Richard Yates, LT901
Secondary Literature Review: Ajax
Overview
My dissertation will be a piece of creative writing and a critical commentary based on the
life of the Greek hero Ajax, using Homeric and Sophoclean sources as a starting point for
a modern transformation of a classical myth in the same spirit as Elizabeth Cook’s
Achilles, Anne Carson’s The Autobiography of Red, and Margaret Atwood’s The
Penelopiad.
Although a relatively well-known hero, post-Classical literature has
neglected Ajax. Perhaps most surprising is his absence from contemporary literature:
being synonymous with second-best in the ancient world and the only notable hero to have
committed suicide (according to the dominant strand of myth), Ajax is a tragic figure with
significant potential as a protagonist; he is also the only Homeric hero without a divine
patron who acts on his behalf. Godless and thwarted, and eventually driven to existential
crisis, Ajax is in many ways a very modern hero and, as an avatar for modern man, could
prove to be as affecting as Camus’ Sisyphus, with even more resonance than the
“Odyssean man” mentioned by Scott Belsky (see below). There is a sufficient number of
classical texts and visual sources to provide rich material for synthesising and
transforming his associated myths – as well as Homer and Sophocles, he is mentioned by
Ovid, Hyginus, and pseudo-Apollodorus. These ancient primary sources will be at least as
important as the primary and secondary modern sources that for the most part feature in
this review.
The following will form the basis of a more extensive review that will be developed in
tandem with the piece of creative writing; the completed review will then form the basis of
the accompanying critical commentary. Relevant literature identified to date is presented
in three categories which cover the three main strands of research: (1) concept: literature
relating to contemporary transformations of classical myth; (2) subject: literature relating
specifically to Ajax, the subject of my transformation; and (3) context: literature relating
to Homer and the Homeric world which provides relevant background material and
critical perspectives, particularly in key disciplines such as classics and philosophy.
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(1) Concept
Szegedy-Maszak, Andrew, “Why do we still read Homer?”, The American Scholar,
71:1 (2002), 95-105.
This paper traces the waxing and waning of popularity of the epics through recent history
and engages in the debate about how modern transformations of myth should be critically
received by scholars, particularly classicists. Using the engorged shades of Hades in the
Odyssey as an analogy, Andrew Szegedy-Maszak argues that fictional retellings, like new
works of criticism, give life-blood to the ghosts of antiquity and allow them to speak to
new audiences. Rather than fixate on ‘historical inaccuracies’ (a contradiction in terms in
the context of myth), classicists should recognise retellings for what they are: kindred in
spirit to the epics, which are themselves variants. Retellings are recreations of old stories
in a world which, although alien or exotic, is recognisable to the contemporary audience.
The preference for ‘faithful’ adhesion to a ‘definitive version’, which is so typical among
classicists, is a modern or post-Classical obsession with prescription and the deproliferation of information, and is in fact contrary to the spirit of the culture in which they
were originally conceived.
Mason, David, “Reinventing the Greeks”, The Hudson Review, 58:3 (2005), 489-498.
The intended style of Ajax will be closer to early lyrical poetry than epic, therefore a
closer look at the conventions and expressions of different lyrical genres will inform my
stylistic approach. David Mason’s paper uses the release of Michael Schmidt’s book The
First Poets as the starting point for a review of the current literature on the lives and works
of the early Greek poets, including Hesiod and Homer. The paper provides a good
overview and introduction to the main issues surrounding authorship and biography. It
positions epic in relation to other genres of early Greek poetry (of which there were many)
and explores some of the tensions “between writing and speaking, improvisation and
laborious revision” (p. 490) that are still relevant today and should be taken into account
in any imaginative retelling of the story of a Homeric hero. A sound understanding of the
technical and thematic features of lyrical poetry will help ensure that both the narrative
voice and metering of Ajax intersect with the ancient and the modern in a clear and
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purposeful way. Mason’s paper is informative and serves as an introduction to a nonspecialist reader but is otherwise limited in its usefulness.
Belsky, Scott A., “The Poet Who Sings Through Us: Homer’s Influence in
Contemporary Western Culture”, College Literature, 34:2 (2007), 216-228.
Continuing the debate about the place of the Homeric epics in contemporary Western
culture, Scott Belsky’s paper is a response to critics who argue that the appetite and
pressure for diversity in literary studies has resulted in a terminal downgrading in the
influence and relevance of Ancient Greece in general, and the epics in particular. Belsky
argues that the relevance of the epics is not dependent on any single critical perspective
and is safeguarded by their ability to absorb both praise and criticism, refracting whatever
theoretical light is shone upon them. In this respect he is similar to Szegedy-Maszak.
Although I share Belsky’s position, his attempt to prove the infinite depth and malleability
of the epics is unconvincing and does more harm than good. He uses scenes from the
Iliad and the Odyssey as evidence of the existence of proto-concepