. The debate reported in Hong Kong suggests the way in which integrating
language and literature in ESL has been found either positive or negative: the Hong Kong
situation has resonance for the Zambian situation. None of the literature reviewed deals explicitly
with using alternative texts such as short story books as a basis for material design to replace
prescribed course books in meeting syllabus objectives in ESL classroom avoid (which) this
study can hopefully address. In the next chapter the research methodology employed to test the
hypothesis together the research instruments used is discussed.
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CHAPTER 3
Methodology
3.1
Introduction
This chapter is devoted to the discussion of the research design and methodology employed in
this study, including issues pertaining to population sample, data collection, analysis and ethics.
The main focus of this study was to investigate to what extent materials designed around an
anthology of short stories could be used to teach English as second language (ESL) skills
communicatively in senior classes (Grades 10-12) in Zambia. The central question in this study
was: Can materials designed around a short story book (such as a collection of short stories)
‘Winners’ be used to replace wholly prescribed course books to teach ESL communicatively in
senior English classes in Zambia? In addition, the study sought to provide guidance or a model
that would help teachers design course materials within the framework of the principles of
communicative language teaching as recommended in The Senior Secondary English Language
Syllabus. Therefore, this chapter deals with the following research elements: methodology,
theoretical and conceptual framework, the school setting and the population samples, the
research instruments, and the procedure for data collection and analysis amongst other issues.
3.2
Research design - Mixed method
This study employed a mixed method research design. Both the qualitative and the quantitative
methods were used. Qualitative methods were used to collect and describe data while the
quantitative method was used to analyze data so that it could be effectively interpreted. In
justifying the use of mixed method in social research, Lipscomb (2008:32) observes that Mixed
Method Research Design (MMD) is becoming increasingly popular amongst social science
researchers. Toole and Abowitz (2010:108) took a similar stance when they argue that by using
mixed method research design, researchers are able to detect recurrent patterns or consistent
relationships among variables and results that are independent of one particular data source or
type of measurement and its independent weaknesses. They further contend that triangulation
and simultaneously use of mixed research methods or measures to test the same hypothesis or
finding is a valuable strategy in the research process especially when research methods that have
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different but complementary strengths and weaknesses are mixed (ibid.). Toole and Abowitz
(2010:114) however cautions those who plan to use mixed method in their studies that while
mixing qualitative and quantitative approaches in data collection would provide richer and more
comprehensive data, the cost is usually very high.
In arriving at the research design, Maxwell and Loomis’s counsel was followed. They suggest
that if the research problem is complex or if the researcher suspects that one method or strategy
may not comprehensively address the research problem, one of the strategies that may be used to
supplement the core method is the mixed method research design (Maxwell & Loomis, 2002:93).
In mixed method designs, a single method and one or more strategies drawn from a second
method are used in the same project—these may be both qualitative, one qualitative and one
quantitative, or two quantitative. Mixed method research designs are usually used because one
method alone will not provide a comprehensive answer to the research question. Perhaps in a
study that is primarily quantitative, there is some aspect of the phenomenon that cannot be
measured; or in a study that is primarily qualitative, there is some aspect of the study that can be
measured quantitatively, and the measurement will enhance the descriptive understanding of the
phenomenon. Or perhaps if two qualitative methods are used, one will complement the other, for
instance, provide access to a perspective that cannot be accessed by the first. Maxwell & Miller,
(2008) argue that several principles are important to attend to when conducting a mixed method
project.
In defining mixed method research design, Morse et al. (2009:190) observes that a mixed method
research design is one that “incorporates various qualitative and quantitative strategies within a
single project”. Similarly, Creswell (2003:212) defines a mixed method research design at its
simplest level “as one that mixes both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and
analysis in a single study”. Creswell further suggests that a more elaborate definition would
include describing a mixed method research as one that involves “the collection or analysis of
both quantitative or qualitative data in a single study in which the data is collected concurrently
or sequentially, is given a priority, and involves the integration of the data at one or more stages
in the process of research” (2003:212). The motivation for combining qualitative and
quantitative research designs was to seek ‘elaboration, enhancement, illustration and clarification
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of the results from one method with the results from the other method’ (Greene, Caracelli &
Graham, 1989: 255-274).
Creswell (2003:212) further suggests three ways of combining qualitative and quantitative
research methods. He lists the three methods as the: dominant-less dominant design, two-phase
design and mixed method design which would signify the highest extent of integrating methods.
The strategy that was employed in this study is what Creswell refers to as a sequential
exploratory strategy which is characterized by an initial phase of qualitative data collection and
analysis, which is followed by a phase of quantitative data analysis and the findings are then
integrated during the interpretation phase. In recommending the use of mixed method research
design, Creswell (2003:216) notes that the strategy of combining qualitative and quantitative
research approaches is useful to explore the phenomenon, and particularly to expand on the
qualitative findings. Vehovar and Lobe (2008:586) argue that applied research in general
requires a flexible, non-sequential approach and “an entirely different model of the research
process than the traditional one offered in most textbooks”. This does not mean that qualitative
research lacks design; as Yin (1994:19) observes, “Every type of empirical research has an
implicit, if not explicit, research design”. Qualitative research simply requires a broader and less
restrictive concept of “design” than the traditional ones described above.
The model of design that I used in this study is referred to (Maxwell & Miller 2008:214) as “an
interactive model, consisting of the components of a research study and the ways in which these
components may affect and be affected by one another. The model thus resembles the more
general definition of design employed outside research, that is: “An underlying scheme that
governs functioning, developing, or unfolding” and “the arrangement of elements or details in a
product or work of art” (Frederick et al., 1993). In adopting Maxwell & Miller’s (2008:215)
model, I was aware that a good design is one in which the components work harmoniously
together, promotes efficient and successful functioning and that a flawed design leads to poor
operation or failure.
The model presented in this study is a model of as well as for research. It was meant to help me
understand the actual structure of the study as well as to plan this study and carry it out. An
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essential feature of this model is that it treats research design as a real entity, not simply an
abstraction or plan. Borrowing Kaplan’s (1964:8) distinction between the “logic-in-use” and
“reconstructed logic” of research, this model can be used to represent the “design-in-use” of a
study, the actual relationships among the components of the research, as well as the intended (or
reconstructed) design.
These components are not substantially different from the ones presented in many other
discussions of qualitative or applied research design (Morse & Niehaus, 2009; Toole & Abowitz,
2010; Hsu, 2005; Lipscomb, 2008). What is innovative is the way the relationships among the
components are conceptualized. In this model, the different parts of a design form an integrated
and interacting whole, with each component closely tied to several others, rather than being
linked in a linear or cyclic sequence.
It is useful to distinguish among three kinds of goals for doing this study: personal goals,
practical goals, and intellectual goals. Personal goals include a desire to change some existing
situation (the way English language is taught in senior ESL classes), the need to better the way I
teach English as a second language to my pupils and establishing as to whether alternative
teaching resources such as the anthology of short stories, Winners can be used to achieve the
same objectives in place of prescribed course books. Morse et al, (2009) contends that
eradicating or submerging one’s personal goals and concerns is impossible, and attempting to do
so is unnecessary. What is necessary, in qualitative design, is that one should be aware of these
concerns and how they may be shaping the research, and that it is important to think about how
best to deal with their consequences.
Maxwell et al, (2008:220) contends that to the extent that the researcher fails to do a careful
assessment of ways in which the design decisions and data analyses are based on personal
desires, it is possible that one is bound to arrive at invalid conclusions. However, the personal
reasons for wanting to conduct a study, and the experiences and perspectives in which these are
grounded, are not simply a source of “bias” they can also provide one with a valuable source of
insight, theory, and data about the phenomena that is being studied (Marshall & Rossman,
1999:25–30). Two major decisions profoundly influenced the personal goals of undertaking this
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study. One is that of the topic, issue, or question selected for study. The topic chosen had to do
with the problems that English language teachers go through in teaching English as a second
language. This was in line with Maxwell’s observation that the “touchstone of the researcher’s
own experience may be more valuable an indicator for a potentially successful research
endeavour” (Maxwell et al, 2008:35–36).
Besides the personal goals, there are two other kinds of goals that are worth distinguishing and
discussing. These are the goals that are important for other people and not just the researcher:
practical goals (including administrative or policy goals) and intellectual goals. Practical goals
are focused on accomplishing something—meeting some need, changing some situation, or
achieving some goal. Intellectual goals, on the other hand, are focused on understanding
something, gaining some insight into what is going on and why this is happening. Although
applied research design places much more emphasis on practical goals than does basic research,
the researcher needs to address the issues of what one needs to understand by doing the study
and how this understanding will contribute to accomplishing the practical goals. There are five
merits that qualitative research designs have. These are discussed in the next section.
3.2.1 Strengths of qualitative research designs
The first strength of qualitative research design is what Maxwell (2004a:279) refers to as
‘understanding the meaning’. In a qualitative study, the researcher is not only interested in the
physical events and behaviour taking place, but also in how the participants in the study make
sense of these events and how the understanding of these events influences their behaviour. The
perspectives on events and actions held by the people involved in the study are not simply their
accounts of these events and actions to be assessed in terms of truth or falsity but they are part of
the reality that research participants are trying to understand and a major influence on their
behaviour (Maxwell, 2004b, 2004a). This focus on meaning is central to what is known as the
“interpretive” approach to social science (Bredo & Feinberg, 1982; Rabinow & Sullivan, 1979).
The second strength of qualitative research designs involves the understanding of the particular
context within which the participants act and the influence this context has on their actions.
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Qualitative researchers typically study a relatively small number of individuals or situations and
preserve the individuality of each of these in their analyses, rather than collecting data from large
samples and aggregating the data across individuals or situations. Thus, they are able to
understand how events, actions, and meanings are shaped by the unique circumstances in which
these occur (Maxwell 2004a:3-11).
The third strength of qualitative research designs concerns the identification of the unanticipated
phenomena, influencing and generating new, “grounded” theories about the latter. Qualitative
research has long been used for this goal by survey and experimental researchers, who often
conduct “exploratory” qualitative studies to help them design their questionnaires and identify
variables for experimental investigation. Although qualitative research is not restricted to this
exploratory role, it is still an important strength of qualitative methods (Maxwell 2008:221).
Understanding the processes by which events and actions take place is the forth strength of
qualitative research designs. Although qualitative research is not unconcerned with outcomes, a
major strength of qualitative studies is their ability to get at the processes that lead to these
outcomes, processes that experimental and survey research are often poor at identifying
(Maxwell, 2008:221).
The fifth strength of qualitative research designs concerns the development of causal
explanations. The traditional view that qualitative research cannot identify causal relationships is
based on a restrictive and philosophically outdated concept of causality (Maxwell, 2004b:243264) and both qualitative and quantitative researchers are increasingly accepting the legitimacy
of using qualitative methods for causal inference (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). Such an
approach requires thinking of causality in terms of processes and mechanisms, rather than simply
demonstrating regularities in the relationships between variables (Maxwell, 2004a:3-11).
Deriving causal explanations from a qualitative study is not an easy or straightforward task.
However, qualitative research is not different from quantitative research in this respect. Both
approaches need to identify and deal with the plausible validity threats to any proposed causal
explanation. These intellectual goals and the inductive, open-ended strategy that they require,
give qualitative research an advantage in addressing numerous practical goals.
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3.2.2 Advantages of qualitative research design
One of the advantages of using qualitative research involves generating results and theories that
are understandable and experientially credible both to the people being studied and to others
(Maxwell 2008). Although quantitative data may have greater credibility for some goals and
audiences, the specific detail and personal immediacy of qualitative data can lead to the greater
influence of the latter in other situations. This is because the evaluation reports qualitative
researchers produce contain detailed descriptions of activities to support the analysis of the
problems or results told as things were rather than simply presenting numbers and
generalizations to back up its recommendations (Maxwell 2008:36.40). Conducting formative
studies, that is studies that are intended to improve existing practice rather than just to determine
the outcome of the programme or practice being studied (Scriven, 1991) is another area of
practical strength qualitative research designs have.
In such studies, which are particularly useful for applied research, it is more important to
understand the process by which things happen in a particular situation than to measure
outcomes rigorously or to compare a given situation with others. The third aspect involves
engaging in collaborative, action, or “empowerment” research with practitioners or research
participants (Cousins & Earl, 1995; Fetterman, Kaftarian, & Wandersman, 1996; Tolman &
Brydon-Miller, 2001; Whyte, 1991). The focus of qualitative research on particular contexts and
their meaning for the participants in these contexts, and on the processes occurring in these
contexts, makes qualitative research especially suitable for collaborations with practitioners or
with members of the community being studied (Patton, 1990:129–130).
3.2.3 Weaknesses of qualitative research designs
Qualitative researchers often study only a single setting or a small number of individuals or sites,
using theoretical or purposeful rather than probability sampling, and they rarely make explicit
claims about the generalizability of their accounts. Maxwell (2008) argues that the value of a
qualitative study may depend on its lack of generalizability in the sense of being representative
of a larger population; it may provide an account of a setting or population that is illuminating as
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an extreme case or “ideal type.” For example, Freidson (1975), during his study of social
controls on work in a medical group practice, deliberately selected an atypical practice, one in
which the physicians were better trained and more “progressive” than usual and that was
structured precisely to deal with the problems that he was studying. He argues that the
documented failure of social controls in this case provides a far stronger argument for the
generalizability of his conclusions than would the study of a “typical” practice (Maxwell
2008:221-232).
The generalizability of qualitative studies is usually based not on explicit sampling of some
defined population to which the results can be extended, but on the development of a theory that
can be extended to other cases Becker (1991) and Yin (1994) refer to this as “analytic,” as
opposed to statistical, generalization. For this reason, Guba and Lincoln (1989) prefer to talk of
“transferability” rather than “generalizability” in qualitative research. Hammersley (1992:189–
191) and Weiss (1994:26–29) list a number of features that lend credibility to generalizations
made from case studies or non-random samples, including respondents’ own assessments of
generalizability, the similarity of dynamics and constraints to other situations, the presumed
depth or universality of the phenomenon studied, and corroboration from other studies. However,
none of these permits the kind of precise extrapolation of results to defined populations that
probability sampling allows.
3.3
Case studies
Finally, this research is a case study and it makes use of ethnographic research methods.
Qualitative research, according to Nunan (1992:4), is concerned with understanding human
behaviour from the actor’s own frame of reference”. Qualitative research is also “grounded,
discovery-oriented, exploratory, expansionist, descriptive, and inductive” (1992:4). McKernan
(1991:74) provides a succinct definition of a case study as ‘a formal collection of evidence
presented as an interpretive position of a unique case [which] includes discussion of the data
collected during fieldwork and [is] written up at the culmination of a cycle of action, or
involvement in the research [emphasis his]’. Wallace (1998:47) also stresses the idea of
uniqueness when they define a case study ‘as systematic investigation of an individual “case”,
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whether that refers to one teacher, one learner, one group, one class, or whatever’. It is an
approach that contrasts with traditional empirical research which is ‘typically concerned with
general scientific laws which apply to the whole class (population) of people or phenomena
being investigated (Wallace 1998:160). Although this narrow focus has obvious limitations, the
case study is particularly suited to teacher reflection (Burton 2006:7).
Nunan (1992:75) sees a case study as ‘an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomena and
context are not clearly evident’. According to both Wallace (1998:163) and Yin 2003:10-12), the
focus on uniqueness does not mean that case studies cannot have any resonances beyond
themselves. Although their findings cannot be generalized, they can be used as evidence to
support a theory (Wallace 1998:163; Yin 2003:10-12). This is the way in which the mentioned
case study was used in this study. A further justification for the use of case study is the flexibility
of the methodology. Within the broad framework of a case study, a wide range of techniques for
gathering and analyzing data can be used: which ones the researcher uses would depend on the
precise nature of the case study (Zuber-Skerritt 1992:130-141; Wallace 1998:168; Butler 2006).
Mckernan (1991:77), commenting on case study as a research methodology, goes on to state that
‘case study methodology may make the greatest contribution where the purposes of the project or
aims are unclear or ambiguous. The research may tend to clarify and tidy up misunderstandings’
(Mckernan, 1991:81).
This research is a case study using ethnographic study methods. Nunan (1992:55) states that
ethnography involves the study of the culture/characteristics of a group in a real-world rather
than laboratory setting (1992:57). He further explains that in ethnographic research explanations
take the form of grounded ‘grounded’ theory. This grounded theory is “theory that is based in
and derived from data, and arrived at through a systematic process of induction” (Nunan
1992:57). It also involves “holism” and “thick” explanation: Holistic research takes into account
both the behaviour of the individuals and/groups under investigation and the “context in which
the behaviour occurs”, which has a major influence on the behaviour (Nunan 1992:57). “Thick”
explanation refers to a taking into account of all the factors which may affect the phenomenon
being studied (1992:58). Thick explanation is appropriate for this study since the study aims to
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explore the effectiveness of designed materials in meeting senior secondary English language
objectives.
3.3.1 Weaknesses of the case study
A case study as a research approach is often criticized for being biased, for providing little basis
for generalization and for resulting in unwieldy, hard to read documents. Yin (2003:21) takes
issue with these criticisms by stating that the mentioned shortfalls may be found in any badly
planned research design, including experimental research and historical surveys. With regard to
generalization, Yin (ibid.) posits that a case study, as any other form of research, makes use of
analytic generalization and not statistical generalization. Yin (ibid) further observes that “case
studies in qualitative research, in any case, do not aim to be generalizable. In addition, case
studies are often criticized for being ‘pre-experimental ground clearance…” for further serious
research. However, Nunan (1992:74-75) argues that this is not always the case. He says that
insofar as the perception that case study is but a limited form of ethnography, it is similar to
ethnography with regard to philosophy, method and focus on the study of an instance in context.
Nunan (1992) further argues that while a case study may have the disadvantage of having limited
scope, it can nevertheless apply both qualitative and quantitative data and statistical methods.
The discussion in the following sections will be limited to those methods and techniques actually
used in the present study. These have been divided into categories and are discussed in the
section that follows.
3.4
Research methodology
Several issues are discussed in this section. A discussion on quantitative research instruments
used is followed by a description of the qualitative instruments and procedures employed in
gathering data. A discussion of the designed materials and their evaluation against syllabus
objectives is then given. The research population sample is discussed together with population
characteristics and sampling techniques (including data collection procedures and data analysis).
Issues to do with validity and ethics are then discussed.
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3.4.1 Quantitative research instruments
In coming up with research instruments within the umbrella of mixed method research design
under quasi-experimental context, one of the requirement is that there should be a pre-test and
the post-test done before and at the end of the research period. These are discussed below.
3.4.1.1
Pretest - Proficiency test
In coming with the pretest research results, a Proficiency Language Test was used. According to
Hughes (1989), a proficiency test is designed to measure people’s ability in a language
regardless of any training they may have had in that language. The content of a proficiency test,
therefore, is not based on the content of the objectives of the language course which students
taking the test will be following. Rather, it is based on a specification of what subjects have to be
able to do in the language in order to be considered proficient (Hughes 1989: 9). The test was
used to determine what pupils were able to do before commencement of the study.
Before commencement of the study, therefore, an English Language Test Paper was compiled
and administered by the researcher to the students. The results were used to compare levels of
language competency between the control and the treatment groups. It is only after this has been
done can one know the effect of treatment on the experimental group. It is worth noting here that
the same test was given to both groups (control and treatment) and results recorded. The duration
of the test was 1 hour 30 minutes and it provided a score of out 100 for each correspondent.
Marks scored in comprehension, rewrites and the cloze test sections were recorded separately as
a percentage of the total (20 in each case). The test was designed to be comprehensive covering
mainly aspects that should have been covered at Junior Secondary School level and was
modelled on the School Certificate format. The paper had three sections, namely,
Comprehension, Rewrites and the Cloze Test. The sample test paper is found in Appendix A.
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3.4.1.2
Post-test
After thirteen weeks of treatment, the control and the experimental groups were again subjected
to another test (post-test). This was done to ascertain the effect of teaching for the control group
and the effectiveness of the designed material in case of the experiment group. In terms of
structure, the post-test was not in any way different from the pre-test. It comprises: question 1
(comprehension), question 2 (rewrites) and the cloze test. Each of the three sections had a total of
10 questions for comprehension. Each question was a multiple choice question and was worth 2
marks giving a total of 20 marks which were later converted to percentage. In terms of the level
of difficulty, both the pre-test and post-test did not differ much. One can confidently argue that
they were at the same level. Questions tested a wide range of skills ranging from decoding
meanings of expressions to vocabulary work. In case of some questions, students needed to infer
meanings which were not expressively stated but implied in the text (see appendix B).
3.4.2 Qualitative research instruments
The discussion in the following sections will be limited to those methods and techniques used in
the present study. These have been divided into the following categories: “Introspection, lesson
reports, students’ written tasks, review of designed materials, documentation – (Curriculum
Development Centre, 1997:9).
3.4.2.1
Field-notes and diaries
Wallace (1998:54) suggests that the kind of everyday, subjective reflections that all teachers
engage in can be made available for systematic analysis through the use of an appropriate
research methodology. These include the use of field-notes and diaries. Wallace summarizes
their differing uses when he makes the following observation: “Field-notes are used to describe
what has happened during a lesson, and may be written during or after the lesson. On the other
hand diaries are personal and confidential records (usually) written up daily” (Wallace 1998:54).
Wallace (ibid) also includes various kinds of verbal report, such as self-report, self observation
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and think-aloud, as introspection techniques. When transcribed and analyzed, these can offer
insights into the process of teaching and learning. A lesson report is another name for field notes
mentioned by Wallace (1998:66-767). Richard and Lockhardt define a lesson report as follows:
‘A lesson report is an inventory or list which enables teachers to describe their
recollections of the main features of a lesson… a quick and simple procedure
for regularly monitoring what happened during the lesson. Whereas a lesson
plan describes what a teacher intends to do during a lesson, a lesson report
describes what actually happened from the teacher’s point of view”.
Richard and Lockhardt (1994:9)
Richard and Lockhardt go on to offer a simple framework of questions to give direction
to the report:
What were the main goals of the lesson and what did the learners actually learner
from the lesson? What teaching procedure did I use? What problems did I
encounter and how did I deal with them? What were the most effective parts of
the lesson? What were the least effective parts of the lesson? Would I do anything
differently if I taught the lesson again?
(1994:10)
The technique that I used extensively here was the lesson reports that I prepared after teaching
and kept on a regular basis. These were recorded in form of evaluations and formed the basis for
reflecting upon the development of my teaching and research. Topics included evaluation of
materials and tasks, areas to be revisited, research methodology, the viability of stated outcomes,
problems in logistics and the teaching context, as well as occasional flashes of insight and
inspiration. The lesson reports, although depended on subjective judgement and expressed in
personal terms, were more focused and encouraged systematic analysis of teaching and learning.
An obvious disadvantage of lesson reports as a source of data is their subjectivity (Richards and
Lockhardt 1994:11). As a technique for introspection, they are useful and easy to implement; but
the perspective that they offer is dangerously limited. Further perspectives are therefore needed
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to give a fuller picture and provide a challenge to the teacher’s own account. Various methods of
triangulation aimed at providing this perspective will now be considered.
3.4.2.2
Classroom based tasks
More authentic modes of gathering information data that I used extensively are the students’
tasks. In addition to providing information about pupils, tasks were designed in such a way as to
enable the researcher to get factual and affective information about the pupils. However, Butler
(2006:136) cautions researchers using this technique that this purpose should always remain
subsidiary to the primary learning function. Apart from being the means of accessing pupils’
attainment of the various outcomes throughout the project, pupils written work was an incidental
source of data about their linguistic progress and their learning difficulties. The advantage of this
data gathering method was that, although extracting information was a cumbersome and timeconsuming task, it was not as intrusive as questionnaires are (if used) and its status as a grade
carrying assignment guaranteed pupils’ attention. The stress that was laid throughout the material
testing period on learner self-reflexivity meant that it was relatively easy to combine learning and
research. Language exercises provided a rich source of data without interference in the learning
process.
The method was used with particular effectiveness during the second half of the study when
pupils were asked to write short essays in which they reflected on their attitude to learning
English through designed materials. To ensure uniformity and ease of analysis, guidelines were
provided for the structure of the essay and the content areas to be covered. The essays were then
subjected to qualitative analysis. As well as providing me with invaluable information on a topic
central to my research, the assignment aimed at providing pupils’ skills in self-critical reflection.
In addition to the essays, five class tests were administered with a research purpose in mind,
although they also served useful pedagogical functions (including a diagnostic purpose). The
tests given comprise grammar, comprehension and the cloze tests. The results were analyzed to
determine pupils’ progress.
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3.4.2.3
Documents
Given the relationship between practice and research, it is inevitable that documents of various
kinds will form part of the data used. Documents have been used in the present study as a way of
providing evidence and data of events. The syllabus was used as a guide for the learning
outcomes to be met during the process of learning and research. Other documents included
policy statements by the Ministry of Education and National conference papers.
3.4.3 Application of research techniques
3.4.3.1
Lesson reports
Although the lesson reports, depended on subjective judgement and expressed in personal terms,
they were focused and encouraged systematic analysis of teaching and learning. The focus on the
description and analysis of specific lessons provided a balance to the wider range of the journal.
The advantage of this approach of analysing questions is its compatibility with outcome-based
education: assessing the success of the lesson, to a large extent, involved matching the syllabus
objectives with the actual events in the classroom. Although Richards and Lockhardt’s (1994:10)
questions are not dealt with individually, most of the elements of the report are implied in the
comments. This was the first lesson and so I had to ask my supervisor who is the Head of
English Department to come and observe me present the lesson. His comments were not
officially recorded in the report, however, since it was meant to be used as a ‘trial run’ only. The
report is still expressed in terms of my own introspective analysis, although we had to discuss
and compared our impressions of the lesson informally. Subsequent lesson reports show my
attempts to reflect and act on my supervisor’s observations as well as my own. My subsequent
analysis of my lesson notes involved scanning them to identify recurring themes and
preoccupations over the course of my case study. They were also used to create a contextual
narrative in which to set the teaching and learning processes.
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3.4.3.2
Classroom observation
The classroom observation mentioned in the lesson reports also functioned as a form of
triangulation to my introspection, modifying or confirming my own impressions. But the
following extracts from the latter lesson reports highlight its short comings as a method of
observation, in particular its intrusive nature and the introduction of factors over which the
researcher has no control. In this instance, my colleague’s own research interest and the pupils’
erratic attendance during lessons had an obvious impact on my attempts to gather data in a
systematic and consistent way. On the other hand, by recording my experience in my lesson
reports, I obtained a different kind of data: a qualitative insight into the institutional context in
which the teaching and research were taking place.
3.4.3.3
Designing materials
This formed the major source of data. In a period of twelve weeks pupils were taught using
materials that was designed based on a collection of short stories. The researcher taught the
English language skills in an integrated manner within the context of communicative language
teaching. The control group, on the other hand followed their normal programme. This means
that they were taught using the prescribed course books (English 10 – pupils’ book). Material
testing and evaluation was an on-going activity throughout the study. Some of the flaws in the
way the material was designed only came to light during the teaching process.
3.5
3.5.1
Treatment of the Subjects
Control group
The control group was taught by the researcher over a period of thirteen weeks. The study
commenced in February 2009 and continued until June 2009. The control group followed the
programme as prescribed by the Ministry of Education. The control group’s teaching was based
on the prescribed course book (English 10 Book 1). On the control group’s timetable, the
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periods
appeared
as
Summary,
Comprehension,
Listening
and
Speaking,
Reading
Comprehension, Composition and Structure. The text book in use has lessons arranged in the
same way. On the other hand the treatment group followed a totally different language
programme and this is discussed in the next section.
3.5.2 Treatment group
The focus group had lessons based on the materials designed by the researcher. These were
designed prior to the commencement of the study. The basis for material design were the
syllabus which provided outcomes which pupils were expected to display after going through a
process of treatment and the short story book which provided the stories on which material
design was based. Using these tools, the researcher embarked on production and preparation of
teaching materials and notes based on a collection of stories called ‘Winners’. A set of 50 short
story books were donated to me by The University of South Africa – Education Department.
These were the books I used in this study and materials were prepared based on the same.
Preparation took quite a lot of time as they had to conform to the principles of communicative
language teaching and the ‘Text-based’ Approaches. Stories on which material design was based
included the following: The Winner - by Barbara Kimenye, A Mother in Mannville – by Marjorie
R Rawlings, Roppie – by Jack Cope, Ta-Na-Ka – by Mary Whitebird, Chief Sekoto Holds Court
– by Bessie Head, The Turn of the Tide – by C.S. Forester, Flight – by Doris Lessing, A Secret
for Two – by Quentin Reynolds, The Story Teller- by Saki, Magic in a Zulu Name – by R.R.R.
Dhlomo, The Home Coming – by Mary Byron, Man from the South – by Roald Dalh, The
Divided House – by Alan Paton, and A Good End – by Perceval Gibbon.
With the experimental group, as much as possible, each of the stories constituted a full unit
equivalent to a week and took a full week to finish. Generally, four to five lessons were prepared
based on a single text. The ‘Integrated text-based’ approach that was used as the basis for
material design is an approach that combines two elements; ‘text-based’ meaning that a series of
lessons comprised a unit, which centred on a written text, while ‘Integrated’ here implies the
teaching of the language skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking, in conjunction with
each other (Curriculum Development Centre, 1997: 2-3). Here, one single lesson may involve
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activities that focus on all the language skills: listening and speaking to reading and writing. The
text was carefully chosen for its suitability in terms of interest, level of difficulty and
appropriateness (Curriculum Development Centre 1997). The designed materials are found in
Appendix C.
The text (Winners) was studied by the subjects (research participants) under the guidance of the
researcher who is also the class teacher and led to a wide range of activities which included the
following: word study and vocabulary extension, study of certain structures used in the text, the
study of the ways in which sentences and paragraphs were linked (cohesion), oral discussions
(class, group and pair work, and debates), other communicative activities (role-plays,
dramatization, simulations), written comprehension, summary and note-making, composition,
oral comprehension, dictation and projects. In designing materials, the researcher had the general
syllabus objectives in mind (C.D.C. 1997:5)
3.5.3 Designing materials according to syllabus the assessment criteria
Lazar (1993:56) states that it is not easy to make a proper assessment of a literary text without
actually having used the material with the students, but it is possible to reach a few preliminary
conclusions about the books and materials even if these are altered or modified after using them
with a class. As Lazar (1993) observes, in material evaluation it is important to think about what
the needs of teachers, students and other interested parties are likely to be. For example, students
in Zambia are required to write the school certificate national examination at the end of their
Grade 12. These examinations are structural in nature and they comprise comprehension,
structure and composition. For one to do well in this examination, the knowledge of grammar
and one’s ability to read is essential. What this means therefore is that as teaching material is
designed, one needs to provide for this aspect of language skills. In addition, it has now been
realized that teaching ESL should reflect the new trends in communicative language teaching
principles. This was one of the areas that received a lot of attention both at material design and
lesson delivery stages.
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Bearing the above in mind and in order to develop the pupils’ confidence in the language, the
researcher, through material design provided students with opportunities to use the language
effectively in meaningful situations. This approach accorded pupils a chance to relate their
knowledge of language forms to communicative functions. Various activities were identified
which provided this practice. Activities included: role-playing, social-interaction activities and
pair and group work, as well as the conventional guided conversations and formal debates. Most
of these activities were linked to listening and speaking sections of the syllabus. Teaching
materials were designed bearing in mind that note-taking, reading, writing and structure also
often have communicative aspects. No specific lessons were allocated to any main aspect or skill
(for example structure, comprehension, oral work, composition). As much as possible, language
skills were integrated.
3.5.4 Evaluation of designed material
Tomlinson (2003:17) defines material evaluation as, ‘a procedure that involves measuring the
value (or potential value) of a set of learning materials’. It involves making judgements about the
effect of the learning materials on the learner or subjects (in this case). In a study like this one,
the process of material evaluation is unavoidable in order to measure the level of ‘effectiveness
and programme success’. In doing material evaluation, there are certain guidelines that
researchers such as Hutchinson and Waters (1984:8-13) and McDonough (1998:156-165)
recommend to be followed. The following areas need to be addressed during the process of
material evaluation. Details and answers on each one of them will be discussed in the next
chapter. In carrying out material evaluation, I found the McDonough (1998:158-159) model
more appropriate. The following questions needed to be addressed: where, by whom, why?
(i) How is the approach to language and learning reflected in the overall organization of
the materials? To what extent are the materials based on the analysis of the needs of a
particular type of learner? What is the role of the teacher? Is some degree of specialtyknowledge assumed? Is detailed guidance given for the teacher?
(ii) How can tasks and activities be characterized? Do they reflect organization and
therefore, by extension, the approach? Is explicit attention paid, for example, to learning
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strategies and comprehension processes? Does language practice follow a structural or
discourse approach, for instance in the length of the text used?
(iii) What criteria are used for the grading and sequencing of the material? Is this
carried out according to the text length, type of exercise, or presumed linguistic or
conceptual difficulty? Do the activities move from controlled to free? Do receptive
skills occur before productive? Or is each unit of work free-standing, allowing the
teacher open-selection?
(iv) What skills are dealt with? Is there an attempt to integrate them? Are they a direct
outcome of the needs analysis? Is any visual material included, and if so, what is its
role? Is it merely illustrative, or is it integrated with exercises and activities? Is any
particular classroom methodology and management appropriate for the materials?
(McDonough 1998:158).
Tomlinson (2003:20) observes that individuals learn best when they see things as part of the
recognized pattern, when their imagination are aroused, when they make natural associations
between one idea and another, and when the information appeals to their senses. He suggests
that material evaluators should convert the foregoing conclusions into criteria that should be used
when undertaking material evaluation. The first aspect should be to determine to what extent is
the teaching material related to the wants of the learner. Having addressed this aspect, the next
step is to consider the extent to which the materials could help the learners to achieve
connections with their own lives. The extent to which materials are likely to stimulate emotional
engagements and promote communication are some of the issues that should be addressed. The
degree to which literature based designed materials can be used to enhance the teaching ESL
communicatively should not be ignored. Gajdusek (1988:234) suggests that another area whose
validity needs addressing is the claim that literature related materials does stimulate valuable
classroom interaction. In attempting to answer the foregoing questions, I had to undertake what I
could refer to as a post-evaluation exercise.
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3.5.5 Post-use material evaluation
This was a very important stage in my research. Post evaluation was administered so as to
measure the actual effects of the materials on the users. The post-use evaluation as a process
measures the short-term effect with regards to motivation, impact, achievability, and learning
and can measure the long term effect as regards durable learning and application. Post-use
evaluation focused on the following questions:
What did the students know which they did not know before being exposed to the
designed learning the materials? What do the learners still not know despite using
the materials? What did the learners do which they could not do before starting to
use the materials? What can the learners still not do despite using the materials?
To what extent have the materials prepared the learners for their examinations?
To what extent have the materials prepared the learners for their positive use of
the target language? What effect have the materials had on the confidence and
motivation of the learners? To what extent have the materials helped the learners
to become independent learners? Did the teacher find the material easy to use?
Did the materials help the teacher to successfully cover the syllabus?
(Tomlinson 2003:24):
In coming up with answers to the above evaluation questions and measure the post-use effects of
materials, the following instruments were used: Tests of what had been taught using the designed
materials; tests of what the students could do; activities based on what students had learnt
including daily and weekly homework and assignments. As Tomlinson (ibid) rightly observes,
the main problem, of course, is that it takes time and expertise to note down post-use effects
reliably (for the process to be really revealing, there should be measurement of pre-use attitudes
and abilities in order to provide data against which to base the comparison). However, in this
study, the pre-test and the post-test results were used as a basis for comparison and determination
of the effectiveness of the materials designed.
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3.5.6 Designed material versus syllabus objectives
It is not the object of this study to expose the treatment or focus group to materials divorced from
what has been prescribed in the senior secondary English Language syllabus. Consequently,
when designing course materials, the syllabus objectives were closely followed so as not to
disadvantage the treatment group. The difference between the treatment and the control group
lay in the materials used for teaching purposes and not in the objectives or skills to be covered
and acquired, respectively. Below I discuss various sections that comprised the designed
materials and the various skills that the course intended to impart in the learners in line with the
syllabus.
3.5.6.1
Oral communication skills
The materials were designed according to the principles of CLT. Exercises in all the units were
meant to complement a communicative teaching style to the extent that even teachers who have
never used communicative language teaching approach before would be able to design teaching
materials. The heavy focus on pair and group work created a large amount of talking time for the
learners which is a distinctive feature of communicative language teaching. Recent research into
the process of children’s first and second language development has yielded a number of insights
which have been combined to create the CLT model (Richards and Schmidt 2002:90). Pair and
group work were based on the CLT assumptions: The first one is that children learn a language
as a medium of communication rather than as a curriculum subject with sets of isolated topics,
facts or skills; thus language is viewed as a verb (doing language or communicating) rather than
as a noun (knowledge of language). Similarly, language proficiency is defined as, ‘The speakers’
successful accomplishment of their communicative task (Richards and Schmidt 2002:90).’ The
time that was allocated to listening and speaking at every phase of the lesson, even when
checking answers to grammar exercises was not incidental. It was intentional and part of the
pedagogical design of the course. The lessons had sections such as pre-reading activities, debates
and role-plays (Richards and Schmidt 2002:90).
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As Richards and Schmidt (2002:90) observe, ‘listening and speaking enhance grammatical
competence simply through the learners’ exposure to the input and that learner’s use and
therefore practise their grammatical competence in this manner’. When they read and write,
speak and listen, when they make meaning, learners access their grammatical competence. This
study, however, was not aimed at incidental learning. The purpose was to establish to what
extent exercises (materials) designed based on a literary text could wholly replace prescribed
course books.
The oral Communication stages of the designed materials sought to develop the oral skills
specified in the Listening and Speaking section of the syllabus. The pupils were required to use
English purposefully in a variety of activities. These included conversations, information gap
exercises, describing processes, giving explanations and directions, and role-plays. The lessons
used group work discussion activities, pair work and interviews extensively. Students found
these very interesting and always looked forward to other related activities. The purpose of these
activities was to develop the pupils’ oral competence and to increase their confidence in speaking
English. Formal debates were also used as a way of developing pupils’ oral skills. The lessons
included pre-reading activities, pair and group work, ‘hot seating’ characters, debates, roleplaying, class discussions and conversations such as telephone conversations. The other activity
that was undertaken to which pupils were exposed during the study is note-making and note
taking.
3.5.6.2
Note-taking and note-making
The Senior English Language Syllabus makes a distinction between note-making and notetaking. The note-making involves the recording of relevant information from a written source.
Note-taking involves the recording of relevant information from a spoken source (Curriculum
Development Centre 1997:1-4). Work on the important skill of note-taking in our schools begins
systematically in Grade 10, the foundation for such work having been laid by means of the
listening comprehension and summary and note-making activities. Whilst fulfilling these
syllabus objectives, pupils were provided with opportunities to practice and develop their notetaking skills in other activities as ‘whilst listening’. Before reading the story, each lesson had an
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introductory part known as ‘whist listening’. The teacher gave pupils questions before listening
to a story being read and they took down notes as they listened for the answers in the story being
read by the teacher. Recognizing the difficulty in mastering the skill of note-making, the work
was introduced in a simplified manner, the early work in fact being very similar in form to the
listening comprehension exercises with which the pupils are now very familiar. Again, like the
oral skills, this part was ably handled through designed materials. Like the previous activity, this
was amongst the most enjoyed activity. Apart from learning about summary skills, dictation was
another major component of my study.
3.5.6.3
Dictation
In the 1960s it was usual, at least in some parts of the world, to decry dictation testing as
hopelessly misguided (Hughes 1989:72). Critics of this important teaching technique (dictation)
have argued that since the order of words was given, dictation did not test word order which is a
very important skill in English language teaching and that since the words themselves were
given, dictation test vocabulary; since it was possible to identify words from context, it did not
test aural perception. While it might test punctuation and spelling, critics argued that ‘there were
clearly more economical ways of doing this (Hughes 1989:72).
This orthodoxy however, has not gone unchallenged. Research has since revealed high
correlation between scores on dictation tests and scores on much longer and more complex tests.
Examination of performance on dictation tests made it very clear that words and word order were
not really given; students heard only a stream of sound which had to be decoded into a
succession of words, stored, and recreated on paper. The ability to identify words from context
was now seen as a very desirable ability, one that distinguished between learners at different
levels (Hughes 1989:72).
Dictation exercises give similar results as those obtained from cloze exercises in predicting
overall ability as dictation based activities do rely heavily on an individual’s listening ability.
That is probably the only advantage. Certainly, they are easy to create and they are relatively
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easy to administer, though not as easy as the paper-and-pencil cloze. But certainly, not easy to
score as the cloze test. Hughes (1989), who was a leading researcher then into both dictation and
the cloze test, recommends that the score should be the number of words appearing in their
original sequence (misspelled words being regarded as correct as long as no phonological rule is
broken). This works quite well when performance is reasonably accurate, but is still time
consuming. With poorer students, scoring becomes tedious.
In this study, dictation, like cloze, proved a useful technique where estimates of overall ability
was needed. The same consideration guided the choice of passages as with the cloze procedure.
The passages to be used had to be broken down into stretches that were broken without a break.
These passages were fairly long, beyond rote memory, so that the students were able to decode,
store, and then re-decode what they had heard. It is usual, when administering dictation, to begin
by reading the entire passage straight through. Then the stretches are read out, not too slowly,
one after the other with enough time for the students to write down what they have heard.
Dictation is one of the recommended techniques to be used in the process of meeting syllabus
objectives in the senior secondary syllabus. This activity brought together in a controlled
situation a variety of language skills and aspects including transcribing (that is transforming
spoken discourse into the written form), handwriting and layout, spelling and capitalization.
The following scoring criterion was adopted during dictation exercises. The first one was that a
mark was deducted for each word seriously misspelled or omitted and a recurring word
consistently misspelled was penalized only once. Half a mark was deducted for each word
which, although misspelled, was recognizable and half a mark was deducted for the absence of
capital letters where they were necessary.
The teacher distributed the correct version of the story written on the piece of paper. Pupils
copied and corrected their work. Words misspelled by pupils were written five times by each
child in their exercise books. The material from the story book proved to be more than adequate.
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3.5.6.4
Reading comprehension
Reading comprehension was one of the activities that were undertaken extensively. Pupils, with
the researcher’s guidance read the text and answered the questions that followed. Pupils did the
exercise in their exercise books. Most questions required answers written in full sentences. There
were some questions that required objective answers (multiple choice questions). For example,
pupils had to infer answers by making connections during reading, relate new information in the
text to the information that they already know, see how different elements in the text are linked,
locate details and use integrative skills to construct meaning.
3.5.6.5
Writing skills
Each unit contained activities either directly or indirectly relating to development of composition
skills. Pupils were presented with interesting and purposeful writing tasks including informal and
formal letter writing, report and newspaper articles. There was, as recommended by the syllabus,
‘emphasis on nature and relevance of the writing task’ (Curriculum Development Centre
1997:10) and a shift away from cue/response tasks to encouraging the pupils to write more
freely.
3.5.6.6
Cloze exercises
Students were familiar with cloze exercises as a testing medium. This is because cloze exercises
are usually used extensively in the junior secondary section. However, the difference in this case
lay in the fact that in Grade 10, a cloze activity was included in some units for teaching, rather
than testing, purposes. The text for the cloze exercise was linked to the story of the unit. In order
to encourage oral communication amongst students which is one the objects of CLT pupils were
allowed to discuss suitable words to be used to complete the exercises. As well as proving a
useful indication of each pupil’s ability, which was the original intention of such exercises, the
cloze activity was viewed as a teaching aid for grammar and vocabulary work. Provided
adequate follow-up work was carried out by the teacher, whether by class discussion or on an
individual basis, very useful language development was the result.
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3.5.6.7
Project Work
Another useful technique based on the same rationale as that for the integrated approach was the
use of ‘projects’. Studies have revealed that project work give the pupils an opportunity to put
into practice many of their English language skills such as reference skills, note-making,
interviewing, note-taking and composition including non-linguistic skills such as graphic design
and illustrations. Projects were taken by pupils either individually, in pairs or in groups. Bearing
in mind that projects were time consuming and in view of the limited time available, only three
projects were given. The English language syllabus recommends that topics selected for the
projects could virtually be based on any topic as long as the topic is appropriate and within the
pupils’ capabilities (Curriculum Development Centre 1997:4). Great care should always be taken
in choosing a topic for project work. Amongst the factors to consider when choosing a topic are
that the topic chosen should not only be relevant but should also be interesting to the pupils.
Where possible, pupils should be involved in choosing the topic. The syllabus in which project
work is recommended is given in Appendix D.
3.5.6.8
Grammatical skills
The structure section of the syllabus was not based on any of the stories read in the text. This was
not just peculiar to this course alone. A careful examination of the traditional materials
(prescribed course book) revealed that while lessons on all the language skills were based on the
texts being read and used during that unit, this was not the case with structures. However,
occasionally, grammar related questions were asked as part of the comprehension or composition
skills. The researcher came to realize that I needed to give pupils a chance to learn language
structures so as to help them do well in the final examinations when they will be doing Grade 12.
Occasionally, it was necessary to give them formal instruction in structure especially those that
were being introduced for the first time in Grade 10. Presentation of structures followed the
format given below. Pupils were encouraged to work in pairs or and small groups.
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3.6
Research population
The research took place over a period of thirteen weeks which is equivalent to a school term. The
study was limited to full time Grade 10 students at Kalulushi Trust School. The students were
from different social-economic backgrounds. The school is located in the Central Business
District of Kalulushi Municipal Council on the Copperbelt Province of Zambia. The students
represented different language backgrounds. At the time of the study, all students had just
qualified to proceed from Junior Secondary after passing the National Examinations held
between November and December of 2008. The school draws its pupils from both the
economically disadvantaged and the able community. The current pupil population stands at 440.
In terms of grade levels, the school offers education from Reception right up to Grade 12.
The population comprised both boys and girls. The following students were excluded from the
study, that is, those students who stayed away from school for more than two weeks and those
students who did not write either the pre-test or the post-test. The school in which the study took
place has a total population of 640 students. The school has both boys and girls. Out of this
number, 270 are grade 10 students. This is the group (grade 10) from which the sample, that is,
research participants were chosen. The sample comprised 80 grade 10 students who had just
qualified in the national examination. The national examinations act as a bridge between the
junior secondary school and the senior secondary school levels. The groups comprised both boys
and girls.
3.6.1
Population characteristics
The sample population needs to possess the same or similar characteristics as the wider
population to which the research findings will be applied. In this research study, the sample
population consisted of Grade 10 students who had just qualified to senior secondary education.
The experimental group had 26 girls and 24 boys. The control group had 22 girls and 28 boys.
Pupils at this school are not streamed. They are allocated to their respective classes as they
report. The researcher believes that the sample population was clearly defined and that the
findings can be applied to other population samples of similar characteristics learning ESL.
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3.6.2 Sampling techniques
Whenever you have a choice about when and where to observe, whom to talk to, or what
information sources to focus on, you are faced with a sampling decision. Even a single case
study involves a choice of this case rather than others, as well as requiring sampling decisions
within the case itself. Miles and Huberman (1994:27–34) and LeCompte, Preissle & Tesch
(1993:56–85) provide valuable discussions of particular sampling issues. Here here, I would like
to talk more generally about the nature and purposes of sampling in qualitative research. Works
on quantitative research generally treat anything other than probability sampling as “convenience
sampling,” and strongly discourage the latter. For qualitative research, this ignores the fact that
most sampling in qualitative research is neither probability sampling nor convenience sampling,
but falls into a third category: purposeful sampling (Patton, 1990:169). This is a strategy in
which particular settings, persons, or events are deliberately selected for the important
information they can provide that cannot be gotten as well from other choices.
There are several important uses for purposeful sampling. First, it can be used to achieve
representativeness or typicality of the settings, individuals, or activities selected. A small sample
that has been systematically selected for typicality and relative homogeneity provides far more
confidence that the conclusions adequately represent the average members of the population than
does a sample of the same size that incorporates substantial random or accidental variation.
Second, purposeful sampling can be used to capture adequately the heterogeneity in the
population. The goal here is to ensure that the conclusions adequately represent the entire range
of variation rather than only the typical members or some subset of this range. Third, a sample
can be purposefully selected to allow for the examination of cases that are critical for the theories
that the study began with or that have subsequently been developed.
Finally, purposeful sampling can be used to establish particular comparisons to illuminate the
reasons for differences between settings or individuals, a common strategy in multi-case
qualitative studies. You should not make sampling decisions in isolation from the rest of your
design. They should take into account your research relationship with study participants, the
feasibility of data collection and analysis, and validity concerns, as well as your goals and
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conceptual framework. In addition, feasible sampling decisions often require considerable
knowledge of the setting studied, and you will need to alter them as you learn more about what
decisions will work best to give you the data you need.
In coming up with research subjects, the researcher used the non-probability sampling technique.
So the researcher chose the two Grade 10 classes that he was teaching. The motivation for
choosing the two samples was that being a teacher at this school I found it easier to conduct a
research within my class. One class was to act as the experimental group and the other as the
control group. It was not practicable to rearrange the subjects into groups or classes at will as this
was going to disrupt the timetable and the school administration could not have authorized this
arrangement. Therefore the subjects used were taught in their usual classes, that is, they
(subjects) were already grouped together for purposes other than for carrying out the research.
The researcher was aware of the effect of this sampling technique on internal validity (which was
weakened). To guard against this, I had to give a pre-test and a post-test to both the control and
the treatment group so as to ascertain their levels of competence prior to the commencement of
the study.
3.7
Data collection procedures
Two sets of data were collected for this study. In the first set, 80 Grade 10 students wrote a
pretest comprising: Comprehension, Grammar and Cloze Test. The format of the test paper was
in line with the syllabus and School certificate Examinations requirement. The 80 test-scripts
from the sampled subjects were then marked in accordance with the requirements of the study,
that is, performance in each of the sections was marked and recorded as a percentage of the total
score for that section. The following was the mark allocation for each of the section:
Section
Summary skills
Comprehension
Grammar
Cloze Test
No. of Questions
Marks
01
10
10
10
20
20
20
20
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% total
100
100
100
100
3.7.1 Research instrument or task sensitivity
All the data collection instruments were incorporated into the course. The results of the pre-test
and the post-test would be used to further improve teaching and learning. The researcher does
not believe that any student falsified the results or took the tests cautiously because they were not
aware that they were participating in a research study.
3.7.2 Time frame
The data was collected over a period of 13 weeks. In the researcher’s opinion, the period is long
enough to allow sufficient time for significant patterns, themes and trends to emerge in the data
(Seliger and Shohamy 1989).
3.7.3 Interaction of subject selection and research
Seliger and Shohamy (1989) state that there is a threat to external validity when using paid or
volunteer subjects as they may not be representative of the wider population to which the
research findings are generalized. In this study, the subjects were neither paid nor volunteer
subjects. There was, therefore, no danger for subjects wanting to participate for monetary reasons
or subjects distorting the data in order to attract the attention to them.
3.9.4 Effect of the research environment
Seliger and Shohamy (1989) state that subjects who are aware that they are participating in a
research study may change their behaviour which may result in distortions in the results. In this
study, the data collection instruments were included as part of the course and students were told
that these were to be used for feedback purposes only.
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3.7.5 Effect of time
The data collection phase took place over a period of 13 weeks which is sufficient time to
determine the existence of significant patterns and trends. Each group participated in the study
for the same duration. The time was sufficient to enable the researcher gather data and determine
the effects of the humanistic techniques. The researcher does not believe that time had
detrimental effect on the research project.
3.7.6 Rating procedure and scale
Performance in the pre- and the post-tests was based on the following totals which were worked
out as a percentage of the total: comprehension - 20 marks, rewrites - 20 marks and the cloze
Test - 20 marks, giving a total of 60 marks. The following rating scale will be used in the
analysis as follows (summary, comprehension, rewrites and the cloze test):
Point(s)
Mark range
Remarks
1
2
3
3
4
0 – 15
16- 25
26-35
36 –50
51 – 60
Poor
Fair
Average
Good
Very Good
3.7.7 Data analysis
The following data analyses procedures was used to answer the question as to whether literary
texts such as short storybooks could be used to teach all ESL skills namely listening, speaking,
reading and writing in place of prescribed texts books.
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3.7.8 Student‘t’-test analysis
In order to check if there is a significant difference of the performance between the experimental
and the control groups, the ‘student t-test’ analysis was used so as to statistically investigate the
mean difference between the two groups. The researcher will investigate whether there is any
significance at the 0.05 level of significance of the mean scores of the two groups. The student’s’
test mode of analysis has been chosen because the study yielded only two sets of samples results.
In presentation and analysis of results, tables and graphs will be used.
In analyzing data obtained, the researcher will be interested in knowing to what extent (if any) is
the data in this case test scores obtained by both the treatment group and the control group
similar and the degree to which the data is different. The first step therefore will be to determine
the mean that is the average scores obtained by both groups of subjects in the post-tests (found
by adding the individual scores together and dividing by the number of scores). This resulted into
the central tendency. But of importance to the study is the Standard Deviation (SD) which is the
most important measure of dispersion. SD would give information on the extent to which the two
sets of scores (for the treatment and the control groups) vary in relation to the mean. Standard
Deviation would then be calculated by deducting the mean from each individual score, then
squaring the resulting figures to get rid of the minus signs adding these together, and diving by
the number of scores minus one (Nunan 1992).
The reason for dividing one less than the number of scores is a correction for the fact that the
variability of scores for a single group of subjects tends to be less than the variability for all
possible scores. This will give the researcher variance. A square root of this figure will then be
worked out. The result will be the standard deviation. This tool will enable the researcher to
compare performance by these two groups so as to determine and evaluate whether the treatment
group is superior in performance relative to the control group (Nunan, 1992).
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3.8
Validity of research instruments
Validity refers to the extent to which a research study actually investigates what the researcher
claims to investigate (Nunan 1992). A proficiency test is a necessary component for a study to be
generalized to a wider context; it must be possible to assume that the sample used in the study is
representative of the general population to which the research results would apply (Seliger and
Shohamy 1989). In this research context, it was not possible to randomly assign the subjects to
the experimental and the control groups so the researcher ensured that the following was in place
to guard against threats to internal validity inform of subject variability, in addition to the
random selection of the research participants.
According to Hughes (2003:27-28) and Madileng (2007:55) a valid test must contain
representative sample of language skills and structures of a particular kind. One cannot include
everything, but test specifications must ensure that the test is a fair reflection of what is
important. Such a test should not just portray proficiency as a product, but it must also give
insight into the learners’ proficiency development processes because of the main objectives of
assessment is to guide instructional decision-making. Thus, a proficiency test is supposed to be
valid in order to achieve its intended goal.
The test can be said to be valid because of the way in which it served its intended purpose, that
is, the degree to which a set of its test scores measured what it ought to measure as determined
by the syllabus of the Ministry of Education. The test was based on reading of the text. The test
can also be considered to be fair as it was administered after learners had been taught English
language skills such reading, writing, speaking and listening over a period of thirteen weeks
which is equivalent to a term. They were also instructed on the layout of the test paper: reading
comprehension, rewrites, cloze test and summary skills activities.
3.9
Reliability of the test research instrument
Cohen (1991:496) maintains that the reliability of a test is concerned with the test’s precision as
a measuring instrument. Reliability asks whether a test given to the same respondents a second
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time would yield similar results. This means that reliability refers to the consistency of a test,
which could yield similar results consistently if administered on successive occasions to the
same or different learners (Madileng 2007:56). A test cannot be considered reliable if a learner’s
score on the test depends on who administers it (Kilfoil and Van der Walt 1997:285). Reliability
can be affected by tension, temperature, learners’ physical and even the environment can
promote or negatively distract concentration through poor lighting or too much noise (Madileng
2007:57). The results of a test can also be unreliable because of marking or scoring. Reliability
must be subject to validity because a test that yields consistent results does not mean,
necessarily, that it conforms to any language theory or content or that it tests what has been
taught (Nunan 1992).
The examination venue was well ventilated with proper light lighting. All forms of distractions
which could negatively interfere with the test and result in some in some anxiety, were taken
care of. A marking scheme from the examination of examination was used to mark the test. The
data from written test papers was easily quantifiable as the data was not open to subjective
interpretation. The researcher believes that an independent researcher, on reanalyzing the data
would almost come to the same conclusion using the same information.
3.9.1 External reliability
Written tests are relatively stable instruments and were easily quantifiable. The researcher
believes that if an independent researcher replicated this study using the same treatment process
and the same collection instruments and a similar sample of Grade 10 ESL students with the
same kind of economic-socio background, the researcher would come to almost the same
conclusion. Admittedly, small samples tend to affect external reliability. The researcher,
therefore, collected data from each separate group so as to build numbers and presented the data
for the overall experimental and control groups. Commenting on the effect of the population size
Seliger and Shohamy (1989) state that the smaller the number of the subjects, the more the study
is susceptible to biases created by an over-representation of some subject characteristics. The
researcher acknowledges that the size of each individual group is small. However, the control
and the experimental groups are joined together at the end of the study to create one large group
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which rules out the influence of individual variability. This was done in order to counteract the
effect of the small group sizes.
3.10
Ethical considerations
In concluding this chapter, brief mention must be made of the ethical considerations incumbent
on the researcher. Holly et al. (2005:176-177) suggest the following guidelines for researchers in
their dealing with other people involved in the research project: obtain permission; involve
participants: ensure confidentiality, ensure anonymity, inform participants of the right to
withdraw, build relationship of trust, be self reflective.
Ethics are important in any kind of research. Research whose focus is on social and professional
amelioration, it assumes even greater significance. In a methodology that allows for the
conflation of research and practice, there is always the danger that the practice could be put
wholly in the service of the research, to the former’s detriment. The danger is not to the
practitioner, but to the subjects and co-workers in the research. In the field of education, those
likely to suffer from the teacher’s researcher’s improper use of his/her privileged position are the
students or pupils (those) whom the research is ultimately meant to benefit (Butler 2006:151).
Wallace (1998:49) warns that it is “not ethical to use our students’ time and effort on activities
which do not contribute in any way to success in their studies”.
In the present study, Wallace’s warning has been considered. Although, has I have already
indicated, many of the pupils’ tasks and assignments lent themselves to my research purpose, and
in some cases, were designed with a research purpose in mind, this was never done in violation
of pedagogical principles. The aim was always, to use Wallace’s (1998:42-43) distinction, to use
an approach that was complementary.
I have also attempted to observe ethical conventions in other ways. Students were informed that I
was engaged in research in the use of short story designed materials as an alternative to the
prescribed course book and that their test results would become part of my data. Students were
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excited and did not raise their objections to this. This was done through a vote that was
conducted in class. All the pupils did not object. When quoting students, I have, nevertheless,
ensured confidentiality by either doing so anonymously or by way of using their number on their
core-class list. In quoting from my lesson reports, I have edited out any remarks which might
inadvertently hurt or give offence to anyone, even if this has meant some omission in the raw
data. The school administration gave me consent in writing authorizing me to undertake a study
in the Grade 10 classes (consent letter in Appendix E).
3.11
Conclusion
In this chapter, I have surveyed both the Mixed Method and the Case Study research designs and
have discussed their strengths and weaknesses including research techniques used in the case
study, the detailed findings will be given in Chapter 4. In spite of its limitation, mixed method
research design provided an ideal framework within which to conduct this research. The
measuring instruments used are highlighted and their reliability and validity for assessing
specific variables were established. Ethical issues were discussed. In the next chapter I will
present the statistics and discuss the findings. Evaluation of the designed material will continue
in chapter 4 with extracts of the materials I designed on the appendix.
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CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
4.1
Introduction
In this chapter, the findings of the research are presented and discussed. The evaluation of the
material in this chapter is of the work done between 2009 and 2010. The account will consist of
the concurrent threads of commentary: narrative of case study, analysis of student performance,
and links to the theory of literature based language teaching. Evaluation of the teaching materials
is reported and analyzed. The chapter provides a detailed presentation of statistical results so as
to test the hypothesis. These various methods comprise the mixed methods approach adopted in
the study. It is the purpose of this research to establish to what extent materials designed around
a collection of short stories (Winners) can be used to wholly meet syllabus objectives in absence
of prescribed course books. The data collected for the research was subjected to descriptive
statistical analysis that involved comparing the means for the pre-test and post-test at the level
of: comprehension, rewrites and the cloze tests.
After presentation of data, findings are
discussed in detail.
4.2
Short story and ESL skills teaching
The narrative or short story has been proposed by a number of writers as an appropriate avenue
for teaching ESL skills to the learners. Using narratives afford learners an opportunity to relate
their experiences (Butler 2006:153). This will consist of a description of the lessons conducted
during the study period and my chronological account of my experience in teaching them within
a framework of case study. Here, I will be drawing data from my lesson-evaluation reports and
the teaching materials that I designed based on the collection of short stories, ‘Winners’.
At a stage in this description, students’ performance in tasks, assignments, homework and posttest will be examined and analyzed in an attempt to measure the extent to which they met the
syllabus objectives and their progress during the treatment period. For both the core group and
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the control group, quantitative data in the form of statistics (summarized in the tables and graphs)
will be used to provide an overall picture or relative achievement. For the purposes of simplicity,
the treatment group will be divided into three groups depending on how they met the set targets,
that is, those who generally failed to achieve the outcomes of the programme, those who
achieved the outcomes; and those whose achievement of the outcomes was above average,
although not necessarily at distinction level (Butler 2006).
4.2.1 Pre-test
Prior to the commencement of the study and the treatment process, both the control and the
experimental groups were subjected to an ‘entry test, to determine whether they were almost at
the same level in terms of their performance. The test administered tested comprehension skills,
rewrites (grammar) and the cloze test. The test results revealed that though the subjects had
different mean scores, the difference was negligible and reflected almost same levels of language
competence prior to commencement of the study. The pre-test results for the control group are
shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1- Pre-test results for the Control group
Av abs s/dev
Language item no.
Mn
@95%conf.(mn) s/de
hig
low
Medn
from median
Compre
40
33
27.49 – 38.51
16.7
70
10
40
13.5
Rewrites
40
30.8
25.59 – 35.91
15.1
50
10
30
13.2
Cloze test
40
34
27.66 – 40.34
15.5
60
10
30
12.5
Total
40
32.6
29.24 – 35.96
7.85
47
17
33
6.35
Key
Av – average;
S/dev – standard deviation
Confide – confidence;
Compre - Comprehension
Medn – median
Mn -
mean
Abs – absolute
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Table 1 (above) shows that the control group had a mean score of 33.0 (in comprehension), 16.7
standard deviation and 13.7 average absolute standard deviation from the median. The mean
score for the rewrites for the same group was 30.8; the standard deviation was 15.1 with 13.2 as
the average absolute standard deviation from the median. The mean score for the cloze test for
this group was 34.0, 12.5 as the standard deviation and 12.5 being the average absolute standard
deviation from the median. The mean score in this test for the entire test paper was as follows:
mean score for this group was 32.6 and the standard deviation was 7.85 and 6.35 being the
average absolute standard deviation.
Table 2 – Pre-test test results for the Experimental group
average
Language Item
No Mean @ 95% confidence
s/dev high low median absolute
Interval for mean
s/dev/m
edian
Comprehension
40
29.8
24.24 – 35.26
18.3
80
0
30
18.3
Rewrites
40
26.8
21.59 – 31.91
17.6
50
0
20
17.6
Cloze test
40
41.2
34.83 – 47.52
23.9
100
0
40
23.9
Total
40
33
29.67 – 36.38
12.9
67
6
31.5
7.9
Table 2 (above) shows that the experimental group had 39.8 mean score (in comprehension),
18.3 being the standard deviation and 18.3 average absolute standard deviation from the median.
The mean score for the rewrites for the same group was 26.8; the standard deviation was 17.6
with 17.6 as the average absolute standard deviation from the median. The mean score for the
cloze test for this group was 41.2, 23.9 as the standard deviation and 23.9 being the average
absolute standard deviation from the median. The mean score in this test for the entire test paper
was as follows: mean score for this group was 33.0 and the standard deviation was 12.9 and 7.9
being the average absolute standard deviation.
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Figure 1- Comparative pre-test comparative mean test results for the control and the
experimental groups.
Figure 1 shows that the control group performed relatively better in comprehension with 33%
mean difference compared to the experimental group that had a mean score of 29.75 giving a
standard mean difference of 3.25. In the rewrites section, the control group had a mean score of
30.75 compared to that of the experimental group at 26.75 giving a mean difference of 4%. From
this result, it is clear that the control group performed relatively better compared to the
experimental group. As for the cloze test, the control group had 32.29 compared to the mean
score of 31.0 for the experimental group giving just a marginal difference of 1.29%. The
comparative mean scores for the two groups in the whole test paper was as follows: control
group’s mean score was 32.6 compared to that of the experimental group which stood at a mean
score of 31.0. This translates into a differential mean score of 1.6. The scores confirm that the
two groups had almost the same entry capabilities prior to the commencement of the study and
the differences are minimal.
Having been satisfied with the pre-test results, I proceeded to another stage of the project. This
stage involved the treatment process which involved teaching pupils using designed material,
testing and analysis. The following activities were undertaken within the context of this study.
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4.3
English language teaching in Grade 10
Although all Grade 10 entrants are required to have passed English in the Junior Secondary
School Leaving Examinations, the syllabus recommends the use of a considerable amount of
remedial work and revision in Grade 10. The senior secondary English Language syllabus
contains new objectives, particularly in Note-taking, Structure, Grammar and Writing which are
of fundamental importance and need to be dealt with in Grade 10 so that pupils are able to cope
with the work in Grades 11 and 12. Grade 10 is therefore regarded as a preparatory stage for
the consolidation of language skills which will take place in Grades 11 and 12. Against this
background and considering the time available, the work covered in the units was only be of an
introduction nature, touching on some important aspects of language skills that make up
language awareness. The language skills were mainly taught inductively, partly through being
contextualized in authentic stories contained in the short story book ‘Winners’ and partly through
students expanding on their linguistic knowledge and experience. The method used for the
integration of language and literature was the study of language through literary texts in this case
a short story book ‘Winners’.
The stories used were divided into thirteen units as follows:
UNIT
STORY
PAGE
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 7
Unit 8
Unit 9
Unit 10
Unit 11
Unit 12
The Winner
A Mother in Mannville
Ta-Na-E-Ka, Roppie
Chief Sekoto Holds Court
The Turn of the Tide
The Flight
A Secret for Two
The Silent Song
The One Who Got Away
The Story Teller
Magic in a Zulu Name
Locomotive
1
15
35, 23
47
53
67
75
81
93
101
109
117
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4.3.1 Syllabus aims
The senior secondary English Language syllabus is aimed to prepare pupils for the Joint
Examination for the School Certificate and the General Certificate of Education in English
Language administered by the Examinations Council of Zambia. The general aims are stated as
follows: By the end of Grade 12, pupils should be able to use:

English effectively in social communication.

The English Language skills needed in other subject areas.

English effectively in the world of work.

Use English effectively in full or part-time tertiary education.
(Curriculum Development Centre, 1997:2)
The work covered in each of the units was directed at achieving learning outcomes specified in
the syllabus. Underlying all the units was the idea that students should be able to communicate in
meaningful and contextualized situations. In the following sub-sections, the main theoretical
underpinnings of the lessons and their applications in it will be examined.
4.3.2 Teaching ESL skills through Literature
In an attempt to teach ESL skills through short stories, literature was used primarily as a
resource, a means to introduce, illustrate and contextualize language skills, ideas and concepts
being taught. The role of literature was premised on one of the basic arguments for its inclusion
in a language programme. Supporting the inclusion of literature in a second language course,
Butler (2006:161) contends that literature “provides a pleasant and entertaining way of learning
about something that might otherwise appear dull and boring”. Literature appeals to the emotions
and imagination as well as to the intellect of the pupils: it can, in Butler’s phrase, ‘both teach and
delight’ (Butler 2006:161).
The approach to teaching language skills through a short story book in this study was therefore
an expression of the principle of ‘language through literature’ as explored in Chapter 2. A
number of statements on the benefits of integration of language and literature are applicable here:
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Statement 5: Literature assists learners in developing their overall language awareness and
Knowledge about language (Butler 2006:51). General syllabus aims 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Curriculum
Development Centre, 1997:2) is one of the major reasons and justification for designing
materials based around a collection of short stories Winners but equally important is the claim
made in Statement 2: Because of its appeal to the learners’ imagination and emotions, literature
provides motivation for language learning (Butler 2006:52). Since the short story book used
provided an opportunity for discussion and discovery on the nature of language, Statement 3:
The themes and plots of literary works provide stimuli for meaningful debates, discussions and
other language tasks which develop the learners’ linguistic and communicative competence
amongst learners (Butler 2006:54) syllabus outcome no. 2.4 is also applicable (Curriculum
Development Centre, 1997:3).
A few examples from the short storybook, Winners will illustrate the ‘language through
literature’ principle in action. In unit 1, Pius’s short story The Winners, the ‘Before Reading’
section of the story provides a stimulating introduction to a section to effective verbal
communication in various social contexts (outcome 2: Listening and Speaking part of the
syllabus). In unit 1, there is an assertion that Cousin Sarah behaves assertively. Based on this
assertion pupils were asked to comment on things which Cousin Sarah does (in the story) which
they (pupils) approve and those that Cousin Sarah does which they do not approve. Question
such as this one provided pupils with an opportunity to debate logically; which is one of the
activities that promoted communication in meaningful situations (syllabus outcome 2.4).Unit 3 is
based on a folktale from India written in Pidgin English. This gave pupils a concrete expression
to the theme of English as a world language. It also provided pupils with an opportunity for
language practice analysis. Language awareness is one area researchers have attributed to be
acquired through the use of literary texts in teaching ESL. This is discussed in the next section.
4.3.3 Language awareness
Researchers such as Butler (2006) have reported that literature based ESL teaching can enhance
students’ language awareness. Richards & Schmidt (2002:287) claim that literature based
language course can enable students become aware of new words and expressions that are
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constantly ‘entering’ the target, such as ‘drop-out’ and ‘culture-shock’. Arguments in favour of
teaching Language Awareness (LA) or Knowledge about Language (KAL), either as an end in
itself or an aid to language acquisition, have been put forward by numerous researchers. Mittins
(1991:25) sees LA exploring ‘in particular the middle ground where theorizing about language
meets the practical uses of language’. Van Lier’s (1995) definition is more specific:
Language awareness can be defined as an understanding of human faculty of
language and its role in thinking, learning and social life. It includes an
awareness of power and control through language, and the intricate
relationships between language and culture (Van Lier’s 1995: 11).
He goes on to consider the role that LA plays in education in particular:
People use language to express themselves, to relate to others and to get things
done. It is so central a part of our lives that we need to control it well, to grow
it well, to grow it as strong and rich as possible, and to keep working on those
tasks in a spirit of lifelong language learning (Van Lier’s 1995: 11).
Mittinis’s (1991:25), Van Lier’s (1995: xi) and Butler’s (2006:163) views seem to inform the
ethnographic case studies conducted at three multilingual Johannesburg schools, reported in
Brouard et al. (1999). In the projects reported, pupils were assigned a project in which they had
to observe and report on the uses of literacy in their homes. The writers see this exercise as
conforming to the principles of Outcome Based Education (OBE), as expressed in the curriculum
(Butler 2006:163). In it, ‘learners need to become actively engaged in taking responsibility for
their learning and teacher need to provide learners with more flexible, integrated learning
environments in which knowledge is seen as purposeful, useful and linked to the real world of
home and work’ (Butler 2006:163). As Brouard et al (1999:2) the learners ‘become knowledge
makers’ rather than passive consumers of information. The degree to which the research project
eventually succeeded may be deduced from the comment made by one of the pupils reported in
Butler (2006):
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I didn’t know at first what literacy was. I thought it was something you did at
school. But wherever you go, there’re stop signs on streets, signs on buildings
….There’s literacy all around you (Butler 2006:164):
Using pupils’ responses as a source of inspiration my approach in the lessons was to reinforce
the idea of language ‘being around you’ discoverable through observation, and also through the
medium of literary work such as short stories. In an attempt to achieve this, (the idea that
‘language is around you’) I adopted ‘project work’ as a teaching approach. The aim of using
project work was not just about ‘raising awareness about language’; equally important, project
work encouraged students to analyze, reflect on and articulate their knowledge and feeling about
the nature of language generally and to understand their study of English language skills through
literature as a vehicle in that context. By doing so, students were placed in control of their own
learning; as they were not just passive recipients of knowledge and information delivered by an
‘expert’ about what was, in many ways, still an ‘alien’ language. The following example from
the short story book will illustrate the approach:
 In unit 2, students were given a task to go and compile a list of orphanages in their
communities. They were also required to inquire about the background of some of the
orphans (how the children have found themselves in that particular orphanage).
 In unit 3, students were given the task to research on the ‘initiation rituals’ amongst some
of the tribes in Zambia. They were encouraged to adopt a critical approach to the
significance of these initiation ceremonies to the communities. Students were asked to
consider some of the disadvantages that these rituals may have.
Each of the above tasks required each of the students to raise their language awareness through a
process of discovery and reflection, directed either outwardly or inwardly. In the above
examples, the stories in the literary texts such as a collection of short stories (Winners) are used
to direct or inspire students to undertake the projects by providing background information. The
idea of teaching language through literature was achieved as students were made to search
different sources of reading materials not meant for language teaching (authentic) as they
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searched for information during project work. In addition, they were made to talk to people as
they sought answers. This act fulfilled the assertion that ‘literature provides a resource or
authentic context for the teaching of grammar and vocabulary’ and that ‘literature provides
stimuli for meaningful debates and discussions’ (Butler 2006:54).
4.3.4 Sequence of activities
The methodology underlying the presentation of material in each unit reflected the belief that
language awareness involves leading students to a greater awareness of what they intuitively
know already (Tinkel 1985:37; Butler 2006:167); or alternatively, the assumption that they can
be introduced to unfamiliar concepts through appealing to their existing knowledge. Given below
is a sequence or structure of activities.
Before Reading, the first activity in each unit was a ‘warm up’ exercise, aimed at getting students
thinking about the topic by appealing to the aspect of their assumed experience. For example,
Unit 2, on ‘A Mother in Mannville’ drew pupils’ attention to the topical issue on ‘the problems of
street kids and orphans’ in Zambia. The unit began as follows:
‘Hardship brings out the best in some people, just as it reveals the worst in some others. What
qualities do you think are the best that the hardship of growing up as an orphan might develop in
some children?’ (Edwards, (Ed.). 1996:15).
Another aspect to consider is that the context of this study is communicative language teaching.
The ‘Before Reading’ exercises provided students with opportunities to discuss in real life
situations. This is one of the tenets of communicative language teaching which emphasizes the
need for language learners to use language in order to become proficient’ (Curriculum
Development Centre, 1997: 2). The same logic determined the sequence of the following
activities. The whole unit centred on the same text, for example, ‘A Mother in Mannville’. The
texts were chosen for their relevance and familiarity to the students. The range of texts used
throughout the research period was drawn from different sources. This was intended to be a
means of developing language awareness through exposing students to a wide range of authentic
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uses of English. Here again, the principle of leading the learner from the known to unknown was
applied. The methodology underlying the presentation of material in each unit reflected the belief
that language awareness involves leading pupils to a greater awareness of what they intuitively
know already (Tinkel 1985:37).
Generally, an attempt was made to choose a text that was thought to be relatively accessible to
all the students and a text whose themes in the stories were relatively familiar. This did not,
however, preclude the inclusion of stories - such as ‘Roppie’ which contained phrases such as
‘dry-dock’ which was quite ‘alien’ to the students’ situation. Texts such as the foregoing, while
lying outside students’ cognitive schemata and everyday linguistic range or vocabulary, were
interpretable with guidance. Although stories or texts with an African origin were mainly used,
the simplistic assumption that these are the most suitable was resisted.
Finally, the ‘Tasks and activities’ section of the lesson were designed with syllabus outcomes in
mind. Activities were designed in such a way that they helped in determining whether these had
been achieved. This work was either done in class or as part of home work. In view of the
introductory and developmental nature of the teaching programme, assessment needed to take
into account students’ ability to attain a certain level of achievement immediately. Success of the
lessons was based on the levels of attainment in the set tasks based on the materials prepared.
In unit 2 of Appendix C, the sense of involvement in the learning process that the first unit was
meant to promote was extended to the students’ experience of language itself. They were
encouraged to see language as an aspect of their daily lives, shaping and influencing them.
Students were told that language is something that is not just ‘found in the prescribed course
book’ but in all language books (Tinkel 1985:37).
The theme was developed through an analysis of Jerry’s story in, ‘A Mother in Mannville’
especially the following question:
The effect of Jerry’s story of a mother is described in the paragraph beginning,
‘We did not speak of Jerry’s mother again’. If we decide after reading this
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paragraph that Jerry told the story of a mother so as to relieve the writer of a
responsibility and pity for him, what evidence from elsewhere in the story
could we use to support this view? Did Jerry do other things which showed
unusual awareness of the writer’s needs, or that showed that he did not want
the writer to do anything out of pity? (Edwards, ed. 1996:18).
The question generated a lot of debate and students participated actively through debates as they
defended their view points. The above assertion generated some very interesting (and often
heated) class discussion. This raising of the students’ language awareness seemed to endorse
Carter and McCarthy’s (1995:308) claim for the importance of developing students’ awareness
of connotations, idioms, metaphors, proverbs and so on in an integrated manner through the use
of literature. As the writers put it:
As a preparation for the subsequent reading of complete literary texts [such as
a short story book] such awareness is valuable in this connection but the
language learner is also learning that words have extended meanings as well as
learning those meanings themselves, and that a language is something to be
learned about as well as learned, and that a language is a productive resource
of great creative potential, not just a fossilized code (Carter and McCarthy’s
1995:308).
The lesson, in effect, attempted to give pupils beyond the basic ‘awareness’ of language skills
stated in the objectives of the English Language Syllabus objective towards ‘talking using
language’ as contained in the communicative language teaching principles. The task, in which
they were asked to compile a list of some of the orphanages in their own localities, was designed
to test whether this outcome had been achieved. The question in the ‘Whilst Reading’ and the
‘After Reading’ sections of the unit attempted to steer the pupils into taking a critical view of the
text. I took advantage of the interest pupils shown to teach reading skills as given in the senior
secondary syllabus. I drew students’ attention to the following aspects of grammar: Direct
speech: as in ‘I can chop some wood today’ (Edwards. ed. Ibid). Students were asked to identify
sentences from the story, A Mother in Mannville in direct speech. Pupils were able to ‘deduce
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meaning by using contextual clues’ (objective. 3.4), ‘distinguish facts from opinions’ (objective
3.5a) and ‘explain the values expressed by a fable or story’ (objective l3.6e) as contained in the
senior secondary English language syllabus. The response to Unit 2 of the story ‘A Mother in
Mannville’ [Edwards (Ed.), 1996:15] was sufficiently stimulating to inspire me to include in my
lesson evaluation report ideas for supplementing the material with further activities.
Unit 3 of Appendix C attempted to integrate all the language skills into one in-line with CLT
principles. Once again, students were required to demonstrate their achievement of the outcome
of the unit by (doing the following) engaging in oral discussions (students discussed the issue of
‘initiation ceremonies’, their advantages and disadvantages). This being a familiar practice,
especially amongst girls in Zambia, the subject attracted a lot of debate. Listening
comprehension was introduced through the ‘While Reading’ activity in which students were
required to answer written questions as the text was being read by the teacher. Intensive reading
was another activity. Once again, students were required to demonstrate their achievement of the
outcome of the unit by answering comprehension questions based on the text of the week. This
appeared to be a well received and successful activity. However, the lesson evaluation report on
unit 3 indicates that subsequent reflection prompted me to consider my presentation of materials.
Since this had implications for the fundamental principle of teaching and integrating language
skills around a literary text, it is worth mentioning the issue in detail. I was concerned about
time spent on each of the activities in the unit. In the lesson, I spent quite some time on the post
reading activity. Students wrote answers to the following questions (examples only):
In what different ways did Mary, Roger and the grandfather benefit from this particular Ta-NaE-Ka? What values did the Kaws prize? What do we feel nowadays about these values?
(Edwards (ed.), 1996:35).
As the students wrote their own answers, I moved around them, commenting and assisting. This
left little time for the story ‘Roppie’ which was meant to provide the central focus of the unit. In
the time available, I briefly summarized and explained the plot of the story rather superficially,
without inviting comments from students and without letting student discover by themselves
through their reading of the text. Yet, in reflecting on this matter, I did not regret the shift in
emphasis. In my lesson evaluation report I commented that in “using a collection of short stories
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such as Winners as a resource for language teaching, one has to make sure that the text is
sufficiently ‘transparent’ in literary terms so that it can be used for its linguistic purposes and
value” (Lesson Report: 10th March 2009).
Using a text whose theme appeared foreign and divorced from that to which students were
familiar as a resource to introduce an aspect of language skill and awareness as suggested by
Statements 2, 3 and 5 of Chapter 2 (section 2.2.2) had, because of time constraints, prevented
the full implementation of other principles such as Statement 8 (Chapter 2 section 2.2.2) which
encourages ‘close reading of the text’. The consequence of doing so was the apparent
instrumentalist use of the short story book. My lesson evaluation report represented my
observation and reflections. Case and Light (2011:12) describe the implementation of this
strategic action as a continuous process of four moments. The first one is the formulation of the
plan of action to improve what is already happening. This should be followed by the action to
implement the plan. The third stage is observing the effects of the action in the context in which
it occurs and the final stage involves reflecting on these effects as a basis for further planning,
subsequent action and so on through a succession of activities.
My perception of the pupils expanded as I graded the tasks from the lessons that pupils were
involved in. The outcomes were that ‘pupils should be able to communicate effectively in
English in various social contexts’ (objective 2) as contained in the senior secondary English
language syllabus; (Curriculum Development Centre, 1997:1). This had been implied in the way
language activities were designed. During my assessment, students would not be penalized
unduly for errors in language use, provided that the meaning was reasonably clear and the
outcomes had been achieved. The students were informed of this concession when the tasks were
returned to them: it was, however, emphasized that assessment would be more stringent in future
tasks. Table 1 on the next page shows the test results.
130
Table 3 - Focus group: Distribution of all grades in all tasks
______________________________________________________________________________
Figures represent the number of students obtaining grades (vertical axis) for each task (horizontal
axis)
Task 1
Task 2
Task 3
Task 4
Task 5
no/std
no/std
No/ std
no/std
Dnw
-
00
01
00
00
30%
01
02
00
02
00
45%
04
01
03
02
01
P
50%+
10
08
07
11
11
A
65%+
20
24
25
23
26
S
80%+
05
05
04
02
02
F
A
I
No/ std
L
S
Key: dnw = refers to students did not write task; column 1 = students who passed
and failed the tasks; column 1= percentages scores; columns 2 to 5 show no. of
students who either failed the tasks (scored between 30 – 45%) or passed the tasks
(scored 50% and above).
The tasks from the following stories: The Winner, A Mother from Mannville, Ta-Na-E-Ka and
Holds Chief Sekoto Court (Edwards (ed.), 1996:1-52) required personal, subjective responses
from the pupils. Their focus was the development of the students’ communicative and writing
abilities as envisaged in the syllabus outcomes. The lessons involved mainly pair and group
work. An examination of Table 3 shows that students did quite well in these tasks. A large
number of students passed the tasks (those who scored 50% and above). In Task 1- 10 students
obtained 50%+, 20 students obtained 65%+ whilst 5 students obtained 80%+. In this task, 5
students failed (i.e. obtained 45% and below. One student did not write the test (dnw). These
tasks and results thus confirm my expectations. In Task 2, 8 obtained between 50% whilst 24
students scored 65% and above. In the same task, 5 students scored 80% and above. In this task,
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only 3 students failed. Task 3 results show that 7 students scored 50% and above, whilst 25
students scored 65% and above with only 4 students scoring 80% and above. The table shows
that 4 students failed this task. In Task 4, 11 students scored 50% and above whilst 23 students
scored 65% and above with 2 students scoring 80% and above whilst 4 students failed the task.
In T5 11 students scored 50% and above, 26 students scored 65% above in the same task with
only 2 students scoring 80% and above. One student failed (obtained below 45%).
Lessons based on units 6 to 12 presented in section 4.3 continued to focus on three areas of
language: oral, reading and writing skills. Each of the Units followed the same lesson format:
‘Before Reading’ [(mainly oral discussion), ‘While Reading’ (listening and writing skills, ‘After
Reading’ (mainly oral, reading and writing skills) and the ‘Post Reading’ activities (mainly
writing skills)]. In all these units, the discussion that took place was firmly grounded in authentic
stories obtained from the text ‘Winners’ which students were required to read closely and attempt
to describe as specifically as possible. As pupils read, they were asked to examine the various
aspects of language such as grammar. Pupils were asked discuss in their groups by constructing
sentences using expressions such as:
‘Can’t help’, can’t stand, it’s no good; it’s no use, be worth’.
(Curriculum Development Centre, 1997)
Pupils constructed the following sentences:
P1:
Salongo couldn’t stand the pressure he received from the guests who came.
P2:
It’s no use trying to escape complaining about the pressure Salongo was
subjected to. This is because he invited trouble on himself through his actions.
P1:
While I agree with you, it is worth mentioning so that those who were not around
can know what he Salongo went through.
(Edwards (ed.), 1996:1-14).
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Students were required to closely examine the way the expressions were constructed and come
up with their own sentences after discussing in groups. They were asked to relate their sentences
to the story just read. Later, pupils were required to submit two tasks. One task was to be done in
school and the other one (to be done) at home. Both activities required close analytical reading in
order to come up with sentences which are related to what they had read about in the text. In
order for students to adequately meet the lesson outcomes students needed to demonstrate an
ability to focus on experiences external to themselves, analyzing the language used in the texts
in which these were expressed in a systematic and objective way. The progression, in other
words, was from Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic
Language Proficiency (Butler 2006).
Explaining CALP, Butler (2006:164) observes that it is a hypothesis which describes a special
kind of Second Language Proficiency which pupils need in order for them to perform school
learning tasks. Cummins (ibid) further suggests that classroom tasks are cognitively demanding
and often have to be solved independently by the learner without support from the context. The
ability to perform such tasks is what is referred to as CALP.
In contrasting CALP with BICS, Richards and Schmidt (2002:82) define BICS as the ‘language
proficiency other kinds of tasks which are not directly related to learning academic content, such
as interpersonal communication’. They observe that interpersonal and social communication is
relatively undemanding cognitively and relies on context to clarify meaning. It is important to
state that different kinds of tests are needed to measure CALP and BICS and a learner’s skills in
BICS does not predict performance on CALP.
In keeping with the aim of developing study skills as well as communicative competence and
language awareness, I therefore set the work in all the units as self study. Students were to read
the text entitled ‘The Flight’. Students were required to read the text on their own and answered
the questions. The questions were of an advanced nature and demanded from students a deeper
understanding of the passage read. The class discussion that followed was heated as students
tried to justify the arguments. Examples of questions are given below:
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1. In the fifth paragraph, the old man deliberately traps his favourite pigeon
as it is about to take the flight. In what ways does this symbolize his
feelings about his granddaughter at this point in the story?
2. There are three different points of view about Alice’s coming marriage:
her own, her mother’s and that of her grandfather’s. Explain each one of
them clearly. How do they differ?
(Edwards ed. 1996:67)
Pupils responses in the above tasks were very encouraging as most of them showed an in depth
understanding of the text read. It was noted that, notwithstanding the positive reactions I noted
while marking activities based on the story, ‘The Flight’ (Edwards ibid.), the class as a whole
learnt and kept on improving on the mistakes made in the previous task. Activities based on
stories entitled A Secret for Two and The Silent Song (Edwards, ibid: 75-92) focused on areas
that are potentially of greater practical use in the development of linguistic competence. All of
these factors might explain the relatively better performance in the latter tasks.
Because of the time that was lost during the course of the term mainly due to sporting activities
when the school suspended all academic programmes, I only went up to Unit 11 as Unit 12 was
reserved for the administration of the post-test and Unit 13 was postponed all together. It had
earlier been planned that the final task would be taken from Unit 13. However, when it became
apparent that it might not be possible to cover all the work planned, I decided to replace this task
with the post-test. The remaining periods in the week were devoted to finding out from students
what they thought about the lessons which I had conducted during the course of the study and
which stories they liked most. A number of students expressed satisfaction on the lessons that
were based on the short story book. Attitudes were both positive and negative. The recurrent
theme was the dislike of stories whose themes were somehow ‘foreign’. Cited were stories such
as ‘Roppie’. This story is about Roppie, a seal who came to live in a dry-dock with his family. It
was quite evident that students did not have an in-depth understanding of the terms used in this
story as they kept on asking questions such as:
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‘What does a seal look like? What is a dry-dock? What are wharf men and tug-masters? Where
are seals found? Do we have them in Zambia’?
In order to ascertain pupils’ performance, the following activity was given and was requested to
discuss the responses in line with CLT.
Instructions: Read the story entitled Roppie and then answer the questions that follow.
You are encouraged to discuss the answers in pairs. Write answers in full sentences.
1. Which parts of the description of Roppie treat him as if he were a human being? Which
parts make it clear that he isn’t human?
2. Which parts of the description of Roppie before he gets stuck in the dry dock suggest
disapproval?
3. Which are more approving?
4. Show your understanding of how a dry dock works by explaining what the mistake that
Roppie was made.
5. We were led to believe that it would be fatal for Roppie to slip and fall, but he does, and
survives. Defend this assertion.
(Edwards (ed.), 199:23)
Pupils were encouraged to discuss answers in pairs in line with communicative language
teaching principles. There was a lot of debate especially on the last question. This is in line with
what Basiga (2009:25) observes. He says that teaching English through literature is the most
natural approach to teaching the language. This is because this method of teaching ESL does not
only develop a love of learning itself, but it also immerses the learner into a rich repertoire of
experience, first hand or vicariously, through a variety of literary genres. This facilitates an
appreciation for and the acquisition of language. Basiga argues that:
Stories give children language experiences that enable them gradually to think
about and comprehend their environment. As Basiga (ibid.) observes, “when
language is internalized, it becomes thought; when thought is internalized, it
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becomes language. Language and intellectual development are closely linked
together, and literature contributes significantly to the development of young
children’s thinking and language … of their understanding of self and their
world… of their communication skills as well as encouraging positive
relationships with those close to them” (Basiga 2009:25).
However, there is something that questions one to five (listed above) revealed about the pupils’
level of knowledge. The questions revealed pupils’ lack of knowledge due to the background of
the passage. Since the background of the story was unfamiliar to the pupils they (pupils)
experienced difficulties in comprehending it (the story). In addition to reading and activities,
pupils were required to write an essay. The written essay was supplemented with a class
discussion which the researcher conducted on the same subject. The essay writing and the class
discussions that were held had very obvious benefits for me as a researcher, providing me with
an authentic and unobtrusive method of eliciting students’ views on an aspect of language and
literature integration. It was quite evident that this research instrument had developed naturally
from the teaching situation.
The use of pupils’ responses revealed encouraging results positive response to the short story
based-language teaching, an overwhelming confirmation and approval of the place of literary
based language teaching. Interestingly, most students showed a lot of interest in learning all the
language skills. Pupils told me that they wished they could continue learning English based on
the short story book as they displayed increased confidence in reading, grammar, vocabulary and
general language skills; development of creative, imaginative and mental faculties; broadening of
knowledge and experience; and some of the stories read were a source of moral guidance such as
Ta-Na-E-Ka (Edwards, ibid. 1996:23).
Although it was not my intention to ask students what their thoughts were on the study that had
been conducted, after reading Butler’s (2006) work, I thought it was important to seek students’
opinion as to whether they approved of a literary based language course. The following questions
were asked to the students and responses were recorded by group secretaries who later reported
to the class:
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(i)
Would you like to continue learning English based on the literary
text such as the short story book?
(ii)
Which one, between poetry and narrative did you find most
interesting as a basis for language teaching?
(iii)
Would you like the texts to be chosen from contemporary, from the past, or both?
(iv)
From which geographic area would you like the texts to come from?
My analysis of the data was both qualitative and quantitative. The responses to and discussion of
each of the four questions were interpreted, categorized and enumerated. Since the class
discussion was to be open-ended, some students offered several reasons for each of their choices
while others gave only one. All the responses were nevertheless recorded and included in the
determination of support for the basing English language teaching on short story books. There
was overwhelming support for teaching ESL skills using literary texts. 35 out of 40 students
thought that it would be a good idea to continue learning language skills the way they had been
learning during the course of the term. Three students did not care if they reverted to the
traditional texts and two did not express any opinion.
Three pupils who were not for the idea cited the following reasons: they thought that if they
continued learning the language skills using the short story book, they may face difficulties when
it comes to preparing for the School Certificate Examinations when they reach Grade 12. They
cited the lack of explicit teaching of grammar and rewrites by the current approach to ESL as the
Responding to the second question, a number of students (22 of 40) suggested that both
narratives and poetry should be used to teach language. They claimed that each aspect of the
English language be it story or poetry has its own characteristic features and merits and that
when they go to colleges, students would have no choice but to learn it (poetry). It is therefore
imperative that students get exposed to each type of the English language as early as possible
before they leave secondary school. A complete study of language should therefore include all
aspects (9 students observed). Other students, however, chose one or a combination of genres
for special attention. Most frequently mentioned were: short stories (34) and these students
emphasized that they preferred stories with common themes. The most cited stories were:
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‘Winner’, ‘Chief Sekoto Holds Court’, ‘A Mother in Mannville’. Other students (6) cited other
genres such as poetry and drama.
Short stories were the most popular mainly for their brevity and because they were perceived to
be relatively easy. This confirms the findings of the ‘Book Flood’ project reported in Chapter 2
(Elley 2000) and consequently, the benefits of studying ESL through a short story book which
this study investigated as observed by Basiga (2009).
In response to the third question, 29 students thought that contemporary stories and texts from
the past should be included. Reasons advanced included the necessity for diachronic comparison,
the development of a broad knowledge and awareness of different ways of reporting the same
thing. Some students reported that ‘texts written in Old English’ should not be included.
However, most students preferred stories written in modern English. This was perceived as being
more accessible in language and content to the modern reader.
As far as the geographical origin of the texts to be used was concerned, the most common
preference (35 students) was selection of stories with familiar themes to the students’
background. Almost all the respondents suggested that stories should come from Africa,
especially West Africa; since this would reflect more closely their own background, to enable
them learn more about their own country. Five respondents suggested inclusion of non-African
short stories in the ESL programme.
4.3.5 Grammar awareness
The intended outcomes of the lesson were that: students were to be able to: Use the skills that they have acquired through reading short stories as a resource for
language skills learning in the development of their writing and to enhance their
knowledge and effective use of grammar.
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 Be able to demonstrate an awareness of the importance of grammar in the creation of
meaning, and will be able to apply this knowledge in your own use of language.
The areas of grammar covered in the course were those that typically occurred in the texts used
for study, as well as those that are contained in the senior secondary English language syllabus
including those that students were likely to use in their writing activities. For example, one of the
objectives at Grade 10 is that pupils should be able to use ‘Verbs followed by the ‘to-infinitive’.
Pupils constructed sentences using the ‘to-infinitive’ as in the following sentences:
(i)
Nantondo hung about long enough to have her picture taken with Pius.
(ii)
You have to watch that one.
(iii)
Everybody who came wanted to see the telegram that announced Pius’s win.
The following examples were identified from the text by pupils (in groups). Together, they
discussed answers as they read through the story (integrated approach). This involved pupils
reading, discussing the story and writing of the answers at the same time. The use of the word,
‘awareness’ in the second outcome implied that the aim was to raise to consciousness level
knowledge that the students had implicitly or were at least partially aware of. It involved, in
other words, a form of consciousness-raising that ‘aims at facilitating the natural acquisition
process by making explicit what learners might already know implicitly, giving them more
control and helping them to analyze language and then develop, test and modify hypotheses’
(Butler 2006:242). Integration of language skills was observed throughout the study.
The theoretical underpinning of the integration of language skills owes much to Stern’s
(1991:330) idea of multiple uses to which a literary text such as short story books can be put.
The stories in the text, ‘Winners’ were used as the inspiration for speaking and writing practice,
linked thematically to the stories being used in the text and provided a resource for the study of
grammatical forms. These multiple use allowed the texts to be used in the areas mentioned in the
outcomes: grammar and writing awareness. In order to test the students’ writing and grammatical
competency, I decided to give them an assignment. The assignment required students to answer
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the following question based on the story: ‘Magic in a Zulu Name’ taken from an anthology of
short stories, ‘Winners’. The students were required to write answers in an essay form. The
following assignment was given:
‘How much of the witch doctor’s cure do you think lies in what he did and how much in the
psychological effect it would have on Mlalazi and his sons’?
The size of the class meant that I could not read and comment on the initial drafts of the
assignments. I noticed that typical errors in the drafts that were submitted for comment was the
use of past continuous (where the past simple would have been appropriate), careless punctuation
(especially in the use of direct speech) and inconsistent use of sequence of tenses. My assessment
of the final products, however, showed frequent occurrences of the same errors and little
evidence of conscious application of the relevant grammatical rules. Neither of the contextual
teaching of grammatical structures, nor the exposure to them through the literary texts, appeared
to have much effect.
An analysis of student performance in the first assignment showed a high pass rate of 77.5% (31
students), with a significant part of these students scoring 62% and above (17 students
representing 61% of the class). In the second assignment, however, the pass rate dropped
significantly to 55% of the class (22 students), with majority of the pass grades falling between
51% and 60% (24 students, representing 60%of the class). A small number (20%) of the class
received a grade below 40%.
The general poor performance in this task has significant implications for the theory of language
and literature integration. Statement 1 (in 2.2.2) suggests that literature provides a suitable
context for teaching grammar. One of the outcomes stated earlier had further assumed that the
grammatical knowledge gained in this way could be transferred to the students’ use of language.
The overall performance in the task suggests that this had not taken place. The perennial
complaint of language teachers about lack of grammatical transfer remained (Kilfoil & Van der
Walt 1997:71-72; Parkinson 2001; Butler 2006:254). One of the arguments these authors have
advanced is that whilst they do advocate for the teaching of all language skills through literature,
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there is need for teachers to teach grammar explicitly. They have argued that there is usually lack
of effective grammatical transfer if grammar is not taught explicitly.
As a follow up, I had to organize sessions where the practice of grammar was done. Some of the
sessions were used for exercises in which literature and language work was integrated. I
observed that students’ interest in learning grammar increased as a result and the lessons were a
success and seemed to vindicate the approach (see Mrozowska 2000). The story, ‘Chief Sekoto
Hold Court’ was chosen from among others (Edwards, ed. 1996:47) because I thought it was the
most accessible for a Zambian student, needing the least background knowledge. The
accompanying exercises usually required discussion, negotiation of meaning, speculation and
justification of answers. Students were initially reluctant to engage in group discussion and pair
work, but I noted that when this took place, the tasks went on very well and contributed to the
development of communicative as well as linguistic competence, including grammar awareness
as suggested in Statement 3 (section 2.2.2). Students also showed interest in the language
activities.
I also noticed that most students had difficulty in making inferences that allowed them to read
‘between the lines’ of the story, but showed understanding and appreciation when prompted by
me or other students. For example, in the story ‘Chief Sekoto Holds Court’ it was difficult for
most students to understand and answer the following question (not until they were prompted):
‘In deciding in favour of Mma-Baloi, what appealed most to Chief Sekoto’s feelings?’ and the
question ‘What appealed most to his reason?’ Most students failed to differentiate between
‘feeling’ and ‘reason’ not until I explained.
4.3.6 Communicative language teaching: results and analysis
The challenges faced during the course of the study could be classified as follows: I discovered
that the exercise of material design is not a simple one. All the English textbooks available have
been developed under the influence of the grammar-translation and audio-lingual methods, so
teachers wishing to venture into communicative language teaching should be prepared to design
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own materials and this, in itself require a lot of time. Because most of the teachers were already
overloaded, any additional work would be a burden for them. As already alluded to, there were
challenges caused by the educational system itself.
The second challenge the study revealed concerned the nature of classes. Communicative
language teaching requires a fairly small number of pupils for the teaching to be effective. 40
pupils was too big a number for the effective teaching. It is very difficult to use CLT with so
many pupils in one class. The belief is that oral English and close monitoring of class activities
were essential in CLT. The other constraint the study revealed concerned the grammar based
examinations. Teachers are therefore under pressure to make pupils do well in the national
examinations to the extent that they would rather devote valuable class time to teaching testtaking skills and drilling pupils on multiple choice grammar items than teach oral
communication which is never examined. The nature of the current examinations has greatly
affected the way English language is taught in Zambia.
There were challenges caused by CLT itself. Amongst these was lack of an effective and
efficient assessment instruments as a barrier to the effective implementation CLT. Used to the
traditional discrete-point testing of grammatical knowledge, I found it disconcerting that I was
unable to find prescribed and already made assessment tools for communicative competence. I
came to realize that the best way to test communication competence was by giving pupils oral
tests.
4.4
Group work
One of the techniques that I used extensively in this study was group work. Right from the start,
students were told that they would not be allowed to use vernacular (any local language) during
the lessons and during group discussions. At first, I observed that a number of students were
quite reluctant to speak to each other in English. This applied even to those who were fairly
fluent in English. Initially, when a group is given a task to perform, the task would normally be
dominated by few students who dominated the discussion to the disadvantage of the rest.
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However, as time went on, it was observed that most of those who were reluctant to speak
opened up. I noticed that most members of the group begun to respond to discussion questions.
In recommending group work as a technique for teaching ESL round a literary text, Stern
(1987:53) observes that in-class study of any literary work should include as much general class
discussion as possible. Stern (1987:53) advocates the use of small group work which should
centre on characters, themes and language work ‘as this can give students maximum opportunity
to speak in classes’. It was quite evident that group work would indeed develop communicative
fluency as students openly and freely argued their cases. This increased the potential for testing
Statement 3 (2.2.2) with its claims that, ‘Teaching ESL skills through literature can develop
communicative and linguistic competency in the target language’.
I will now return to the two questions asked at the beginning of this chapter. For easy of
reference the questions are repeated here:
 What effect does the integrated teaching of ESL skills (communicatively) have on the
development of language skills competence? Does the integrated teaching ESL skills, as
the theory suggests work to benefit students?
 To what extent does the approach meet students’ perceived needs?
The second question is the easier to answer. Based on students’ oral responses during class
discussions and their participation in group-work related activities and other written assignments,
there was overwhelming support for the integration of language skills (communicatively) within
a literature-based language programme. Both the methodology and the materials used during the
study were generally met with approval. At face value at least, the materials prepared seemed to
have fulfilled the needs and expectations of all the role players concerned. In terms of motivation
and other affectual factors, this is not an unimportant detail.
Instances of successful integration were found in the tasks where the use of literature based
material as a resource seemed to lead to engagement with the language awareness topics. For
example in the story, ‘Man from the South’, there is a question that demanded venturing into
language work by the learners. Students were asked the following question:
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What words or phrases used early on in the description of the man from the South suggest that
he is impetuous, likely to act on impulse?
In groups, students read through the text and selected words or phrases which they compared
later and debated. This is in line with what Boshoff (2007:127) have proposed. They have
defended the place of explicit teaching of grammar in the ESL classroom. Boshoff (2007:127)
posits that there is a place for the ‘incorporation of grammar instruction within communicative
ESL lessons’. This was achieved as students compared, discussed and defended their defended
their responses. Again, literature as a resource was equally effective in its ability to stimulate
debate in stories such as: The Winner, A Mother in Mannville. These stories generated lively
class discussions and story based writing activities.
Equally, writing argumentative essays promoted personal involvement in the literary text. The
benefits worked both ways, to the benefit of language skills and to the benefit of literary
appreciation. On the other hand, while the text provided the topics and motivation for writing
and the resources for raising grammar awareness, they could not ensure that essays would be
well structured or that grammatical knowledge would be transferred to writing. For these skills to
be acquired as a result of exposure to literary texts, would have required more time and an
approach that would have involved the teaching of grammatical structures in the ‘traditional’
manner. There could have been need for not only using CLT approach but approaches such as
Cognitive Code which emphasizes the learning of grammatical rules (Richards and Schmidt
2002:82). This is in line with what Brown (2000:42) observes. He says that, ‘while it was
generally believed that mere exposure to language is sufficient for the child to learn language
skills, it has now been realized that interaction rather than exposure is required…’ Here, Brown
(2002) is advocating for rule-explanation when teaching language, especially grammar.
This chapter (amongst other things) presents an evaluation of the short story book on which the
designed materials is with a view to determining its suitability as a basis for teaching ESL skills
communicatively and meet Senior Secondary syllabus demands. This is followed by tables and
graphs presenting- mean scores and standard deviations relating to the pre-test and post-test
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results on each of the areas tested. These are: comprehension, rewrites and the cloze tests. After
data presentation, the findings are discussed in more detail.
4.4.1
Before reading activities
Each of the stories on which the designed materials were based started with the ‘Before reading
activities’. This technique of writing stories serves two purposes. The first one is that it
introduces the subject matter thus agreeing with the ‘schema theory’ which states that
‘background information is enhances pupils understanding the text’ (Boshoff 2007: 129). The
other function which this serves is that of encouraging communication amongst the learners.
Students have something to talk about even before they read the text. In the final analysis, the
‘Before reading’ section of the story is meant to stimulate learners’ interest (Boshoff 2007:129).
This researcher supports Coady (1979:12) who states that ‘interesting enough subject- matter
should be provided together with strong semantic input and the necessary background knowledge
if pupils have to appreciate the text’. This however, does not imply an assumption that
background knowledge will enable understanding in spite of syntactic ability (Eskey 1988:96,
Boshoff 2007:131).
4.4.2 Language skills
The application of the designed material in the teaching of the four language skills conforms to
what is recommended in the literature and will subsequently be discussed skill by skill. It is
important to keep in mind that similar to many suggestions from the literature, findings discussed
here under reading and writing also pertain to listening and speaking even if they are not
repeated under those headings.
4.4.3 Vocabulary
The material was designed in such a way that vocabulary was included in as part of the reading,
listening and speaking activities. The main reason was to introduce vocabulary items only to aid
comprehension of the text. The short story book in itself does contain lists of vocabulary items as
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part of the index and not in the table of contents. This classification of terms is consistent with
what is suggested by Elley (1989:184), Gajdusek (1988:235), Nuttall (1982:76-77), and Povey
(1979:167). By including vocabulary activities in the designed material, the intention of the
researcher is not to use the designed material as a vocabulary teaching tool. Gajdusek (1988:235)
has suggested ‘the inclusion of pre-reading vocabulary work as one of the most efficient ways to
supply necessary information without telling too much proceeds from vocabulary’. Gajdusek
(1988:235) suggests that ‘problem words’ should be presented with ‘a blank’ in place of a word
in question. The justification for doing this (using ‘problem words’) is that, as pupils compare
their different answers and the original word, this activity is highly communicative. This happens
when students present and explain their answers. Gajdusek (1988:235) identifies three groups of
vocabulary items which can be derived from reading a short story book or any literary text.
There are: words whose meanings can (and should) be derived from the context and words
(probably easy for native speakers) that contain vital clues to the cultural and emotional context
of the story. The last group comprises words those proficient readers merely categorize.
4.5
Presentation and interpretation of post-test results
This section discusses data collected from the post-test that was administered at the end of the
treatment process. The intention was to determine whether there are any differences in
performance between the control and the experimental groups relating to the language
competence prior to the study and after the treatment process. Each of the group’s post-test
results is compared to that of the pre-test results to see whether the treatment process has been
effective.
Having gone through the processing of treatment based on the traditional material for the control
group and the designed material for the experimental group, a post-test was conducted to both
groups. The following results were obtained: A total of 40 students from the control and another
40 from the experimental groups were tested after a period of eleven weeks’ treatment process
after which a post-test was administered. In obtaining statistical information, a paired student‘t’
test was used and the results obtained are shown in Tables 4 and 5 for the control and
experimental group, respectively.
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Table 4: Posttest results for the control group
Lang skill
no
mean @ 95% confidence
s/dev
high
low
Median
Interval for mean
abs s/dev
/ the median
Compre
40
41.5
36.32 – 46.68
17.6
70
40
40
14.5
Rewrites
40
41.1
36.58 – 45.42
14.1
70
10
40
10.5
Cloze test
40
34.3
29.37 – 39.13
16.8
70
10
30
13.8
Total
40
38.9
29.67 – 36.38
12.9
67
6
31.5
7.9
Key: abs – absolute; s/dev – standard deviation.
Table 5: Post-test results for the experimental group
Language skill
No mean @95% confid
s/dev
high
low
median absolutes/dev
(mean)
from/ median
Comprehension 40
41.9
36.70 – 47.05
15.2
80
20
40
11.9
Rewrites
40
32.8
28.33 – 37.17
14
60
10
30
11.2
Cloze test
40
44.5
39.62 – 49.39
14.1
70
10
40
11.5
Total
40
39.7
29.67 – 36.38
12.9
67
6
31.5
7.9
Figure 2 – shows comparative post-test results
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4.5.1 Reading comprehension
Tables 4, 5 and figure 2 show that the mean score for the control group in comprehension was
41.5 and 41.9 for the experimental group giving a difference of only 0.8. Based on this
difference, one can say that the control group performed as well as the experimental group. The
standard deviation stood at 17.6 for the control and 15.2 for the experimental group.
Experimental students’ performance in the post-test reading section (which matched that of the
control group) was not surprising. This is in line with what McKay (1982) reports. In support of
literature based reading programme, she argues that literature does foster an ‘overall increase in
language proficiency’ (McKay 1982:531). The seeming marginal superiority by the experimental
group may be attributed to the interactive nature of literature based reading. The fact that the
student is willing to interact with the text is a critical motivation factor which may have
enhanced their understanding of the text and consequently, their apparent superior performance
(McCarthy, 1998:156-165).
4.5.2 Rewrites
As for the rewrites, the tables show that the mean score was 41.1for the control group and 32.8
for the experimental group giving a mean difference of 8.3. This difference can be attributed to
the teaching methodology used in the control group which emphasized rule explanation. Students
in this group were given enough practice on how to answer questions on rewrites. The
experimental group did not have this chance. From this, we can conclude that if students have to
do well in the tests, even in CLT situation, there should be room for the explicit teaching of
grammar as a way of enhancing performance in questions that require students to express
meaning in another way as was the case with rewrites. The standard deviation in the post-test
was 14.1 for the control group and 14 for the experimental.
The above results show that statistically (on average), the control group seems to have performed
better than the experimental group on the rewrites. One reason that could have caused this was
the lack of practice by the experimental group in answering structural type of questions such as
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the rewrites. The lack of practice was intentional as the designed materials for the experimental
group were modelled on the principles of communicative language teaching which does not
emphasize grammatical rule explanation (although this may jeopardize pupils’ performance in
the final examinations). This view is supported by Larssen-Freeman (2000:131) who observes
that in CLT “language functions are emphasized over language forms”. The control group’s
teaching programme did provide for grammatical rule explanation and intensive drilling on the
answering of rewrite type of questions as they (rewrites) feature dominantly in the final
examinations. Consequently, there was a great amount of practice by pupils. The conclusion one
may draw from this is that CLT should not ignore grammatical rule explanation if students are to
do well in their final examinations.
4.5.3 Cloze test
The other section of the post-test that was administered was the cloze test. As can be seen from
Tables 4 and 5, the results for both the control and the experimental groups were as follows: The
mean score for the control group was 34.3 and 44.5 for the experimental group with standard
deviation of 16.8 for the control group compared to 14.1 for the experimental group. The highest
score was 70 for both the groups and the lowest was 10, again for both groups. The median was
30 and 40 for the control and experimental groups (respectively). 13.8 was the (average) absolute
deviation from the median for the control and 11.5 for the experimental.
These results confirm Moyra’s (1993:15) assertion that if teachers adopt a language-based
approach by using teaching techniques such as cloze tests in the teaching of ESL through
literature (as a resource); pupils’ communicative competence will be enhanced. Moyra (1993:15)
further claim that if cloze tests are used efficiently they do enhance students’ development of the
general language competence including the acquisition of students’ interpretive skills which
contribute to enhanced performance.
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4.6
Paired‘t’ test results
Before taking a critical analysis of the results, it must be mentioned that a paired‘t’ test was used
to compare the performance of the control and the treatment groups so as to make an inference
about the size of the average treatment effect (average difference between the paired
measurements). The most important results were the p-value and the confidence interval. The pvalue was used to answer this question: If the treatment really had no effect, what is the chance
that random sampling would result in an average effect as far as zero (or more so) as observed in
this experiment? Before interpreting the p-value or confidence interval, it is important to mention
the confidence interval that was being sought. The confidence interval in this study is 95% (or
0.05). This means that at 0.05, one can be sure that this interval contains the true treatment effect.
When the p-value is larger than 0.05 (p > 0.05) the 95% confidence internal will start with a
negative number (representing a decrease) and go up to a positive number (representing an
increase).
The p-value and the statistical significance for the control group were 0.0099 (approximately
0.001). By conventional criteria, this difference is considered to be statistically significant. As
for the experimental group, the p-value was 0.0029 (approximately 0.003). Again by
conventional criteria, this difference is considered to be very statistically significant. Based on
the two p-values for the control and the experimental groups, it can be concluded with certainty
that the treatment effect observed is not due to mere coincidence of random sampling. Based on
this information therefore, the null hypothesis ‘that the designed materials based on the literary
text cannot be used to teach ESL skills” has been rejected. Instead, the hypothesis that materials
designed based on the literary text can be used to teach ESL communicatively has been
confirmed (P < 0.05 cases). Given below is a presentation of the statistical information.
The confidence interval for the control group is -6.50. This gives the 95% confidence interval of
this difference ranging from -11.35 to -1.65. The confidence interval for the experimental group
is -6.73 and the 95% confidence interval ranges from -11.01 to -2.44. The intermediate values
used in the calculations was t = 2.7134 and the DF being 39. The standard error for this group is
2.396. For the experimental group, the values used in the calculations is t = 3.1779, DF = 39 and
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the standard error of difference is 2.116. These finding were further corroborated by pre-test and
post-test comparisons of the means attained by the control group. (This is shown in Tables 6 and
7 on the next page).
Table 6 – comparative pre-test/ post-test results (control)
Language skill
Pre-test
(mean Post-test (mean values)
values)
Comprehension
33
41.5
Rewrites
30.8
41.1
Cloze test
34
34.3
32.6
38.9
Mean score
Table 7 – comparative pre-test/ post-test results (treatment)
Language skill
Pre-test
(mean Post-test (mean values)
values)
Comprehension
29.8
41.9
Rewrites
26.8
32.8
Cloze test
41.2
44.5
Mean score
32.6
39.7
By analyzing and comparing the pre-test and post-test scores (in tables 6 and 7 above) for the
control group (mean= 33 and 41.5 for comprehension respectively), a difference of 8.5 was
arrived at. Based on this we can conclude that the control group made considerable progress in
comprehension. As for the experimental group, the pre-test mean value was 29.8 and the posttest mean score stood at 41.9, giving a mean difference of 12.25. By comparing the two mean
differences (8.5 for the control and 12.25 for the experimental) we can deduce that the latter
performed relative better compared to the former.
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As for the rewrites, the pre-test mean score for the control group was 30.8 and the post-test mean
score was 41.1 giving a difference of 10.3. This was a marked difference for this group. The
(mean) pre-test and post test for the experimental was 26.8 and 32.8 giving a difference of 6.0.
Comparatively, the control group out-performed the treatment group in terms of the mean
differences between the pre-test and that of the post-test.
The cloze test mean values were as follows: the pre-test and the post-test for the control group
was 34 and 34.3, respectively. The difference for this group was 0.3 (very marginal). On the
other hand, the experimental mean scores for the pre-test and the post-test were as follows: 41.2
and 44.5, respectively. The mean difference was 3.3. Compared to the control group, the
experimental group preformed relatively better in this section.
Finally, a comparison of the mean scores for the overall performance for the control and the
experimental groups reveals that the mean score for the pre-test for the former is 32.6 and the
post-test result was 38.9 giving a difference of 6.4. On the other hand the pre-test and post-test
values for the experimental group were 32.6 and 39.7, respectively, giving a difference of 7.1.
Again the results show that the treatment performed relatively better compared to the control
group.
The results were further subjected to the statistical analysis. The Prism Guide to interpreting
Statistical Results was used. To do this a paired student’s test was employed. A paired t-test
compares two-paired sets of results (pre-test and post-test). It calculates the difference between
each set of pairs, analyzes that list of differences based on the assumption that the differences in
the entire population follow a Gaussian distribution. The paired t calculates the difference
between each set of pairs, keeping track of the sign. If the value in column A is larger, then the
difference is negative. The ‘t’ ratio for a paired test is the mean of these differences divided by
the standard error of the differences. If the t ratio is large or is a large negative number, the P
value will be small. The number of degrees of freedom equals the number of pairs minus 1. The
p- value is then calculated from the t-ratio and the number of degrees of freedom (Nunan 1992,
Boshoff 2007, Butler 2006).
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The whole point of using a paired experimental design and a paired test was to control for
experimental variability. Some factors I did not control in the study would have affected the
before and the after measurements equally, so they would not have affected difference between
before and after. By analyzing only the differences, therefore, a paired test corrects for those
sources of scatter.
4.7
Statistical significance of differences in performances
In order to determine the significance of the difference between the means of the pre-test and the
post-test for both the control and the experimental group in the post-test, the student ‘t’ test was
employed. The‘t’ test was used to test the null hypothesis that the two groups of learners display
no statistically significant difference in performance in comprehension, rewrites and the cloze
test. This test evaluates differences on outcome various between two independent samples.
According to Nunan (1992) a common practice is to use the 0.05 probability level for testing the
null hypothesis. This is also called the 0.05 level of significance, abbreviated as p > 0.05. One of
the reasons the‘t’ test was used was to help establish whether the mean values between the
control and the treatment group differ significantly. There were 40 subjects in the treatment
group and the mean score for this group was 39. The control group had a similar number of
subjects and the mean value for this group was 33.
The above mean values were then subjected statistical computation using the paired’ test. The
following results were obtained: Mean 1(M1) (39): (variance = 39) and Mean 2 (M2) (33):
(variance = 33). The difference between M1 and M2 = 39 – 33 is 6.The standard deviation is
8.4853. 95% confidence interval of difference: -10.6309 < 6 < 22.6309 (Wald); z-difference:
707; p = 0.76022 (left p: 0.2398; two sided: 0.4796). From this information, we can see that ‘the
2-tailed significance = 0.4796 is NOT < 0.05’. Based on this information, we can conclude that
there is no significance difference between the two groups on the value variable
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4.8
Testing of research hypothesis
This section will discuss whether or not the hypothesis of the study is confirmed from the
findings of the statistics above.
4.8.1 Research hypothesis
The present study examined the feasibility of using literary texts as an alternative to ESL
teaching in senior English classes in Zambia. Material designed around a literary text was used to
teach English Second Language skills instead of a prescribed course book. The effectiveness of
the material produced in meeting syllabus objectives was investigated and measured against the
prescribed course book. This study was motivated by the following hypothesis: “Teaching
materials designed around a literary text can be used to teach ESL skills communicatively in
senior secondary classes in Zambia in absence of a prescribed course book (text)”.
4.9
Conclusion
In this chapter, the extent to which literary texts could replace prescribed course books in
teaching ESL skills is investigated. It is quite pleasing to note from the study that great success
can be achieved if literary texts were used as an alternative to the course books in ESL classroom
where the latter are not readily available.
The results show that this success is not without limitation. As has been shown, certain skills
such as grammar will require teachers to go outside the text for its effective teaching as not all
structures may be available in the text that is being used as a basis for material design. The
stories in Winners meet the suggestions made in the literature on text selection and the way in
which ESL skills could be taught within the context of communicative language teaching. The
materials that were designed follow guidelines on how best to teach the four language skills
(reading, writing, listening and speaking including grammatical skills) and the main component
of communicative competence based on literary texts.
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CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary of the study
This study has investigated the use of short stories to teach ESL skills communicatively in senior
secondary classes in Zambia. The innovation that was the object of the study developed out of
the desire to find alternative sources of teaching English as a second language
(communicatively). Although the problem does not only affect one grade level, Grade 10 was
chosen as it is the foundation of senior secondary education and is the grade that the researcher
teaches for the purposes of accessibility and convenience. The integrated approach to language
teaching was seen to be especially appropriate to students who use English as a second language
since it did not take linguistic competence for granted but attempted to address and meet the
actual needs of students as prescribed by the Senior Secondary English language syllabus for
senior secondary.
While the syllabus has recommended the use of the communicative language teaching approach
to English language skills teaching, the proposed use of alternative texts to ESL teaching
attempted to reinterpret them in a radical way, from a carefully theorized base, expressed eight
statements on the benefits to be derived from the integration of language skills around a literary
text such as short story books. The changes were not imposed from above. It is a teaching
approach implied in the syllabus. The eight statements are:
(i)
Literature provides a resource or authentic context for the teaching of grammar
and vocabulary.
(ii)
Because of its appeal to the learners’ imagination and emotions, literature as a
resource provides motivation for language learning.
(iii)
The themes and plots of literary works provide stimuli for oral language activities
which develop the learner’s linguistic and communicative competence.
(iv)
Literature provides learners with authentic models for the norms of language use.
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(v)
Literature assists learners in developing their overall language
awareness and knowledge about language.
(vi)
Literature helps develop learners’ interpretive and analytical skills.
(vii)
Literature represents language ‘at its best’ and thus provides an ideal model for
language learning.
(viii)
The study of literature educates the ‘whole person’ in a way that more functional
approaches to language teaching do not.
(Butler 2006:51)
The main focus of this study has been material design and testing to determine to what extent the
designed materials would go in meeting syllabus objectives and student needs in the context of
communicative language teaching. The study therefore involved material design based on a
collection of short stories ‘Winners’. The main focus of the investigation has been a study
conducted in the 2009/10 but this was not presented in isolation from the preparation that went
into it (such as the production of materials through which the integrated approach could be
realized in the classroom) and the implementation and material evaluation that followed it. The
broader context in which the study took place was also presented as essential to an understanding
of the case study and its findings. This included the movement for change in the way English
language skills were being taught in Zambian secondary schools arising from the curriculum
reforms undertaken since 1996 which has made CLT the main approach in the implementation of
the ESL syllabus. There is a new thinking in the manner in ESL skills that places emphasis on
communicative language teaching. The goal of CLT is to enable students attain communicative
language competence. This factor was critical in considering the appropriateness and feasibility
of the integrated approach.
The study described in Chapter 4, was, in fact, a description of integrated approach to ESL
teaching using alternative resources (in this case, a short story book). The detailed report on
student performance in all the eleven units aimed at showing all the elements involved in
teaching and learning processes. However, the findings of the chapter, although revealing local
successes and failures of the designed materials, were not conclusive. The question raised at the
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beginning of the study – whether materials designed around a short story book/text could be used
to meet syllabus objectives could work in this particular study – was partially answered.
To a large degree, this lack of certainty was attributed to the context of the case study.
Contextual factors such as the background of the pupils, initially seen as ‘background’ to the
investigation, frequently became fore- grounded to the extent that they over shadowed it, at
times even making the issue of appropriate methodology seem irrelevant in the face of larger,
more immediate concerns. Since it could not be isolated from them, the factors had a limiting
effect on the ability of the case study to provide answers to the question it had set out to
investigate.
These factors need to be considered before any valid conclusions on the
effectiveness of the materials designed in meeting syllabus outcomes can be reached. In the next
section, the contextual factors will be considered as limitations to the study. With the limitations
in mind, an attempt will then be made to assess the teaching programme in terms of quality
assurance: did it, firstly, have (what Butler 2006) refers to as the fitness of purpose and,
secondly, was there fitness for purpose? (2006:284). The last section of the chapter will involve a
consideration of the study’s contribution to research in the area of teaching English language
around a literary text.
5.2 Pupil background
A few research participants experienced difficulties in coping with the demands of the tasks. I
came to discover that most of the subjects had not (in fact) attained the required necessary
reading skills to enable them handle the tasks with ease. The main reason for this state of affairs
is that passing English is no longer a prerequisite to one’s entry Grade 10 (which was the case in
the past). The result of this scenario is that we are now having students who ‘cross over’ into
Grade 10 (from Grade 9 as long as they have passed in at least any the of the six subjects
examined at Grade 9 level) without having attained the necessary competence in the English
which is the official language of communication in education in Zambia.
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An assumption usually made when pupils come into Grade 10 is that they have attained basic
competencies and that they (pupils) learn best through moving from the known to the unknown.
The latter assumption resulted into the use of a technique in all the units that first discussed what
pupils had known about the subject through the approach here, referred to as the ‘Before reading’
section of the tasks. The result was that I used ‘more accessible’ texts before introducing those
texts deemed to be removed from pupils’ experience. Yet what emerged from the students’
performance was lack of familiarity with most kinds of the texts used, not only those with
unfamiliar themes but others as well. This alone slowed me down as I could not move at the pace
that I had wanted. Instances such as these suggest the alienation from written language probably
experienced by many people in developing countries. The pedagogical technique of using
authentic texts to facilitate learning has little effect in this context, where written language occurs
mainly in the classroom and plays only a limited role in daily life experiences. Similarly, the
technique of using a collection of short stories such as Winners as a vehicle for ESL skills
teaching assumes a literate society in which people are constantly (and usually subconsciously)
exposed to written language. This was not the experience of some students in the Grade 10 class.
Another limiting factor in implementing and accessing the success of the integrated approach
which showed itself during group discussions, was the students’ difficulty in adapting to
cooperative and communicative language learning, both of which are fundamental to most
interpretations of the approach. Their behaviour here is partly explained by lack of experience of
these styles of learning at school. It was also symptomatic of a lack of confidence in using
English with their peers or in public. Although the integrated approach is especially suited to
second language speakers of English, it, nevertheless, assumes a certain level of competence and
exposure to the language. Although, in theory, English was the students’ second language, in
practice, for most, it was a foreign language, remote from their experiences outside the
classroom.
All the factors mentioned above are to be found amongst some students ‘crossing-over’ from the
Basic school environment to senior secondary. Similar findings regarding literacy and linguistic
competence, the absence of the culture of reading and difficulties in adapting to new ways of
learning are to be found in the literature. Evans (1992:58) quotes a study that was conducted in
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the 1980s in South Africa. The study reported that most first year students who had matriculated
in the Department of Education and Training which controlled all education for blacks under
apartheid education system are at ‘3’ reading level and frequently lapse back into ‘2’. She
glosses stage ‘3’ as ‘the the level which usually extends, in mother tongue speakers, over the
period from about ‘9’ to ‘14’ years of age’. Kilfoil (1994:43) refers to the ‘grossly inadequate
linguistic proficiency’ at all levels of education and the consequent difficulties students
experience as readers of any English text. Although, these studies were conducted in South
Africa, the findings may be relevant to all third world countries and Zambia is not the exception.
Aitken (1980:59) shows the effect of this linguistic incompetence when she mentions that her
attempt at a survey of first-year students at the University of Zululand failed because students
lacked the reading comprehension skills to understand and answer ‘thirty straight forward
questions’. He (Aitkin) echoes the observation by claiming that students had not had sufficient
exposure to English or the effective learning of English to be able to benefit from the
methodology employed in the above survey as they could not effectively read the text on which
the lessons were based.
Similar studies (Balfour 1997; Butler 2006) have further reported an analysis of uneven
participation in class discussions at even higher institutions of learning (Universities of Natal and
UNW) that is similar to my experience during my study. Zambian ESL students are not of
course, unique in this respect: much of the literature on CLT has reported the difficulty of
implementing these and similar principles in non-western educational contexts (see for example,
Butler 2006, & Watts 2003/4). Based on these studies, one can conclude that Grade 10 students’
reluctance or inability to participate in class discussions was not just confined to the subjects of
this study.
It should be noted that the problems mentioned here are not just peculiar to Zambia. They are
common to all the regions where English is taught and learnt as a second language. Brumfit &
Benton’s (1993) survey of teaching literature in a number of countries throughout the world
reveals teachers grappling with remarkably similar issues in which pupils were reported to be
lacking a culture of reading and not having any experience in literary study and analysis,
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inexperienced teachers, the constraints imposed by examinations and the syllabi, varying levels
of English proficiency among students and passive learners.
5.3 Meeting syllabus objectives
It is important that the discussion can now return to the question of the ultimate success or failure
of the integrated approach to the teaching of ESL language skills within the framework of CLT
around a short story book. This question will be addressed in terms of two issues that emerged as
being of particular significance in the evaluation of the study. It must be stated that the
limitations identified in the previous section are important factors to consider in answering these
question.
Translated into the concerns of this study, the question of whether the designed materials were
appropriate and relevant to the Grade 10 students need to be addressed. Is it feasible that ESL
skills could be taught based on the short story book and meet the syllabus objectives? Could it, in
the various ways that summarized in the eight statements in Chapter 2, meet senior secondary
school syllabus demands addressing students’ unique needs? Would teaching ESL skills around a
short story book improve students’ English language competence?
By analyzing and comparing the pre-test and post-test scores for both the control and the
experimental group, given in chapter 4, it is evident that ESL skills could be taught using the
designed materials and achieve almost similar results as shown by the pre-test and post-test
results for the control and the experimental groups (mean values= 33 for the pre-test and 41.5 for
the post-test in comprehension for the control group). The mean values in comprehension for the
experimental group was 29.8 for the pre-test and 41.9 for the post-test. By comparing the two
mean differences for the pre-test and post-test for each of the two groups (8.5 for the control and
12.25 for the experimental) we can conclude that the designed materials were as effective as the
traditional materials when it came to the development of comprehension skills (bearing in mind
that the sample is fairly small).
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On the other hand, the designed materials appeared not to have as much impact on ‘rewrites’ as
the materials contained in the course book due to the designed material’s failure in enhancing the
development of grammatical skills in the learners compared to the course book. This can be seen
from the results obtained by the control group who had a mean post-test result of 41.1compared
to 32.8 for the experimental group (giving a mean difference of 8.3) in the rewrites. The
implication of this finding in relation to meeting syllabus demand demands is that it would be
necessary to teach rewrites explicitly (by teaching the rules on how to express the given
sentence-meaning in another way). The relative poor performance by in the post-test by the
experimental group did not come as a surprise as there is enough evidence to support explicit
grammar instruction in the ESL classroom. Pica (1994:65) and Van Pattern (1993) posit that for
many learners, especially those for whom the classroom is a sole context for language learning,
meaningful interaction and comprehension input may not be possible. Pica (1994) and Van
Pattern (1993) argue that even if such input were provided, the overall amount of input and
interaction targeted to individual learners might be reduced in relation to the total number of
classroom participants. This situation suggests that learners may need explicit teaching of
grammar so as to enable them master the grammatical rules of the language they are trying to
learn than through input provision and interaction experiences alone. This means that pupils’
performance can be enhanced through the explicit teaching of grammar (within the context of
CLT).
However, the designed materials were found to be effective at development of pupils’
competence when it comes to tackling questions relating to the cloze tests. This is evident by the
mean values for the pre-test and the post-test for the control group which stood at 34 and 34.3
(respectively) giving a mean value difference of 0.3 (very marginal). As for experimental group,
the mean values for the pre-test and the post-test stood at 41.2 and 44.5 (respectively) giving a
mean difference of 3.3. Based on this information, we can conclude that designed materials if
used effectively could be used in meeting ESL syllabus objectives within communicative
language teaching framework.
The last section of the previous chapter concluded that the extent to which these aims were
achieved was both limited and uneven. Few students, who had reading difficulties made little
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improvement; a good number achieved a reasonable degree of success in some areas but not in
others. A fairly good number of research participants achieved a reasonable progress in areas of
the language (comprehension, grammar, rewrites and oral skills). These patterns suggest
something about the relevance and appropriateness of the story book as an alternative resource to
ESL teaching (the clash between the implicit assumptions in the integrated approach and the
context in which the course was actually implemented).
The integrated approach to the teaching of ESL skills communicatively around a literary text
such as a short story book emphasizes the idea of facilitating learning, whether of language or
literature. This emerged clearly in the survey of literature and was expressed in the eight
statements through the use of the words and phrases such as: ‘accessible’, ‘appeal’, ‘assists’ and
‘engagement with the text’. If the application of this approach at Grade 10 level is in any way
controversial, it is because it could be perceived as one that has given too many concessions the
pupils’ lack of capacity. But, in fact, it is this emphasis that made the integrated approach to
language teaching an attractive proposition for a context in which the more traditional
approaches to senior secondary language learning inappropriate. Its advocates frequently
emphasize that their assumed students are not specialists in language study through literature or a
literary text. But that integrating ESL skills’ study around a literary text can make this possible.
During the study, the approach and assumption was that all learners, given sufficient time and
perhaps support, can achieve the relevant outcomes.
The integrated and CLT approaches to language teaching make certain assumptions about the
threshold knowledge and skills of potential students. The factors discussed in this chapter,
suggest that a number of students did not meet this threshold level. This is because they were not
able to achieve a certain level of proficiency by the end of the term. This raised the question of
effectiveness and relevance of the designed materials. The point has been made at various times
in this dissertation that the designed materials needed to reach a compromise between the actual
needs of students and more abstract (and subjective) perceptions of what constitutes appropriate
academic standards. The implication of this is that if a substantial number of pupils failed to
achieve the outcome of the course, more importantly, syllabus outcomes, their needs had not
been met and the programme in this respect had failed to achieve its aim.
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On the other hand, there is, however, also evidence of a more positive nature to set against this
perception. The work produced by the treatment group shows that not all students were lacking
in threshold proficiency as over 50% of the pupils in this group responded very well to the
teaching materials and the CLT approach adopted in this study. This does, in itself, validate the
teaching of ESL skills communicatively around a literary text. As was pointed out in the
conclusion of the previous chapter, children’s performance might have been identical in any
other approach to the teaching of language skills. This can be seen by analyzing the results from
the control group. Except for the rewrites, the performance for this group (control) was generally
as good as that of the treatment group. On the other hand, the same argument holds true of the
weaker students. Their results might have been as poor by whatever means and however they
might have been taught. Stated bluntly, the teaching of ESL skills communicatively around a
short story book was a success story as long as the subjects were able to respond as well as the
control group in learning the basic language skills prescribed in the Senior Secondary English
language syllabus. This conclusion has been arrived at based on the performance of the
experimental group whose performance generally, was as good as that of the control group.
5.4
Meeting intended purpose
The question of the fitness of the material for the intended purpose involves asking whether the
teaching that was undertaken during the period of the study was successful in terms of what it
aimed to do. Based on responses from the participants, it is very evident that the material
designed achieved the intended purpose in meeting syllabus demands. However, there were
factors such as the calibre of the pupils over which the researcher had no control. From this, we
can say that there could have been other factors that might have prevented the full realization of
the ended results. That there were factors of this kind was, in fact, my conclusion to a certain
extent. In saying so, one would rightly conclude that there was nothing wrong with the designed
materials themselves. The problem was the environmental factors in which the research was
undertaken including the language competence (calibre) of the participants. These were the
contextual limitations identified in the section above. (In saying so, I am aware that teaching
does not always take place in ‘ideal’ conditions).
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The limitations imposed by the various contextual factors discussed in this chapter point to the
need for further investigations in the area of language teaching using alternative resources.
Ultimately, perhaps, the success of the a language teaching programme such as the one being
suggested in this study depended on the teacher’s creativity and resourcefulness in motivating
his/her pupils to succeed despite encountering hurdles. And one of the ways that could be used is
the formation of mixed ability groups. This means that the weaker pupils could be assisted by the
more able pupils during group discussions. This is to confirm the research findings that Pica
(1994:62) reports on. In a 4½ month experimental study investigating the effect of group work
on ESL of learners that was conducted in Israel, it was discovered that students who had
participated in group work were shown to have higher overall global ESL proficiency and better
ESL listening comprehension than those who had participated in teacher-led instruction. The
study that Pica (1994:62) undertook, further revealed increased overall production and
comprehensibility amongst group members with divergent backgrounds than those with greater
convergence in this area.
5.5
Reflexive research in teaching
The previous section focused on the study from the pedagogical point of view, primarily
considering its effect on the Grade 10 students at Kalulushi Trust School. In an education
research such as the one reported here, the role of the practitioner is combined with the role of
the researcher. This section will focus on the latter aspect.
In making the designed material around a collection of short story book as the subject of the case
study, the aim was to examine it from a number of perspectives. Data were collected to provide a
rich and detailed picture of all the elements that went into it, from its theoretical conception to its
implementation and subsequent evaluation. This approach enabled me to present this process
‘from within’ and share the intimate understanding that my position gave me. At the same time,
to balance this subjectivity, attempts were made to incorporate into the research findings the
insights and opinions of others involved such as students. Theoretical and empirical research also
attempted to set it in the wider context of international developments on the teaching ESL skills
164
communicatively around a literary text (such as a collection of stories such as Winners or any
other literary text), while at the same time acknowledging the local context with its unique
characteristics and constraints. In assessing the case study as research, it was important to
determine whether the study has made any meaningful contribution to on-going research in the
area.
Maley (2001:182-3) mentions the relative lack of published empirical research on the integration
of language and literature in ESL classes. Most case studies, he claims, are done for degree
purposes and consequently only available to a limited readership. He, nevertheless,
acknowledges their value. In justifying the value of case studies, Maley (2001) argue s that case
studies are good because they focus on specific, local contexts. The only limiting factor is that
their conclusions cannot be generalized with confidence. Despite this limitation, they do offer
suggestive avenues for application and variation in other specific contexts.
Five years later from the time Maley made the foregoing observation, Paran (2006a:9) echoed
Maley’s (2001) initial reservation towards the use of action research. He describes action
research as being limited, and theoretical rather than empirical. He quotes the call made by Quirk
and Widdowson (1983:210) more than twenty years earlier, for more language literature based
research so as to discover the basis for learner preferences, the factors which cause difficulty in
interpretation, the effect on learners of different types of texts, literary and otherwise, and in
general the way in which language skills can be taught communicatively through literature. In
spite of this, Paran’s claims, literature based language courses have continued to occupy a
marginal role in ESL learning and teaching here in Zambia. Paran (2006:9) goes further by
reiterating his belief in the need to look at ‘what happens with real learners in real classrooms’
(ibid.).
The remarks made by Paran’s (2006b) are made in the context of an introduction of a collection
of case studies on the use of literature in English language teaching and learning throughout the
world. Heargues that these studies have gone some way in addressing the need for detailed and
specific data (Paran 2006b:9), having previously noted (2006b:2-8) how they reflect a number of
current trends in the teaching and learning of language in ESL classrooms, such as the
165
integration of language in literature programmes. In one case study, Butler (2006) reports on the
main issues covered in this dissertation, as contributing to the discussion in a number of these
studies. For example, Paran (2006b:9) suggests the need for ‘some data gathering of the basic
type’ in the following area:
The use of literary texts in ESL teaching materials and course books where
there is a difference between materials produced for locals and global markets.
I would argue that the present study has continued the line of theoretical research, that according
to Maley (2001:182-3) and Paran (2006b:9), has been predominant so far. With its detailed
account of literary based designed material, case study has, however, also extended the empirical
data base in the way advocated by Maley (2001) and Paran (2006b) and previously by Quirk and
Widdowson (1985:210). The eight statements on the literature based language study that were
used in Chapter 2 as a framework within which a survey of literature could be undertaken were
intended to be more than a summary of existing perspectives. They represented an attempt to
create a coherent theory on which to base the case study. As such, they were meant to contribute
to the theoretical discussion on how language skills could be taught using a literary text or the
relationship between language and literature. From a practical point of view, however, the
statements also informed the design of the course and development of materials; finally, their
claims were subjected to the evidence provided by ‘real learners’ in the ‘real classroom’
(including the constraints imposed by them). It was here that theory blended with description and
provided the kind of basic data called for by Paran (2006b). The detailed reporting of the
teaching and learning processes was meant to give weight to the practical aspect of the research
and provided the empirical evidence on which the statements could finally be assessed.
From a national perspective, the empirical data provide a record of application of how ESL skills
could be taught communicative around a literary text in senior ESL classes here in Zambia. It has
brought to the surface some of the advantages, as well as weaknesses, of the theory; this
information will be of use to any one contemplating the same approach to ESL teaching under
similar circumstances. Internationally, as the inclusion of my account in Paran (2006a) attests,
the research as made a contribution to the on-going dialogue in the field of second language
166
teaching. Even if, as is typical in qualitative research, its findings are inconclusive, it has
provided another perspective and a set of responses to some of the issues that Paran (2006b) and
others have identified. In some ways, it has validated the theory; in others, it has pointed to the
limitations and gaps.
This study has emphasized the contribution that research can make to the personal development
of the researcher as a practitioner. This aspect also needs to be taken into account in an
assessment of the case study as research. From this perspective, it can be described as wholly
successive. The initial theoretical research was illuminating, intellectually stimulating and made
me aware of the considerable diversity of approaches and opinions in the field. As an extended
exercise in reflective practice, the case study itself enabled me to articulate and examine my
assumptions about teaching language skills through a collection of short stories or a literary text,
especially the place that literature has in an ESL teaching programme. This study provided me
with an opportunity to reflect critically on my practice at a particular time and place in a way that
will affect my future development as a teacher and academic. Elicitations of students’ opinions –
normally unspoken or sub-emerged added a further dimension to the data (one that is frequently
ignored in academic planning and discussion). Even when, as was sometimes the case, these
views were limited and uninformed, they provided insight into a world from which the teacher is
often excluded.
5.6
Implications of the study: CLT
Much of what has been stated under the constraints of CLT is common to many parts of the
world. The following discussion, although it particularly addresses ESL teaching in Grade 10,
thus extends to other ESL countries as well. The study has revealed that the predominance of
text-centred and grammar-centred practices do not provide a basis for the pupil-centred, fluencyfocused, and problem-solving activities required by CLT. During the study, I discovered that
teachers who would venture into CLT will face a lot of challenges due to the fact that their pupils
have, for a long time learnt ESL in a traditional faction and thus may resist change. Thus
teachers will need to consciously reorient pupils to “the basic function of the classroom, the role
167
of the pupil and the nature of the language” (Li, 1998:697). The other observation worth
mentioning is that while trying to introduce CLT, teachers should not feel guilty about teaching
grammar. Tompson (1996:9-15) argues that contrary to a misconception, CLT does not exclude
the teaching of grammar.
While it would be interesting to carry out a review of the designed materials used in this study, a
more useful and enlightening study would be to further investigate how the same text on which
the teaching of oral, reading and writing skills is based could incorporate the teaching of
grammar as the major focus. The experimental sample used in this investigation comprised 40
students taken from English as Second Language class of a school consisting of a variety of
children from different ethnic language background. One possibility for future language research
is to extend the sample to include a bigger population and more than one school so that results
can be generalizable. Another important area that needs to be considered in future research is to
employ other research data collecting methods such as interviews and questionnaires.
Another study worthy of consideration by field researchers would be to measure learners’
progress in all the language skills including listening and speaking which was not investigated in
this study.
5.7 Conclusion
The results of this study are very encouraging and are sure to influence only me, but others in the
manner in which to approach the teaching of English as a second language in senior English
classes. Further, the process of material design has given me in-depth understanding of the
principles of communicative language teaching. My confidence in the literary text as a basis for
material design for communicative language teaching was resoundingly restored. Weighing the
evidence as presented in Chapter 2 of this study, it is clear that incorporating literature as a
resource for material design in ESL courses is not only desirable, but necessary. At the onset of
this study, the benefits of a full literature component in English as a second language, even full
integration of literature into existing language courses, was my ideal.
168
To return to my original aim of using literary texts a resource for material course design, the data
and the considerations yielded by this study compelled not only me but other colleagues with
whom I shared my findings to refocus our negative perceptions regarding the use of other
resources other than the prescribed course books in ESL and the practical implementation of
communicative language teaching with its benefits in developing language skills. Selecting a
literary text that is suitable and planning lessons to teach ESL skills based on that text in an
integrated manner become very plausible under the circumstances. While the probable
unsuitability and logistical causes for the resistance to such use of literary texts as resource in
ESL classrooms remain relevant, I hope that the case for the literary texts as a resource for
material design built by this study may contribute toward encouraging other teachers who may
be apprehensive when it comes to teaching ESL communicatively around a literary text not only
in Zambia but also in other third world countries where English is taught as a second language.
169
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Appendices
Appendix A
Pre-test sample test paper
Duration: 1 hour 45 minutes.
Marks: 60
Instructions
Write your full names.
There are three (3) questions in this paper. Answer all the questions.
QUESTION 1 – COMPREHENSION (20 MARKS)
Read the following passage and then answer the questions that follow it.
1.
One of Britain’s fastest growing magazines, ‘The Big Issue’ preaches self -help and aims to raise public
awareness about homelessness. Described by its editor as a social experiment, the magazine is sold
exclusively by homeless people who keep 30 pence – the cover price is 50 pence – from each issue they
sell. In March, the magazine passed a critical milestone, having helped the homeless organizations raise
more than £1 million for the homeless. More than 180 000 families in Britain are now homeless according
to government sources, although one homeless organization claims three million people are on the streets
or in temporary housing.
2.
‘The Big Issue’s slogan is “helping the homeless to help themselves” and Staff says the sense of purpose
that comes with selling the magazine is as important as the income it brings. Nearly 3000 homeless people
are registered sellers, though only 500-700 are active at one time. Ten of The Big Issue’s 40 full and parttime staff were themselves formerly homeless or are living in temporary accommodation including Editor
John Bird, who first ran from home when he was only 10, says Bird: “People always talk about the
homeless as though it’s a condition. But homeless is a presentation of something else – That you’ve had a
daddy education, lived in a crummy background, your parents have killed you out, and you’ve had a crisis.”
3. Press Officer Lucie Russel says the magazine had helped more than 200 people off the streets, but adds
that it’s impossible to keep an accurate record because people rarely stay in contact when they move on. She
says: “We don’t necessarily see success as getting people off the streets, getting accommodation, getting a
job.
185
We see success as somebody who has never had anything in their life on their feet everyday selling the paper,
talking to the public, getting themselves sorted out slowly, It’s anybody whose self/esteem has increased,
who is happy doing what they are doing and is not resorting to other means of making money.”
4.
Sellers of the magazine are split into teams that cover different areas of London. They are monitored by the
“outreach” team, a group of six each of whom previously sold the magazine. Each seller has two training
sessions and must sign a code of conduct before being given a badge allowing them to buy copies of the
magazine at 20 pence each. The code declares that the seller is homeless, that he or she is not claiming
social security benefits, will not be sexist or racist in their dealings with the public, take drugs or drink
alcohol while selling.
5.
In Central London, one of the most lucrative areas, the number of sellers has been restricted after members
of the public complained of being inundated with pitches from the magazine sellers. Start-up funds of
£30,000 were donated by Gordon Raddick, Chairman of the retail Chain, The Body Shop, after he saw a
similar scheme in the Unites States. Launched as a monthly magazine in September, 1991 with a run of 30
000 it went fortnightly in August 1992 and now has a run of 160 000. It is also sold in Manchester and
Brighton. Bird says the magazine is now breaking even, although losses for the magazine is now breaking
even , although losses for the year are £128 000. He is ever conscious of the need for the magazine to be
seen as a quality read, “We have to make the paper look good and feel good so it sells in its own right, so
it’s not a pity purchase or a hand-out by another name.” But he admits “We are not there yet.” He
describes the magazine as a “typical good read” and says readers are mainly 18-40 year olds who are
interested in social issues but do not necessarily have a social conscience.
6.
“The Big Issue’ is an unusual combination of entertainment listings, for alternative cinema theatre,
Music venue and restaurants, feature news items and articles usually about issues affecting homeless
people. Two pages are devoted to the writings of homeless people including poetry, Letters and opinion
pieces. Bird says the magazine is neither politically left- wing nor right-wing. He calls the government
attitude to the homeless people patronizing and says their schemes to alleviate homelessness are
“cosmetic”. Terry, 46, is one of the many in London selling The Big Issue. He has been at it for 18
months. He became homeless four years ago after splitting up with his wife. At first Terry begged on the
streets, but a friend tipped him off about the magazine. : He said to me, ‘get badged up and you will not be
short of money’, and it’s true actually. I have done well out of ‘The Big Issue’. “Terry sells between 60
and 80 copies each day.
186
Now answer the following questions
1.
2.
The Big Issue
A.
is sold like any other magazine by any vendor
B.
has already been recognized as the biggest magazine in Britain
C.
encourages self-reliance for people without homes.
D.
has only one major role to play in society.
What, according to the passage, is the procedure followed in acquiring the magazine?
A.
The homeless people sell the magazine on the street and then attend training.
B.
The homeless people obtain a badge for them to sell the magazine; they then sell it at 50 pence a
copy and return all the money to the publishers.
C.
The magazine is sold at 50 pence and the homeless are allowed to keep 20 pence after they have
registered, attended two sessions and obtained a badge.
D.
a homeless person is registered, trained, given a badge and then allowed to buy the magazine to
sell.
3.
4.
How many people are homeless in Britain?
A.
We cannot be sure
B
We know there are 180 000 people.
C.
There are only 7000 people
D.
There are close to 3 million people
John Bird is mentioned specifically…..
A.
as one of the homeless people
B.
because he is the editor of the magazine
C.
as a result of his training away from home at 10.
D.
as one of the former homeless people
5. According to Lucia Russell, in what ways has the magazine been successful?
A.
In raising people’s ability to fend for themselves.
B.
In getting the homeless off the streets
C.
In funding the homeless a job
D.
In restoring self-esteem and finding accommodation
187
6.
In this passage, what are the other two words which mean the same as magazine
A. Newspaper and article
B. Issue and monthly
C. Paper and read
D. Newspaper and monthly
2.
According to paragraph 5, what is to “break even”?
A. To sell the magazine in more than one town.
B. To make a profit
C. To make loss
D. To make neither a profit nor a loss.
8.
9.
The Big Issue is an interesting magazine to read. Why?
A.
Because it is read by people without a Social Conscience
B.
It is full of entertainment
C.
It talks about issues affecting homeless people
D.
Because as a mixed bag, it contains all sorts of useful information
In the last paragraph the words, “he said to me” refer to
A.
the author talking about Terry
B.
Terry taking about the author
C. Terry talking about his friend
d.
10.
Terry’s friend talking about Terry.
What is the best title for the whole passage?
A.
The Big Issue.
B.
Magazine That Gives shelter to homeless
C. The Big Issue: a magazine for the Homeless
D. The Homeless on the Streets of London
QUESTION 2 – RE-WRITES (20 MARKS)
In each of the following items, the first sentence ‘A’ is complete, but sentence B is incomplete. Complete Sentence
‘B’ each time making it as similar as possible in meaning to sentence A. Make Sentence B one sentence, never two.
1A.
The opposition parties were allowed to hold rallies.
B.
The opposition parties were given ______________
188
2A.
Your smile is very captivating
B.
You have _________________________________
3A.
If you meet Peter please tell him I will see him tomorrow
B.
Should ___________________________________
4A.
It makes your parents very happy when they see you working hard
B.
Nothing __________________________________
5A.
Mary did not know the bucket was broken otherwise she would not have gone to the river.
B.
6A.
Had Mary ________________________________
Your parents are willing to help you, but they are Limited because you are not willing to co-operate.
B
Much as __________________________________
7A.
The baby continue crying until its mother came.
B.
The baby did not ___________________________
8A.
The distance between Lusaka and Dar-es-salaam is the same as the distance between Lusaka and Cape
Town.
B.
Lusaka is as far _____________________________
9A.
Your mother will not give you anything until you stop crying.
B.
For as long as _______________________________
10. A.
B.
You should not hate your own brother.
One ______________________________________
QUESTION 3 – CLOZE (20 MARKS)
Complete the following passage by putting one suitable word in each blank. Read the passage right through before
you start to write your answers.
The importance of vegetables in any diet cannot be over-emphasized. This (1) ______ is made even much more
obvious now because of the high (2)_____ of vegetables on the market. There is a general clamour for land
(3)____to make a backdoor garden. It is the dream of those people in urban areas who (4) ______ flats where they
cannot grow vegetables to be able one day to ‘descend’ and have gardens of (5)
______ own. (6)___one embarks
on planting seeds of any kind, it is vitally important that the land is well (7)_______. After one has (8) ______ a
portion of land where to plant something, the land must be dug up to a depth of about 45cm. (9) _____ there was
189
another crop on that patch of land; make sure that all the stumps from the previous crop are removed. After that
there is need to manure the place by (10)______ it up with leaves or other forms for manure. Make sure that such
manure or leaves do not contain diseases. (11) _______those will be passed on to the new plants. After you have
done that and have covered the area, water it thoroughly and leave it for a number of days. Now you are ready to
plant your seeds. One big mistake (12)_______ can be made is to ignore the instructions given on the packet. These
must be (13) ________ to strictly or else the growth of the plants will be hampered. Planting depends on the size of
the seed. Generally, small seeds are broadcast in rows (14) _______big seeds, like those of beans or peas are plants
individually in drills. Furthermore, some seeds require transplanting later on to other beds. If that is the case make
sure that the young plants are moved with utmost (15)____ with the soil still clinging on them. Root damage at this
stage should be avoided. The beds (16)_____ which these plants rest permanently should also be properly prepared.
Those seedlings that do not require transplanting should be thinned according to instructions.
Finally, once the seedlings are transplanted or thinned, another stage is (17) _____. Fertilization, watering, pest
control and weeding are very important (18)____ in growing vegetables. If the land is prepared properly, there may
be no need of too much weeding. As far as fertilization is concerned, use your (19)______. Too much of fertilizer
tends to retard rather than improve growth. The choice and careful application of fertilizer is very important.
Vegetables are (20)______ to a variety of disease. A knowledge of which insects attack which plants is of necessity.
MARKING SCHEME
QUESTION 1 – COMPREHENSION (20 MARKS).
C
D
A
D
A
6. C
7. D
8. D
9. C
10. C
QUESTION 2 – REWRITES (20 MARKS)
1B.
The opposition parties were given permission to hold rallies.
2B.
You have a very captivating smile.
3B.
Should you meet Peter, please tell him (that) I will see him tomorrow.
4B.
Nothing makes your parents happier than to you working hard.
5B.
Had Mary known that the bucket was broken, she would not have gone to the
river.
6B.
Much as your parents would like to help you, they are limited because you are not
willing to co-operate.
7B.
The baby did not stop crying until its mother came.
8B.
Lusaka is as far away from Dar-es-salaam as it is from Cape Town.
9B.
For as long as you are (still) crying, your mother will not give you anything.
190
10B.
One should not hate one’s own brother.
QUESTION 3 – CLOZE TEST (20 MARKS)
fact
cost
where
occupy
their
before
prepared
17.
chosen
if
filling
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
reached
18.
19.
20.
otherwise
That/which
adhered
whereas
care
to
Activities/procedures
discretion
prone
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix B
POST TEST – Sample test paper
Duration:
1hour 30 minutes
Marks:
60
Question 1:
Comprehension
Marks:
20
Read the following passage and then answer the questions that follow it.
1.
The Bemba were a warrior people of Congo origin who invaded their present territory at the end of the 17 th
Century. One of the violating clans was a royal one known as the Bena Ng’ona - the people of the Royal
(totem) Crocodile. On pushing into the North Eastern Plateau the clan came across a dead crocodile. This
they took for an excellent omen and on being told that the local name for crocodile was Ng’andu, became
Bena N’gandu. The settled around the Shiba (lake), which consequently became known as Shiwa Ng’andu
– the lake of the Royal Crocodiles. The community flourished and the Bemba Chieftainship was dominated
by the Bena Ng’andu.
2.
By the beginning of the 20th Century there were a number of villages clustered around the shores of the
lake. They were, however, constantly harassed by the numerous crocodiles and hippotami living in the
lake, so a decision was made for all the men to go out in canoes to slaughter them, and at dusk only one
hippo and two men remained. One lake shore village, whose men had not been on the lake that day,
remained. This is the village that a young officer, Stewart Gore Browne, found at Shiwa in 1913.
3.
The place so captured Gore Browne’s imagination that he arranged with the British South Africa Company
agent to buy the land surrounding the lake for a nominal sum. He planted his flag and bought a few cattle,
191
then returned to Europe. He arrived in Italy before the outbreak of the 1914-18 war. He went through all
the horrors of Flanders, was
awarded the D.S.O and promoted on to the staff of General ‘Wylie’ Robertson, the Commander of the
Rhine Army.
4.
After the war Gore Browne returned to England, but was appalled by conditions and he, his brother and
five army friends decided to try and make a life for themselves in Africa. Each man bought 5000 acres of
land around Shiwa Ng’andu, but slowly the friends moved away until only the Gore Brown remained.
They had to find a source of income and on the instigation of their uncle High Locke King went to the
Balkans to investigate Essential Oils. After many experiments they decided upon citrus. They distilled
Neroli oil from the Bigaradia blossom which fetched the same price as gold - £7 an ounce. They also
distilled lime oil which was used as a fixing agent for the scent in soup. This was an ideal crop for such a
distant market.
5.
Although Shiwa was built on Essential Oils, after the 1939-45 war, new trees were imported via South
Africa, and with them brought Tristisia, a die-back disease. Within a few years all that remained were rows
of dead orange and lime groves. Since then diversification has taken place into timber and cattle.
6.
Gore Browne’s concept of building an Old English type village in heart of Africa was and still is quite
remarkable and the valley of Shiwa itself is very beautiful. Bird life abounds with water fowl on the lake,
marshland species on the lakeshore, and yet others in the woodlands and hills surrounding the lake. The
estate is planted with eucalyptus, pines and cypress. It is generally cooler than most of Zambia.
7.
In more recent years John and Lorna Harvey (Lorna was Gore Browne’s daughter and John her husband)
had made the house the center of their safaris company and until their untimely and tragic deaths (they
were killed in cold blood at their Lemba Dairy Farm in Chisamba on Sunday 17 May, 1992), received
many visitors there enroute to the North Luangwa Park.
1.
“This they took for an excellent omen “means
A. They were scared to see a dead crocodile for that would bring them bad luck.
B. It was their luck that they found a good place to settle in
C. They were not sure whether to proceed or to settle.
D.
2.
They gave themselves the name Bena Ngandu.
What do you think happened to the men at night?
A. They slaughtered all the crocodiles in the lake.
B.
They killed all the hippos except one.
192
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
C.
The two surviving men killed their families and all the animals.
D.
All but two were killed by the crocodiles
The word “harassed” means:
A. Killed
C.
troubled
B. Attacked
D.
eaten
C.
Zambian Officer
D.
Italian Officer
Gore Browne was a(n)
A.
British Officer
B.
South African Officer.
The reasons the Browne family did not move from Shiwa Ng’andu was because they
A.
had to fulfill their dream to live in Africa.
B.
found a source of income
C.
were still fascinated with the place despite problems
D.
bought 5000 acres of land.
We can tell from the passage that John and Lorna Harvey
A.
were game rangers.
B.
were tourists.
C.
ran a lodge.
D.
died prematurely.
The diversification programme was started because
A.
B.
8.
.
the programme on Essential oils failed.
all trees died of the die-back disease
C.
The residents of Shiwa Ngandu abandoned the place
D.
It was necessary to start another project to generate income.
“The estate is planted with Eucalyptus, Pines and Cypress” means
A. Shiwa Ngandu is run by the Bemba
B. Gore Browne’s plans were achieved
C. Shiwa Ngandu has been inhabited
D. The residents of Shiwa Ngandu distil oil from plants.
9.
Do you think Gore Browne achieved his ambition of “building an Old English type village in the heart of
Africa”?
A.
Yes, what he built is still there today as Shiwa Ng’andu
B.
No, but the idea is still remarkable and the place beautiful.
193
10.
C.
Yes, although the old trees have died, new ones have been planted.
D.
No, the harsh African conditions prevented him from doing so.
What is the suitable title for the whole passage?
A.
Gore Browne.
B.
Bena Ng’andu.
C.
Shiwa Ng’andu.
D.
The Lake of the Royal Crocodiles.
Question 2
(10 Marks × 2 )
In each of the following items, the first sentence, A is complete, but Sentence B is incomplete. Complete sentence
B, each time making it as similar as possible in meaning to sentence A. Make sentence B one sentence, never two.
1A
B.
2A
B.
3A.
B.
4A.
B.
5A.
B.
6A.
B.
7A.
B.
8A.
B.
He put in a life-long service
He served _________________________________________________
Teaching is the only job he can do properly.
There is ___________________________________________________
“I don’t want you to go to the cinema,” my father told us.
“I object ___________________________________”, my father told us.
Lottie Mwale is a good boxer. He is like the other boxers.
Lottie Mwale is as ____________________________________________
You must explain to me why you behave so badly.
You owe me _________________________________________________
Mr Hameja is better as a driver than as a mechanic.
Mr Hameja is more ___________________________________________
Mary said she did not hit the man.
Mary denied _________________________________________________
The way he talked to me was different from the way he talks to other people.
He talked ____________________________________________________
194
9A.
The time will come when everybody will be happy in this company.
B.
10A.
B.
When the time comes __________________________________________
The businessman is both rich and influential.
Apart from ___________________________________________________
QUESTION 3
(20 MARKS)
Read the following passage carefully and in your exercise book, write one word to complete each of the numbered
spaces. There is no need to write out the whole passage.
THRILL OF COMPETITION
Vladimir Kutz, the Russian runner, rose to the top in the athletic world because of his ability to change pace many
times during a long race. This feat usually (1) _____ great discomfort, but he was (2) _______ to shrug it off (3)
______ possessed by the thrill of competition.
Similarly, in the heat (4) _____ battle a soldier can be badly (5) _______ but go on fighting (6) _____ little apparent
distress. Yet the same man would complain bitterly if a booted comrade trod on his toe.
But, generally, the amount of pain (7) ____ is determined by the amount of attention it gets. The reason is that when
we worry, we tend to (8) _____ tense and stiffen our muscles. This in turn squeezes the pain nerves and we feel
pain (9) _____ in the area of greatest tension, or as a general ache, or as discomfort in the area where the nerves
finally meet. The (10) _____ quite often, is a headache.
The pain (11) ______ to increase the worry even more, so the vicious circle of anxiety-tension – pain (12) ________
worse. It is for this reason that when the nerves in a particular part of the body are damaged (13) _______as can
happen in an amputation, the patient can continue feeling ‘phantom’ pain from a limb he (14) ________ longer has.
In one study carried (15) _____ at Harvard University Medical School in (16) ____ 1950’s doctors gave 162 people
injections after operation, telling them that the (17) ______ was the pain killing (18) _____, Morphine. The result
was that half of them reported pain relief before being told what injection really contained. It was a sterile solution
of salt and water. Research shows that people who work in hard physical jobs (19) _____ higher pain threshold (20)
_____ officer workers. And women, perhaps because their bodies are geared to the pains of childbirth, have a
higher pain threshold than men.
_____________________________________________________________________________
195
B.
Post-test
Marking scheme
Question 1 – Comprehension (20 marks)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B
D
C
A
C
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Question 2 – Rewrites
D
B
B
A
C
(20 marks)
1B.
He served till his death.
2B.
There is no other job he can do properly apart from/other than teaching.
3B.
“I Object to your going to the cinema,” my father told us.
4B.
Lottie Mwale is as good as other boxers.
5B.
You owe me an explanation as to why you behave so badly.
6B.
Mr Hameja is more of a driver than a mechanic.
7B.
Mary denied hitting the man.
8B.
He talked to me differently from the way he talks to other people.
9B.
When the time comes, everyone will be happy in this country.
10C.
Apart from being rich, the businessman is also influential.
Question 3 – Cloze test
1.
Causes
11.
tends
2.
Able
12.
gets
3.
When
13.
permanently
4.
Of
14.
no
5.
Injure/wounded
15.
out
6.
With
16.
the
7.
Felt/experienced
17.
Solution/mixture
8.
Become/get
18.
drug
9.
Either
19.
have
10. Result
20.
than
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Appendix C
Sample teaching materials
Week beginning:
23rd February 2009
UNIT ONE
LESSON ONE
Story: ‘The Winner’
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing
References:
1.
‘WINNERS’ pp. 1-15.
2.
Senior Secondary English Language Syllabus pp. 1-4.
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Tell students that they will be given a piece of paper on which is a question that they will need to discuss in
pairs and then come up with a number of points which they will need to present to the class. Then divide the
students in pairs and distribute pieces of paper on which the following questions are written and ask students to
jot down their thoughts on the issues. The class discusses the following pre-reading questions pairs:
1.
2. 1. Do you know a person or character you could label or described a winner?
3. 2. What did they do for you to consider them a winner?
4. 3. Have you found yourself in a situation where you were considered a winner?
5. 4. What is it that you did?
6. 5. Does luck play any part in one’s being a winner?
7. 6. If it does what part does it play?
8. 7. What does it take for one to be considered a winner?
9. 8. What do you think this story whose title is ‘The Winners’ is about?
Students make predictions about the genre of the story.
Students discuss the questions in pairs for 15 minutes as the teacher goes round. After 5 minutes pair secretaries
report to the class. This is followed by a brief class discussion.
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Pre-reading Vocabulary Work
The teacher chooses sentences from the story that contain selected problem words and present them with a
blank in place of the word in question. Students are then asked to complete the sentences then do in-class
comparing of different answers and the original word. They are asked to present and explain their answers.
Hosts of relatives converged _______ him from the four corners of the Kingdom. Cousins and nephews, nieces
and uncles, turned _____ in Kalasanda by the busload together _______ crowds of individuals, who, ________
their downtrodden appearance, assured Pius that they alone were capable of seeing that his money his money
was properly invested. Almost blind, and very lame, he had ______ out with the aid of a _____ stick ….
In this kind of activities, the discussion involved the collocation: converge upon, turn up, together with, whodespite. Meanings of the above structures were derived from the context. Students were given written activities
in form of a cloze test which they completed.
Other vocabulary Activities
The teacher gives the text to the class before the lesson and tells them to identify what they consider to be
difficult words and prepares a glossary for others. This is done at home as part of homework. During the next
lesson, students are divided into groups and are requested to decode the meaning of those words using the
context. For example:
“Pretentious, conspicuously, jaunty, anxious, congratulate, edification, assured, garrulous, delight, edification,
stout, tortuous, caption, rage, bombardment, nudging, clamouring...”
The teacher organizes a class discussion on the meanings students have come up with. Students look up
meanings of words in the dictionary. They write answers in their books.
LESSON TWO
Whilst Reading
The teacher tells pupils that he is going to read through the text as they listen. As s/he reads through portions of
the text, they should attempt to provide answers to the questions which are written on the board. After reading
part of the story, the teacher pauses to allow students answer the questions in their books. The teacher writes the
following questions on the board before the lesson:
198
1.
In which country was Pius staying?
2.
Apart from his friends and relatives, who else came to see Pius at his home?
3.
Who was Pius’s greatest friend?
4.
Why did Salongo’s arrival at Pius’s home cause a minor sensation?
5.
“Pius had become wary of Cousin Sarah…” What made Pius have this kind of feeling towards her (Cousin
Sarah)?
6.
Who delivered Pius’s message that he had won ‘football pools’?
7.
“The young man nearly wept”. Who is this young man and what nearly made him weep?
8.
“They were both alarmed at the wariness they saw on Pius’s face”. The word in bold refers to which
people? Why did Pius appear wary?
After Reading
The teacher asks students to regroup in groups of five. The teacher then distributes the textbooks and asks
students to read through the story. They are then asked to discuss the ‘key character words’ of Pius, Salongo
and Cousin Sarah in the story. As students write and discuss, the teacher goes round monitoring what students
are doing. After 20 minutes, students are asked to expand their key words into sentences after discussing and
comparing notes. Sentences are written in their exercise books.
Homework: Students are asked to write the character sketch of Pius, Salongo and Cousin Sarah using their
exercise books.
LESSON THREE
Reading Comprehension
The teacher tells pupils that they are going to read through the text and that this would be done silently. As
students read, the teacher looks for reading faults such the lesson. As students read, the following questions are
written on the board:
199
1.
Who was given the custodian of Ssabangira’s tomb?
2.
Cousin Sarah behaves very assertively. Which of the things she does do you approve and which ones
do you disapprove? Briefly give reasons for your answers.
3.
Which of the things she does do you disapprove of? Which do disapprove of? At what point in the
story do your feelings tilt in her favour?
4.
What role does Salongo play in influencing your views about her? (For each question explain why
you feel as you do.)
5.
The story opens on the hosts of people converging on Pius’s hut. Where does it go back to the
beginning of Pius’s story?
6.
Where the second beginning does overtakes the first one?
7.
What does the author achieve by starting the story where she does?
8.
Salongo says that Aunt Sarah is the real winner. What does he mean? Do you agree? Justify your
answer.
LESSON FOUR
Grammar Activities: Adjectives
1.
The teacher provides a list of adjectives from the text and asks students to choose from the list which of the
adjectives best describe certain characters in the story.
2.
Students identify different characters in the text. They are then asked to rank them according to their traits;
for example which character is the most active or least active, passive, aggressive, gentle, decisive …
3.
Students write ‘references’ for different characters as if they were applying for a particular job.
LESSON 5 - Post-reading Activities
1.
In groups of five, one student is identified to act the role of Pius. Pius is ‘hot seated’. He is then asked
questions on what he feels having won the competition, what his plans are on how he intends to invest his
money and how he has arrived at that kind of investment decision.
“Cousin Sarah is the real winner”. Discuss.
Children debate in groups.
200
2.
Role-playing: Students play roles of different characters mentioned in the text. They act the scene of the
story.
3.
Students write a review of the story whose title is: ‘THE WINNERS’.
PROJECT
It is now time to do some research in the area of soccer. Your task is to answer a question by writing the name
of the ‘Football Clubs in Zambia’ that have been winning ‘Cocacola Championship’ in the last ten years and
‘man of the match, in that tournament. Complete the table below:
Year
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Name of Football Club
Man of the Match
WEEK BEGINNING: 2nd March 2009
UNIT TWO
LESSON ONE
Story: A Mother in Mannville
Skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing
Pupils’ Activities
(i)
Collect information for group discussion as the story is being read.
(ii)
Write character sketches of Jerry, the orphan
Reference: Winners pp. 14-21.
Senior Secondary English Language Syllabus p. 1-4
INTRODUCTION
Prereading Activities
(i)
Ask pupils the following questions orally. Pupils give oral answers.
(ii)
Based on their responses, conduct a class discussion.
201
Questions
(i)
Who is an orphan?
(ii)
How many types of orphans are there?
(iii)
How do orphans feel about the fact that they have no parents?
(iv)
What are some of the negative qualities children in orphanages develop?
(v)
Why do have many orphans and orphanages in the country?
Students are given time to discuss the questions in pairs and after five minutes report their thoughts to the
class. This is then followed by a class discussion.
While Reading Activities
(i)
Tell pupils that they are going to listen to a story being read by the teacher.
(ii)
Remind them that as the story is being read, they will need to write down key words for a
character sketch of Jerry, the orphan in this story.
(iii)
The teacher demonstrates how this could be done.
(iv)
The teacher reads through the story aloud at a normal pace so as to allow children to jot down key
words as directed.
Post Reading Activities
The teacher asks students to re-group in their pairs. They are then asked to discuss ‘the key character
words’ of Jerry, the orphan, in the story. The teacher goes round the class as pupils work. After five
minutes students are asked to expand their key words into notes.
Homework
Students are asked to write the character sketch of Jerry, the orphan, in the story using their notes.
LESSON TWO
Skill: Oral Skills
INTRODUCTION
Role Playing: Instructions
Tell the students that in today’s lesson, they will be involved in finding out why the character mentioned in
the story acted the way he did. Remind them that in groups of five, one person will act the role of Jerry, the
orphan, in the story. Group members have to ask him/her questions on his/her actions and the intended
motives for those actions.
202
GROUP WORK
(i)
Give students ten minutes to prepare group questions based on the information given in the text on
what Jerry does and say. Likewise, ask those students acting Jerry’s role to identify ‘what Jerry
does and say’ in the story so as to prepare for questions to be asked on those actions.
(ii)
As students work, the teacher goes round checking on what students are doing.
(iii)
After 15 minutes, ask students acting the role of Jerry in each group to be in the ‘hot seat’ and
group members ask them questions on their actions. This should go on for ten minutes.
(iv)
As students do their group activities, the teacher goes round identifying the best performing Jerry
who should face the whole class for another ten minutes.
CLASS ACTIVITIES
(i)
The teacher tells the students that they should now direct their questions on one person in the same
way they did in their groups.
(ii)
Students ask ‘Jerry’ questions on his/her various actions and statements and his/her motives (as
reflected in the text which the class has been studying).
The teacher concludes the lesson by commenting on the observations made and any other areas s/he sees
necessary.
Homework: Pupils compose a dialogue between Jerry and the writer.
LESSON THREE
Skills: Oral and Writing
Reference: Winners p.15-21
Story: ‘Mother in Mannville’
INTRODUCTION
Debate: Tell pupils that in today’s lesson, they are going to be involved in a debate whose motion will be:
“There are Good and Bad Lies” Based on what the Jerry told the narrator,
could we say that the story he told of a mother who never existed is justified?
One group identifies two pupils who speak for, while the other identifies two students who speak against.
After each group has given their views on the subject, group members are allowed to make contributions.
After this exercise, the class votes and justifies their voting patterns.
WRITING ACTIVITIES
Homework
203
The students are asked to answer the question on page 21 for homework. The question is as follows:
“The effect of Jerry’s story of a mother is described in the paragraph beginning: ‘We did not speak of
Jerry’s mother again’. If we decide that Jerry told of a mother so as to relieve the writer of responsibility
and pity for him, what evidence from elsewhere in the story could we use to support this view? Did Jerry
do other things which showed an unusual awareness of the writer’s needs or that showed that he did not
want the writer to do anything for him out of pity?”
LESSON FOUR
PUNCTUATION
Pupils are given the following passage to punctuate. Pupils copy the paragraph in their books and
punctuate. The teacher distributes pieces of paper where the work is written.
The Winner
“When Pius Ndawula won the football pools overnight he seemed to become the most popular
man in Buganda hosts of relatives converged upon him from the four corners of the kingdom
cousins nephews nieces and uncles of whose existence he had never before been aware turned up
in kalasanda by the busload together with crowds of individuals who despite their downtrodden
appearance assured pius that they and they alone were capable of seeing that his money was
properly invested preferably in their particular businesses also lurking around piuss
unpretentious mud hut were newspaper reporters slick young men weighing down with cameras
and sporting around loud checked caps or trilbies set at conspicuously jaunty angles and serious
young men from radio Uganda who were anxious to record piuss delight at his astonishing luck
for the edification of the Uganda listening public”.
TOPIC: Cloze and Summary Activity
References: WINNERS Pp. 15-21.
Skills: Summary skills.
INTRODUCTION
Study the following passage carefully and in your exercise book write one word to complete each of the
numbered spaces. There is no need to copy out the whole passage.
204
When I ______ across the state ______ a weekend, I left the dog in Jerry’s _____. Fog filled the mountain
passes ______ treacherously that it was Monday noon _____ I returned to the cabin. The dog ______ been
fed and cared for _____ morning. Jerry came early ______ the afternoon, anxious. ‘The superintendent
said nobody ______ drive in the fog,’ he said. ‘I came ______ night and you hadn’t come. So I brought Pat
some _____ my breakfast this morning. I wouldn’t have let anything happen ______ him’.
I _______ him a dollar in payment, and he ______ at it and went away. But that night he _______ in the
darkness and ________ at the door. ‘Come in, Jerry,’ I said, ‘if you’re allowed to be away this late’.’I told
them- may be a story – that I thought you would want to see me,’ he said. ‘That’s ______,’ I assured him,
and saw his relief. I want to hear ______ how you managed with the dog’. He sat _______ the fire with me,
and told me of ______ two days together. The dog lay close to him, and _______ a comfort there that I did
not have for him. ‘He stayed right _______ me,’ he told me, ‘except when he ran in the laurel. There was a
place ______ the grass was high and I lay _______ in it and hid. I could hear Pat hunting ______ me.
When he found me he acted crazy, and he ran around and around me, in circles’.
LESSON FIVE
TOPIC: Composition
Skills: Writing
INTRODUCTION
The teacher tells students that when describing a process in a composition, it is important to present the
main stages in a logical order. It is also necessary to consider the following points:

The use of the Present Simple Tense.

The use of the Passive.

The use of Sequence Indicators.
The teacher explains and gives examples. This is followed by a class discussion. Pupils do the following:
Instructions
Write a set of instructions for the following process. Ensure that your description is clear and well
set out. Include diagrams where necessary.
Either:
How to construct a chicken run
Or:
How to put up a tent.
205
WEEK BEGINNING: 10th March 2009
UNIT THREE
LESSON ONE
Story: ‘Ta-Na-Ka’
Skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing
Reference: Winners p. 34-45
: Senior Secondary Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Pupils are asked to scan through the text for any new words a day before the lesson. The following day the
teacher writes down a list of words pupils consider to be difficult on the board.
Nightmare, reservations, braids, skirmish, encounter, adulthood, endurance, fantasies, sub-tribes,
acculturated, revolve, teasingly, squooshy, horrendous, ordeals gorging, tucked, nuzzle,
hamburger, apron, closet, dumbfounded, jug-mugger…
Students add on to the list. Pupils are asked to read the text again. In groups of five, students write the
meanings of words from context. In certain cases, they look up the meanings in the dictionary. After 15
minutes, the list of words is discussed. Students make corrections.
ORAL DISCUSSION
\The teacher asks students the following questions which are discussed as part of class activities:
(i)
What, if any, have been your experiences of initiation rituals?
(ii)
What are some of the values, if any, of the initiation rituals?
(iii)
Have you undergone any of the said rituals?
(iv)
Are there any disadvantages of such rituals? If any, what are they?
The teacher directs class discussion.
The teacher distributes the text.
While Reading Activities
The teacher tells students that he is going to read through the story and that they should listen carefully. As
the story is being read aloud, the need to take of the names of the children who underwent the initiation
ceremony mentioned in the story. As they listen, they should also jot down points on how each of the
children mentioned in the story survived. Students are to write down the name(s) of the children who
followed the instructions on how one should conduct him/herself during the initiation ritual. Students listen
206
to the story being read and do activities. Students are asked to compare answers in pairs. This is followed
by a class discussion.
Post Reading Activities
Tells the students that they will be given the text and will be required to read and answer the questions to be
rewritten on the board. The teacher writes the following questions on the board. Students are asked to
answer them in their exercise books.
(i)
What was Ta-Na-E- Ka?
(ii)
What value did the Kaws place on the number eleven?
(iii) “I don’t want to be a warrior,” my cousin Roger confided to me (change to reported speech).
(iv) What is the nationality of the story teller?
(v)
Which virtue did the Indians value most?
(vi) Briefly describe how Ta-Na-E-Ka was conducted?
(vii) What did this ritual symbolize?
(viii) What values did the Kaws prize?
(ix) What do we feel now about these values?
Pupils write answers in their exercise books.
LESSON TWO
Dictation
The teacher reads a portion of the text on page 44 starting from “…I looked at Roger… to the end of the
paragraph. Pupils write answers in their books as the sentences are being read. The teacher collects the
books.
LESSON THREE
Story: Roppie
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing
References:
WINNERS pp.22-23
English Language Syllabus
207
Pre-reading Activities
Ask pupils the following questions which they should answer orally:
1.
What is a ‘dry dock’ and what is its use?
2.
Where are you likely to find a dry dock?
3.
What are seals and in what climatic conditions are you likely to find them?
4.
What shape do seals have?
5.
What are its body parts?
While Reading Activities
The teacher tells pupils that they are going to listen to a story being read by the teacher. As the story is
being read, they should write down points which suggest that:
The problems Roppie found himself in were mainly due to his greediness’.
The teacher reads through the story aloud and students listen. As the story is being read, students jot down
points in line with the above topic. At the end of the reading and writing of the points, the teacher conducts
a class discussion. Pupils expand their notes and write short essays in their exercise books.
Reading Activities
Pupils are given the text and asked to write down a list of what they consider to be new words. The teacher
adds to the students’ list:
Placarded, sleek, groom, exertion, thrive, contemptuous, tunny, shoal, gormandizing,
cascading, wharf men, riveted, flurry, whooping, clamour, shunting, gulls,
plunging…
Students discuss and write meanings of words from context in their books. After 15 minutes words are
discussed as a class. Corrections are made and selected words are used in sentences both in writing and
orally.
Reading Comprehension
The teacher distributes the text. Students are reminded that they are going to read the text and answer
questions that follow. The following questions are written on the board for students to answer:
208
6.
Which parts of the description of Roppie treat him as if he were a human being?
7.
Which parts make it clear that he isn’t human?
8.
Which parts of the description of Roppie before he gets stuck in the dry dock suggest
disapproval?
9.
Which are more approving?
10. Show your understanding of how a dry dock works by explaining what the mistake was that
Roppie made.
11. We were led to believe that it would be fatal for Roppie to slip and fall, but he does, and survives.
Defend this assertion.
Students read the text and answer questions. They are encouraged to discuss the answers in their pairs.
Books are collected and marked by the teacher.
LESSON FOUR
TOPIC: COMPOSITION
SKILLS:
Writing a Letter of Complaint
INTRODUCTION
Teacher tells students that they will be required to write a letter of complaint. Give them the following
information: “You are a civil servant and you live in a government flat. One day you receive the circular
whose contents are given below. It is from the Chairman of the local Housing Committee to all the tenants.
The letter addresses amongst other things the need for the tenants against these practices and all tenants
have been advised to report any one contravening the regulations:

Noise

Cleanliness and tidiness

Proper refuse management

Sub-letting of quarters
After you have read the circular, you realize that you should report one of your neighbours, who has been
annoying you and your family in one or more of the ways mentioned in the circular. Although you have
spoken to your neighbour on a number of occasions, he has refused to take any notice.
209
Write a letter of complaint to the Secretary of the Housing Committee. Before you write the letter, you
should consider the following:
(a) What exactly are you complaining about?
(b) Is your letter going to be formal or informal?
(c) How will this affect the layer out and the tone of your letter?
Reminders: Your letter should have the following parts:1.
The writer’s and the addressee’s addresses.
2.
The date and salutation.
3.
The heading and the opening paragraph.
4.
The main body.
5.
The writer’s signature and the name (in that order).
LESSON FIVE
Skills: Dictionary work
Reference: WINNERS Pp. 159.
INTRODUCTION
GROUP WORK
In your groups, look up the meanings to the following words and discuss them in groups. Individually
select any ten words and use them in sentences. Write answers in your books. Pupils are encouraged to
decode meanings from context as well.
Reformatory, absconded, exemplary, diffidently, insolence, sullen, anguish,
insidious, gravity, impassive, recompensed, penitent, tenancy. companions,
magnificent, earnest, parade, wholesome, stable, humble.
WEEK BEGINNING: 16th March 2009
UNIT FOUR
LESSON ONE
Topic: Chief Seketo Holds Court
Skills: Oral, Aural, Reading and Writing
References
210
WINNERS pp. 47-51.
Senior Secondary English Language Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Ask pupils the following questions which should be answered orally:
1.
Why do people sometimes go court?
2.
Do you know people who have gone to the court of law?
3.
Why did they go there?
4.
How many courts of law do we have in Zambia?
5.
What type of cases does each one of them handle?
6.
Do we need courts of law?
7.
What would happen if we didn’t have these institutions?
8.
What does the story in the Old Testament about Solomon’s wise judgement say?
The teacher then distributes the text to each of the students. They are asked to read through and write down
words which they find difficult to understand. The teacher also prepares one. The following is the teacher’s
list of new words and vocabulary:
Witty, session, insane, dally, gloomy, crumpled, ceased, ailment, assortment, fiddle, stern, post-mortem,
procure, hooked…
After 10 minutes of reading, the teacher asks groups to indicate words they found difficult to read. These
are written on the board. Students are then asked to write meanings of words from context. Words which
they find difficult to decode are looked up in the dictionary. The teacher tells students to pick on any 10
words and use them in sentences. Pupils are encouraged to discuss in pairs as they work. Books are
collected for marking.
LESSON TWO
GROUP WORK
Students are divided in two groups. They are given a text book each and told to read through the story
‘Chief Seketo Holds court’ again. Tell them that in this lesson, they will be required to write down points
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that will support the motion that will be debated after the reading exercise. The following motion is given
to the two groups so that as they read their reading is directed at looking for specific information contained
in the text:
Motion: ‘Every One gained from Chief Sekoto’s Judgement’.
The teacher allows students to discuss in groups coming up with points to use in either to argue for or
against, as directed. As students discuss in groups, the teacher goes round monitoring their discussions.
After 15 minutes, the teacher allows students through their representative either argue for or against. After
the group the representatives have debated, other group members are allowed to give their views. At the
end of the debate, ‘debate judges’ are invited to give their opinion on the winning side.
LESSON THREE
Reading and writing activities
Pupils are given the texts and asked to read the story on page 47 entitled: ‘Chief Sekoto Holds Court’. The
teacher writes the following questions on the board. Questions are answers in their books.
1.
Why did most people like Chief Sekoto?
2.
Describe Chief Sekoto’s typical day.
3.
The case that has been reported had attracted a lot of attention. Why did this case attract a lot
attention? What was the case about?
4.
Who is Mma-Baloi?
5.
In what ways do you think the arrival and presence of his brother affected Chief Sekoto’s
handling of the case of Mma-Bloi?
6.
In deciding in favour of Mma-Baloi, what appealed most to Chief Sekoto’s feelings? What
appealed most to his reason?
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LESSON FOUR
Role-Playing
Tell the students that in the next lesson they will be involved in playing certain roles as they will be
directed:
Role Card – A
You are Chief Sekoto. Your villagers have just brought before you a
woman; they suspect and accuse to be a witch. Hold a court session
during which you listen to the facts of the case from the prosecution
and the defendant and then pass judgement.
Role Card - B
You are a member of Bodibeng Village. You have all ganged up to
witness the trial of Mma-Baloi who has been accused of practicing
witchcraft. Cause confusion at the court premises by shouting and
chanting
Role Card - C
You are the President of the court. Maintain order at the court
premises and threaten those disregarding the court’s orders that they
would be cited for contempt
Students are given roles cards so that they prepare by studying the text and come up with lines. They are
allowed to act in the groups.
LESSON FIVE
Skills: Reading and Writing
References Chief Sekoto Serves
WINNERS pp.46-51.
The teacher reminds students that in today’s lesson, they will be required to write a composition about what
they have been reading about concerning ‘Chief Sekoto’s holding of the court. He gives them the following
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topic: Chief Sekoto Serves Woman’. Students write a composition of between 250 and 350 words. The
teacher emphasizes good and neat presentation of work.
LESSON SIX
Grammar
INTRODUCTION
Verbs followed by the infinitive and Verbs followed by ‘-ing’. The teacher explains what each of the two
means. Tell students that in today’s lesson they will be required to construct sentences which have verbs
followed by the ‘infinitive’ and ‘-ing’.
The teacher writes on the board the beginning of sentences. Some of which contain verbs which are
followed by the infinitive and others which contain verbs which are followed by ‘-ing’ and pupils are asked
to suggest ways of completing the sentences.

I agreed…

He didn’t hesitate …

My father dislike ...

I couldn’t help …

Is it worth …
Pupils complete sentences orally. The teacher then asks students to construct their own sentences orally.
This is they followed by a written exercise.
Students are reminded to use the ‘verb + infinitive’ with each of the following:
Verbs + Infinitive
Agree, appear (seem), arrange, be, care, decide, deserve, desire, determine, expect,
fail, guarantee, happen, hesitate, hope, learn long, manage, mean (intend), neglect,
offer, ought, prepare, prefer, promise, refuse, seem, swear, think, threaten, try
(attempt), want, wish.
Verbs and expressions followed by ‘-ing’.
Advise, admit, appreciate, avoid, consider, delay, deny, dislike, enjoy, escape, excuse,
finish, forgive, give up, go on, imagine, keep (on), mention, mind, postpone, practice,
put off, resent, resist, risk, suggest, stop (cease).
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Students write 7 sentences using ‘verb + to’ and 7 sentences using ‘verb + -ing’.
Remind students that these expressions cannot be followed by an infinitive but by ‘-ing’. e.g.

I couldn’t help to laugh. x

She cannot stand to live in a big city. x

Fancy to see you here! x
WEEK BEGINNING: 23rd March 2009
UNIT FIVE
LESSON ONE
Story: The Return of the Tide
References
WINNERS pp.52-64
English Language Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Find out from pupils what they know about tides.
Are they dangerous? If students think tides are
dangerous, let them state and discuss how dangerous they are. Where are they found? Find out from pupils
how many of them have seen tides before and how they differ from water current.
Vocabulary Discussion
Give out the story books to the pupils. Let them read through the text and jot down words that they think
are difficult to comprehend. After this has been done, let them read out their lists so as to come up with the
class list. When the list has been compiled, tell selected pupils to read through it. Ask pupils to decode the
meanings of the words from context. After 15 minutes, the teacher organizes a class discussion. Pupils
construct sentences using selected words from the list of new words.
While Reading
Tell pupils that as the story is being read, they will be required to answer the questions that will be written
on the board. The teacher writes the following questions on the board and pupils answer them as the story
is being read.
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1. What were the professions of each of these men- Slade and Dr Mathew?
2. In what ways (according to the story) have dead bodies been concealed before?
3. What is the name of the housekeeper mentioned in the story?
4. List down two items, which were put in the back seat of the car?
5. Who killed Spalding and what instrument did he use?
Pupils write down answers as the story is being read by the teacher (aloud).
LESSON TWO
Skills: Oral Reading and Writing
References
WINNERS Pp. 52-64.
INTRODUCTION
Tell pupils that you are going to write questions on the board after which they will be required to read
the text and answer the following questions:
1.
On what condition could there be a trial for murder?
2.
What name is given to this condition name in (1) above in the field of law?
3.
What reasons are given in the text for disliking Slade during his conversation with Dr Mathew?
4.
Why has the writer down this (above in 3)?
5.
If the two bodies are ever washed up, what response of Slade’s will Dr Mathew likely to recall?
6.
What seems to have been Slade’s difficult over the lady Vere Trust?
Pupils are given the texts and in groups of 5, they read, discuss and answer the questions.
Questions
Pupils study the text in groups and discuss answers to the above questions as they take down their own
notes which they later expand in their books.
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LESSON THREE
Skills: Reading and Writing
References
WINNERS pp.61-63.
Syllabus
Argumentative Essay
Remind pupils that in today’s lesson, they will be required to write an argumentative essay. The teacher
explains what this type of essay entails.
Discuss with the class the belief held in some communities in Africa on the state of the dead. Remind them
that in some societies that ‘The Spirit of the Dead Never Dies’. As such it would continue haunting the
person who killed it. Let pupils give their views on the subject.
After ten minutes of oral discussion, draw pupils’ attention to pages 61-63 of the story which give an
account of the events that followed Spalding’s death and how Slade struggled to dispose off his body.
Written Activities
Pupils write answers after the group discussion, in prose form, in the exercise books.
LESSON FOUR
Skills: Writing
References
WINNERS’ Pp. 61-64.
INTRODUCTION
Using your experience or what you have read about, write a story entitled: The class discusses how to go
about with planning to write the essays. The following areas are looked at: paragraphing, using describing
words (adverbs and adjectives, neatness and logical presentation of work. Students write essays.
‘How I Survived a Shipwreck’.
After writing the stories, the teacher collects books for marking.
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LESSON FIVE
GROUP WORK
CLOZE
Read the following passage and answer the questions by filling the missing words. You do not to copy the
whole passage.
“The hands ______ the clock seemed to be moving _______ fast. He must make sure everything ______
correct. The plough chain ______ the other iron weighs were already _______ the back seat of the car; he
had put them ______ before old Matthews arrived to dine. He slipped ________ his overcoat. From his
desk, Slade took _______ curious little bit of apparatus: eighteen inches ______ strong cord, tied at
________ end to a six-inch length of wood ______ as to make a ring. He made a close examination
_______ see that the knots were _______ firm, and then he put it in his pocket; as he did so, he ran
________, in his mind, the words – he knew them by heart – of the passage in the book about the Thugs of
India, describing the method _______ strangulation employed _______ them.
He could think quite coldly about _______ this. Young Spalding was ______ pestilent busybody. A word
from him, now, could bring ruin ________ Slade, could send him _______ prison, and could have him
struck _______ rolls.
WEEK BEGINNING: 30th Mrch 2009
UNIT SIX
LESSON ONE
Story: ‘Flight’
Skills: Oral Reading and Writing.
References:
WINNERS pp. 66-73.
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Ask students what they understand by the term ‘flight’. Find out what associations they have with the idea
of ‘flight’ both positive and negative. Find out from pupils when they would consider flight to be bad and
when it would be good. Ask students what kinds of flight would be considered to be bad and which ones
would be said to be good.
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While Reading
Remind students that you are going to read the story entitled ‘Flight’. As the story is being read, they
should jot down the character sketch of Lucy, her mother and her grandfather and how their characters are
maintained or changed as the story develops. Pupils write down subtitles: Lucy, Mother and Grandfather.
Under each one, they write down notes as directed. After reading and note taking, students compare notes
in pairs and these are discussed at class level. Finally, students write character description of each of the
mentioned.
LESSON TWO
Skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing.
References
WINNERS PP.66-73.
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
The teacher distributes the text and tells students to read through and identify words which hinder
understanding because they are new to them. The teacher also provides a list of words that he thinks
students may find difficult to read. Some of the words are:
Shrewd, crooning, blossom, preening, coral, gazing, muttered, cooing, pathetic, stooped, defiant,
growling, spitefully, creak, sauntering, resent, impudent, squabbling lulled, pert, cherished,
embrace, sardonic, forbearance, crooned, petulant
After 10 minutes, students are asked to add their new words to the list already on the board. In pairs
students decode meaning from context and also using their dictionaries. Students use selected words in
sentences. The teacher collects books for marking.
LESSON THREE
Skills: Oral and Written
References:
WINNERS pp. 66-73.
Syllabus.
INTRODUCTION
Students are divided into groups of five. The teacher tells students that they would be required to look for
information requested for in each of the discussion questions to be given. After they have agreed on the
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correct responses each student should jot them down in his/her book. At the end of fifteen minutes, each
student expands the notes and writes detailed summaries in their books. Cards bearing the following
information are given out.
1.
In the fifth paragraph, the old man deliberately traps his favourite pigeon as it is about to take
flight. In what way does this symbolize his feelings about his grand daughter at this point in the
story?
2.
Later in the story, the old man releases the pigeon. What does this release symbolize about his
feelings towards his grand child at this stage of the story?
There are three different points of view about Alice’s coming marriage: her own, her mother’s
3.
and her grandfather’s. Explain each one. How do they differ?
Explain Alice’s feelings in the last paragraph?
4.
WRITTEN WORK
Students study the text in detail, search for required information and note them down after group
discussions. Students write concise summaries in their books.
LESSON FOUR
Skills: Oral and Written
References:

WINNERS pp. 66-73.

Syllabus
Dictation
The following procedure is followed:

Tell students to close their books, to look at the teacher and to listen carefully while he is
speaking.

The teacher reads passage at normal speed.

The teacher writes names of people, foreign words, scientific terms, places and spellings that
pupils are not expected to know.

The teacher reads the passage carefully and slowly phrase by phrase. While students are writing
what they have just heard, the teacher reads out the same phrase again. The teacher gives
punctuation marks and tells students when to begin a new paragraph.
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
Having completed the actual dictation, the teacher reads out the passage again fairly and students
make corrections.

Students are allowed a few minutes to read through their work once again in order to make final
improvements.

The teacher uses paragraphs 1 and 2 of the same story: ‘Flight’.

Books are collected for marking.
LESSON FIVE
Skills: Reading and Grammatical
References:

WINNERS pp. 66-73.

Syllabus pp. 14.
INTRODUCTION
The teacher tells students that they will be required to make comparisons to show parallel increase with the
construction:

‘the’ + comparative … ‘the’ +comparative.

The use of the commas to separate the two parallels.
The following examples are given after an explanation:

The harder he tries, the more he succeeds.

The more I think about your idea, the more I like it.

The more time he spends studying, the more he understands.
Students make oral sentences. Meanings are discussed. Pupils construct ten sentences based on this
structure.
WEEK BEGINNING: 18th May 2009
UNIT SEVEN
LESSON ONE
Story: ‘A Secret for Two’
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing.
References:

WINNERS pp. 74-79.

Syllabus
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INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Discuss with students what they think a ‘secret’ is. Let them give examples when what initially was a
‘secret’ ceases to be one.
While Reading Activities
Tell pupils that they will be listening to a story being read. They should pay attention and should indicate
(as the story is being read):
At what stage will the “secret” be revealed?
What is this ‘secret’ and who are the two who
Know it?”
After reading of the text by the teacher and taking down of notes, students compare their notes in pairs.
Post Reading Activities
Pupils expand their notes and write answers in their books for homework.
LESSON TWO
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing.
References

WINNERS pp. 74-79.

Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Vocabulary
Students are given the textbooks and are asked to identify words that they are not familiar with. The teacher
writes words that he thinks might impede students’ understanding of the story. The reminds students that
some of the words may not be found in the English Dictionary as they are not English words. In such cases,
they should decode meanings from the context. The following are some of the words:
Wagon, mustache, stable, quart, chuckle, anxiously, remarkable, panic,
smother, cataract, apparent, hobbling, cul de sac, sheen, bonjour, vielle ami,
avance, mon ami, gout, Mais oui, au ‘voir…
After ten minutes of scanning, students are asked to contribute to the list of new words written on the
board. Selected words are then discussed for their meanings. After a class discussion, students write the
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meanings of the remaining words from context. Pupils select any ten words form the list and use them in
sentences. Sentences are written in their books.
LESSON THREE
Skills: Oral and Writing skills.
References

WINNERS pp. 74-79.

Syllabus.
INTRODUCTION
Dictation
The following procedure is followed:

Tell students to close their books, to look at the teacher and to listen carefully while he is
speaking.

The teacher reads passage at normal speed.

The teacher writes names of people, foreign words, scientific terms, places and spellings that
pupils are not expected to know.

The teacher reads the passage carefully and slowly phrase by phrase. While students are writing
what they have just heard, the teacher reads out the same phrase again. The teacher gives
punctuation marks and tells students when to begin a new paragraph.

Having completed the actual dictation, the teacher reads out the passage again fairly and students
make corrections.

Students are allowed a few minutes to read through their work once again in order to make final
improvements.

The teacher uses paragraphs 2 and 3 of the same story: ‘The Secret for Two’.

Books are collected for marking.

The teacher uses paragraphs 2 and 3 of the same story: ‘The Secret for Two’.

Books are collected for marking.
LESSON FOUR
Skills: Comprehension
References

WINNERS pp. 74-79

Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
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Comprehension
The following procedure will be followed as the story is being study:

Introducing the passage

Reading the passage by students.

Discussing the passage

Testing-pupils answer comprehension questions.

Follow up activities
Students answer the following questions in their exercise books:
1.
Pierre could neither read nor write. How did he deal with the
disadvantage of this?
2.
How did it turn to his advantage later on?
3.
Why did Pierre refuse to retire?
4.
Describe events that led to Pierre’s death.
5.
How do you feel about Pierre’s death? Why?
Writing Activities
Pupils look for information in the test. This is discussed in their groups as they jot down the main points in
their books. These are written and expanded into concise reports.
LESSON FIVE
Skills: Grammatical Skills
Topic: Relative Clauses - Time
References
WINNERS p. 74-76
Syllabus p. 98.
INTRODUCTION
Teaching points

Expressing time by using a conjunction + a participial phrase. E.g.
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1. Before answering your question I must study the matter more
carefully.
2. While looking for the book he found the missing money.


Expressing time by using a perfect participial to indicate that one action preceded another. E.g.
1.
Having finished the exercise, I showed it to the teacher.
2.
Having completed my task, I applied for leave.
The use of the comma to separate the participial and the main clauses when the sentence begins
with the phrase.
1.
Walking down the corridor, I saw Mary talking to John.
2.
Standing on top of the roof, He saw a car get stolen.

Expressing time by using ‘No sooner … than …’ to mean ‘as soon as’.

The use of the inversion when using ‘No sooner … than…’
1.
No sooner had we finished than the rain began to fall.
2.
No sooner had she finished her studies than she got married
Common Errors
(a) Lack of subject and verb agreement in the participial phrase and the main clause, e.g.

Driving along the road, a goat was knocked down. x (wrong)

Driving along the road, the driver knocked down the goat. (correct)

Having finished my homework, the teacher marked it. x (wrong)

Having finished my homework, I gave it to the teacher to mark.
(b) Not using the inversion in the ‘No sooner … than…’ construction, e.g.

No sooner he had seen the lion than he shot it. x (wrong)

No sooner had he seen the lion than he shot it. (correct)
(c) Using ‘when’ instead of ‘than’ in the ‘No sooner … than…’ construction, e.g.
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
No sooner had we left when they arrived. x (wrong)

No sooner had we left than they arrived. (correct)
The teacher emphasizes constructions that cause problems, i.e. common errors. Pupils do the activity.
WEEK BEGINNING: 11th May 2009
UNIT EIGHT
LESSON ONE
STORY: ‘The Silent Song’
SKILLS: Oral, Reading and Writing
References:
WINNERS pp. 80-90
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Discuss with students some of the ‘primitive’ tribes’ men they may know and where they are found. Ask
them specifically what they know about the Saan and where they live. Find out what they know about the
traditions and other ways of life of the Saan, their paintings, their mysticism, and their conflict with the
sheep farmer.
While Reading
Listening Comprehension
Tell pupils that you are going to read a story entitled. The Silent Song’ and that, they should listen carefully
as they will be required to write down responses to certain questions which the teacher will write on the
board:

They should note down the number of people mentioned in the story.

Jot down the name and character description of the young girl.

List down all the names of the characters mentioned in the story.

Write down who the ‘golden’ people were.
Post-reading Activities
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In pairs, students compare and discuss their notes. After the class has come together, these notes are further
compared and discuss. The notes are later expanded and written in prose form by individual students.
Individually, students write the character description of Lucy – the girl in the story.
LESSON TWO
Vocabulary Discussion
The teacher distributes the story book and tells students that they should note down words that they
consider being ‘new’. The teacher writes down words that he thinks will inhibit comprehension of the story
by students. Some of the new words are:
Companion, dishearten, barren, meager, terrifying, perpetual, cottages, crevices,
chat, dusk, trickle, bewilderment, vagrant, frown, scarlet …
After pupils have scanned through the text, they are asked to read out lists of words which are later written
on the board by the teacher. Meanings of selected words from the list are discussed. Students are asked to
decode meanings of the other words from context. They are asked to select any 10 words and use them in
sentences. Answers are written in pupils’ books.
LESSON THREE
Skills: Reading, Writing and Grammatical
References
English Language Syllabus pp. 14.
INTRODUCTION
Teaching Points:

The use of the conjunction ‘seeing that’ and ‘now that’ to express reason.
Now that/Seeing that you have finished your work, you may read your
library books.

By using participial phrases (rather formal).
Being unfamiliar with the town, I had to ask a policeman for directions.
The omission of ‘that’ especially in spoken English.
Knowing (that) you are mature enough, you can work on your own.
Point out the use of a comma when the sentence begins with a conjunction and the omission of ‘that’
especially in spoken English. Students construct both oral and written sentences.
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LESSON FOUR
Comprehension
Ask students to read through the text which the teacher has distributed. After reading through the text, the
teacher asks oral questions which are answered orally by students. The teacher distributes cards on which
the questions are written. Selected pupils read through the questions after which the class is divided into
groups of five and are again asked to re-read through the story. In groups, students discuss and answer the
questions that are on the card.
1.
What events led to the sending away of the narrator to a distant relative by the grand parents?
2. 2. Aunt Julie knew or sensed things that Davey and his grandparents did not. List these things under
two endings: Those that she could have learned from teaching, observations and experience, and
those which were mysterious or mystical. 3. What reasons does Aunt Julie have to be afraid of
people?
LESSON FIVE
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing
Type of Writing Activity: Composition
References:

WINNERS pp. 80-90.

Syllabus
The class discusses the following topic which is written on the card:
Although Julie is their own daughter, she is very different from Davey’s
grandparents.
Describe Julie from the grand parents’ point of view and the
grandparents from Julie’s point of view.
Students are asked to write concise stories on the above subject. The teacher emphasizes the importance of
observing things like paragraphing, punctuation marks and neat presentation of work. Books are later
collected for marking.
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WEEK BEGINNING: 18th May 2009
UNIT NINE
LESSON ONE
Story: The One Who Got Away
Skills: Oral. Reading and Writing
References

WINNERS pp. 92-99

Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Discuss with students the activities that place at any boarder entry point. Ask them for their experiences at
any boarder entry point. Do any know of any customs officers and their roles? Find out if they know what
happens if you goods have to be moved from one country into another country.
While-reading Activities
The teacher tells students that they will be listening to a story being read orally by the teacher. They should
listen attentively. Whilst listening to the reading of the story, they need to jot down:
‘The kind of activities Jack Wilner was involved in and what happened to
him in the end’.
Post Reading Activities
After reading to the reading of the story, and having taken down some points, in pairs, students compare
their notes. These are later expanded and written in concise summaries.
LESSON TWO
Story: ‘The One Who Got Away’
Topic: Vocabulary work
Reference
WINNERS pp. 92-99.
INTRODUCTION
Remind students that in the last lesson, listened to the reading of the story. Ask them if they are able to
remember some of the characters they heard about. Tell them that in today’s lesson, they will be given a
chance to read the story and list down any of the words and structures they may not be sure about. At this
stage the teacher distributes the text and tells students to scan through pp. 92-99 for any new words.
229
Post-reading Activities
After scanning through the text, the teacher gets contributions from the class and comes up with a list. The
words are written on the board. Selected words have their meanings decoded by the class using the way
they are used in sentences. In pairs, students are allowed to discuss and decode meaning of words from
context and using the dictionaries.
The teacher tells students to select any 10 words and use them in sentences. Answers are written in their
books.
LESSON THREE
Skills: Grammatical Skills
Topic: Conditional Sentences
References

Syllabus p. 15.
INTRODUCTION
The teacher explains to the students the objectives of the lesson. Explain what conditional sentences are.
The teacher introduces the following:
Teaching Points

The use of ‘but for’ to express condition.
e.g. I would have passed the exam but for the last question.

The use ‘provided (that)’ and ‘suppose (that)’ to express condition.
e.g. You can go out side provided (that) you have finished your work.

The use of ‘supposing (that)’ and ‘suppose (that)’ to express condition.
e.g. Supposing /Suppose I hit you, what would you do?

The use of ‘if only’ to indicate regret, hope or longing.
e.g. If only it rains, the maize will not die.
If only I had worked harder, I would have passed the examination.

The inverted form of the condition
e.g. Had he known the tank was empty, he would have stopped for petrol.
Should any one ask for me, tell them I have gone to a funeral.
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As each of the above types of conditional sentences is introduced, the teacher invites students to use them in oral
sentences. After taking pupils through all the conditional sentences, students are asked to construct sentences for
each of the types of the conditional sentences discussed. Answers are written in their exercise books.
LESSON FOUR
Topic: Comprehension
References
WINNERS pp. 92-99.
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
The teacher asks pupils questions on the story that was read during one of the previous lessons. Ask them questions
about the main character in the story and what his activities were. Find out about their opinion on why the customs
Officers failed to apprehend Jack Wilner.
Reading Activities
Divide students in groups of five. Tell them to read a story and search for the answers to the following questions
which are written on the card for each group. As students read and discuss, the teacher goes round.
1.
A ‘hunch’ is a suspicion that is aroused more by a sixth sense than by hard evidence. On
what evidence did the writer base his hunch about Jack Wilner?
2.
Could this (above) be the reason why you think it was hard to ‘pin’ him down?
3.
At what point in the story are we in a good position to guess correctly what Jack Wilner is
up to?
4.
How does the writer make it unlikely that we’ll guess it so early, though?
5.
What kind of items did the Customs Officers think Jack was involved in? Were they right?
6.
The officials who searched Jack’s car at the apartment were surprised that it was
spotless? Were you? Are you still? Give reasons for your answers.
7.
Why do you think the car was spotless?
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LESSON FIVE
Role-Playing
References

WINNERS pp. 92-99

Syllabus pp. 1-10
INTRODUCTION
Tell pupils that during the lesson, they will be involved in role- playing activities and that this will be done
in pairs. Divide pupils in pairs and then distribute the following role playing cards.
ROLE CARD - A
Instructions:
Imagine that you’re a Customs Officer and that you’re the shift boss on duty.
You have just seen a car approaching the check point. On the first sight you
strongly suspect that the driver of the car is up to something. Ring your men on
the ground giving all the relevant information about the car, which will help the
officers’ track down the driver of the car in question.
ROLE CARD – B
You’re a Customs Officer on duty manning a customs check point. Your boss
has just phoned informing you about an incoming car that he suspects may be
carrying illegal goods. Answer the phone and assure him/her that you’ll carry
out the necessary search and report back to him/her your findings.
CLASS WORK
Pupils act in pairs as the teacher goes round. At the end of 10 minutes, the teacher asks selected pairs that
he/she has identified to act to the class.
WEEK BEGINNING: 26 May 2009
UNIT TEN
LESSON ONE
Story: The Story-Teller
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Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing
References
WIINERS pp. 100-107
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Ask students if they know some one they consider to be a good storyteller. What qualities does that person
have? If one has to be a good storyteller, what is it that he/she should be able to do well? What are then
some of the qualities of a bad storyteller? Do you know such a person? What is that makes them believe
that that person is a bad storyteller?
While Reading Activities
The teacher tells students that they are going to listen to a story being read and that as they listen; they
should jot down answers to the questions that will be given to them. The teacher reads the story aloud as
pupils listen and write answers to the following questions:
1.
How many people, according to the story occupied the carriage?
2.
List the names of the people mentioned in (1) above.
3.
Who was the quietest person in the carriage?
4.
When the small boy in the story looked outside, what did he see?
5.
Where were they being driven when the small boy looked outside? Why?
6.
Who, according to the story, repeated the line over and over?
7.
Who told an uninteresting story? What was it about?
8.
Who said that it was the ‘most stupid’ story he has ever heard about?
After Reading Activities
In pairs, pupils compare the notes that they have taken down. After making comparisons and discussing in their
pairs, pupils write concise answers in their books.
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LESSON TWO
Topic: Dictation
References
WINNERS pp. 100-107
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Dictation
The teacher tells students to close their books, to look at the teacher and to listen carefully whilst the teacher speaks.
The teacher reads the passage at the normal speed. Problem words that the teacher feels might ‘trouble’ pupils are
written on the board. The passage is then read again clearly and slowly phrase by phrase. The teacher pauses as
students write the phrases in the books. At the end of the reading, the teacher reads through the text again. Students
are allowed to make corrections. The teacher uses the first paragraph of this story found on page 100. Books are
collected for marking.
LESSON FOUR
Topic: Vocabulary
Skills: Reading and Writing.
References
WINNERS pp. 100-107.
INTRODUCTION
The teacher distributes the story books and refers pupils to page 100. Pupils are told to scan through the text for new
words. These are jotted down. After 10 minutes, students report to the class. A new list of new words is compiled by
the teacher and written on the board. The teacher guides students into discussing the words. Pupils are encouraged to
decode meanings of words form context.
Written Activity
The teacher tells students to discuss meanings of new words in their pairs. After this students are asked to select any
10 new words from the list:

Decode their meanings from context.

Use them in sentences. Answers to be written in their books.
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LESSON FIVE
Topic: Comprehension
Skills: Reading and Writing.
References:
WINNERS Pp.100-107.
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pupils are asked to read through the story after which oral questions are asked to test pupils’ understanding of
the story. Pupils are then asked to break into groups of five. They are told to read through the story again
discuss and answer the questions given to them by the teacher.
Questions
1.
What was the small girl’s favourite line?
2.
Who told the story that the children liked?
3.
What was the story about?
4.
What were the characteristics of the character in the story that the bachelor
told?
5.
Write four adjectives, which describe the character of this person?
6.
Several things provoked the bachelor into telling his story. List them in order
of irksomeness, starting with the one that you think irritated him the most.
What elements in the bachelor’s story appealed most to the children? Why
7.
do you say so? Why should it be so? ( i.e. What is you evidence in the text?
What are the reasons)?
WEEK BEGINNING: 1st June 2009
UNIT ELEVEN
LESSON ONE
Story: ‘Magic in a Zulu Name’
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing
References:
WINNERS Pp. 108-1144
Syllabus
235
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Discuss with students whether their names have any meanings. If they do, ask them what their names mean.
Find out whether they know any reasons why their parents chose the names given to them. Ask them whether
the names by which they are called have in any way influenced their personality or their fate. The class
discusses this subject giving reasons. Ask students whether they know the following Bible names: Peter, Christ,
Abraham, Israel, Emmanuel …
VOCABULARY
Pupils are given the text books and told to scan through and identify, and note down words that they consider
being ‘new’. The teacher identifies words that he thinks may affect comprehension of the story. After ten
minutes, pupils are given chance to read out their lists and words are written on the board. Selected words are
discussed by the class and meaning derived from the context.
After the discussion by the class, the teacher tells pupils to discuss, in pairs meanings of the words and select
any 10 of them from the list and use them in sentences in their books. Books are collected and marked by the
teacher.
LESSON TWO
Skills: Reading, Writing and grammatical skills.
References:
WINNERS Pp. 108-114.
Syllabus Pp.13.
INTRODUCTION
Explain to the class that in today’s lesson, they will be learning about ‘Determiners’ (Adjectives of quantity).
Teaching Points

The use of ‘some’ to mean ‘one or another’.
e.g. Some person has taken my pen.
Students make oral sentences using the structure that is being discussed.
Students construct ten sentences using the determiner that has just been introduced.
DICTATION
The teacher uses the first and the second paragraphs on page 109 as pupils write the phrases in their books.
236
LESSON THREE
Topic:
Comprehension
Skills:
Reading and Writing
References:
WINNERS Pp. 109-114.
INTRODUCTION
The teacher distributes text books and tells pupils to read the story entitled: ‘Magic in a Zulu Name’ silently.
After ten minutes, oral questions are asked on the general understanding of the story and on various language
structures.
Reading of the Story
Students read the story silently and answer questions in their books. After answering the questions, students
compare answers in their pairs.

What is the difference between the two explanations of the mother’s death as
given by Mlalazi and that of the witchdoctor?

According to the evidence in the text, what could have caused the death of
Mlalazi’s wife?

In your view, how much of the witchdoctor’s cure do you think lied in what
he did and how much in the psychological effect it would have had on Mlalazi
and his son?

Mlalazi asked in surprise, ‘Hau. How do you know these things?’ What
explanation could you give of the doctor’s knowledge?
LESSON FOUR
Topic:
Composition
Skills:
Reading and Writing
References
WINNERS Pp. 108-114
INTRODUCTION
The teacher tells students that in today’s lesson, they will be required to write an argumentative Essay. Teacher
explains to the class the elements of an argumentative essay. These are discussed. Students are given this topic
237
on which they are supposed to write. Students discuss the points in groups of five and individually write concise
essays.
Topic: ‘Witchcraft does not Exist. It only Exists in an Individual Mind’.
Discuss.
LESSON FIVE
Skills: Oral, Aural Skills
References:
WINNERS Pp. 108-114
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
The teacher divides pupils in two groups and are given time to prepare points on the following motion:
MOTION:
“Names do Influence the Way some one
Behaves”.
Students appoint their representatives who either support or challenge the motion.
The class appoints a debate co-coordinator. The best speaker is selected from the debating groups.
The class reviews the lesson focusing on manner of presentation of the arguments and the points raised during the
debate.
WEEK BEGINNING: 8th June 2009
UNIT TWELVE
LESSON ONE
Story:
‘Locomotive 38 Ojibway’
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing
References

WINNERS Pp. 117-127

Syllabus
INTRODUCTION

In this lesson pupils will listen to the story being read and answer do activities that follow.

Read through the text and search for answers to the questions.

Debate a given motion.
238
Pre-reading Activities
Ask students different types of stories that they have read before. Is there any one who has read crime stories before?
What was the story about? Who were the main characters? Who is the author of the story they might have read? Do
they think the stories they have read were true stories? What are the characteristics of a good story? Find out from
the students what they the story whose title is ‘Locomotive 38 Ojibway’ could be about.
Vocabulary Work
The teacher distributes the text and tells pupils to scan through for words that they think are difficult for them to
understand. The teacher puts up a list on the board after pupils have made contributions. The teacher then holds a
class discussion advising pupils to work out meanings of words from context.
While Reading Activities
The teacher tells pupils that he is going to read through a story and that they should listen carefully as they will be
required to jot down answers to the questions as the story is being read. At the end of the reading, students compare
and discuss their answers in groups. The teacher writes the following questions on the board:
1.
What is the name of the storyteller?
2.
What two impressions did people form about Locomotive 38 Ojibway?
3.
Why did they form such impressions about him?
4.
What were the nationalities of the following story characters:

The storyteller

Locomotive Ojibway
5.
What type of car did Locomotive 38 want to buy?
6.
What type did he finally settle for?
7.
From whom did he buy this particular car?
Post Reading Activities
In pairs, pupils compare their answers and expand them into full sentences after discussing with their neighbours.
LESSON TWO
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing
References:
WINNERS Pp. 117-127.
Syllabus
239
INTRODUCTION
Divide the class into groups. Tell them that they will be required to answers the questions that have been on the
cards. In order to find answers, they will need to read and analyze the story carefully. The teacher distributes the
cards and asks pupils to read the story entitled: ‘Locomotive 38 Ojibway’. After reading they discuss answers and
write them in their books.
1.
What in your opinion made the storyteller think that Locomotive 38 Ojibway was a poor man?
2.
Explain how the Locomotive’s animal got injured?
3.
What made the people of this town think Locomotive was a crazy?
4.
Explain Locomotive 38’s decision to use Willie as a driver but not to teach him about fishing and
hunting.
5.
What reply and explanation would each of the following people give if they asked ‘Do you think
Locomotive 38 is crazy’?
6.

One of the town people

Jim Lewis, who sold the Packard

Willie

You
Can you or your friends drive a car? How did you learn? Discuss Willie’s attitude to driving and
his first driving efforts in the light of your experience of learning to drive. How does affect your
reading of the story?
LESSON THREE
Skills: Oral
Topic: Debate
Reference:

WINNERS Pp. 116-127.

Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
The class is told that they will be involved in some kind of debate. The basis of their opinion should be the four
people that are mentioned in the story. Students need to read about what each of the following thinks about
Locomotive 38’s state of mind and what Locomotive 38 himself thinks i.e. one of the town’s people, Jim Lewis,
who sold the Packard, Willie and Locomotive himself...
240
Motion: It is true that Locomotive 38 is crazy?
After the five have presented, the group members ‘hot seat’ them by asking various questions on why they or do not
think Locomotive 38 is crazy.
LESSON FOUR
Skills: Reading and Writing
Topic: Writing letters to a Newspaper
Reference
WINNERS Pp. 117-126.
Syllabus.
INTRODUCTION
Explain to the class that in today’s lesson they would be required to write a letter to a newspaper. The teacher shows
students various examples of letters from the newspaper. Some of the letters are read out to the class by both the
teacher and selected students.
Written Activity
Explain to the class how to start and conclude letters to a newspaper. The teacher reminds students the story they
read about Locomotive 38. Tell them that they should write a letter to a newspaper entitled: ‘Locomotive 38 was
crazy’. Students write letters to the editor.
LESSON FIVE
Topic: Dictation
INTRODUCTION
The teacher reads paragraph two phrase by phrase as students listen. After the first reading, the teacher uses
Locomotive 38’s story, phrase by phrase, the story is read as students write sentences phrase by phrase by phrase.
After writing the sentences, the teacher reads through the paragraph again and students correct their work. Books are
collected for marking.
WEEK BEGINNING: 15th June 2009
UNIT THIRTEEN
LESSON: ONE
Story: ‘The Home Coming’
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing
241
References
WINNERS Pp.128-140
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
Ask pupils what they know about crime stories. Let them tell the class some of the crime stories they might have
read about. What makes them be grouped under this title ‘crime stories’. Tell pupils that what they are about to
listen to being read is a crime story.
While Reading
Tell pupils that you are going to read through a story. As the story is being read, they need to jot down in note form
events that lead to the story teller’s missing the right direction and ending at a ‘wrong’ place. Let them write down
his intended destination. What was his uncle’s name? Where did he eventually find himself? After reading as been
completed, pupils (in pairs) compare their notes.
Post Reading
The teacher tells pupils that they will be required to work in groups and that the activities will require their careful
reading of the text and search for the answers. As they look for answer they should discuss and write answers. The
following questions are written on the card and distributed to the groups.
1.
It is difficult to imagine that the story teller’s host was in fact the murderer. What good things did the story
teller’s host do to him that makes this assertion true?
2.
At what point during the introductory questioning do you think the murderer decided to frame John Steer for
murder?
3.
The cleverness of the murderer’s plan came to John in two stages i.e. one before he thought of intercepting the
train and the other while he was running for the train. Explain how you could tie these two realizations to details
during John’s stay with the murderer.
4.
What signs are there that the murderer found some pleasure into his trap?
5.
What does the following phrase mean: “ He dared not call any one; he must steal off at once”.
(P. 138).
Class Discussion
After reading and discussing the passage and the answers in their groups, the teacher conducts a class discussion.
242
Written Activities
Pupils expand and write coherent answers in their books. Pupils who may not finish are given chance to go and
complete their work at home.
LESSON TWO
Story: ‘Man from the South’
Skills:
Reading and Writing
References:
WINNERS Pp. 142-157.
INTRODUCTION
Pre-reading Activities
The teacher asks pupils whether they know the meaning of ‘gamble’. Have they been involved in ‘gambling’? Or do
they know a person or people who gamble? Is gambling legal here in Zambia? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of gambling? Is there any one in class who has a relative or relatives who gamble? Students provide
oral answers and their answers are discussed by the class.
While Reading Activities:
Tell students that they will again listen to the story being read by the teacher. As the story is being read, they should
listen carefully and answer the questions that are written on the work cards in note form. The teacher then reads the
story slowly and aloud to the class. Pupils write answers in note form.
1.
What reason did the man give for believing that the ‘bathers’ were in fact Americans?
2.
How old was the old man and what was his nationality?
3.
Where did the story teller first meet with the man?
4.
What was the story teller’s nationality?
5.
List down the nationalities of the characters mentioned in the story.
6.
What words or phrases used early on in the description of the man from the South suggest
that he impetus, likely to act on impulse?
Post Reading Activities
After reading of the story and pupils’ answering of the questions, the teacher asks pupils to compare and discus
answers in pairs. Later, pupils expand their notes and write sentences in their books.
243
LESSON THREE
Skills: Oral, Reading and Writing
Topic: Vocabulary work
References
WINNERS Pp. 142-157.
Activity
The teacher gives out the story book and asks students to scan through the story and list down any word(s) which
they consider to be new. After ten minutes, the teacher with the help of pupils compiles a list of new words on the
board. Meanings of selected words are discussed. After which the teacher asks the class to discuss meanings of
words that are remaining on the board. Individually, they are asked to use any ten words in sentences. Words are
written in their exercise books.
LESSON FOUR
Skills: Reading and Writing
References
WINNERS Pp. 142-157.
Syllabus
INTRODUCTION
Pupils are given the text story books and told to read through the story silently. After a quick reading, oral questions
are asked by the teacher and pupils answer them orally. The class is then told to read the text again and answer the
questions that are written on the card. The cards are distributed to the class.
1.
When the old and the young man decided to bet, what were they required to do?
2.
In the event that the old man failed to perform the act, what did he propose to give to the
young man?
3.
On the other hand, if the young man who failed, what would the young man demand from
him?
4.
What was the young man’s reaction at this proposal and how did he express it?
5.
What did the old man request the maid to bring to him?
6.
What prove is there in the text to show that the old meant what he said?
7.
The old man in the story could be described as ‘a lazy man’. What evidence is there in the text
to confirm and support this assertion or view?
244
Homework
Pupils are asked to go answer the following questions for homework:
1.
What words or phrases used early in the description of the man from the South suggest that he
is impetus, likely to act on impulse?
2.
Why do you think the writer makes so much of the American boy’s nationality?
3.
In what way is the attitude of the narrator and the English girl different from the boy’s?
Why do you think this is significant?
4.
The man from the South steers the American boy into the bet with great skills. How does he
succeed in doing this?
245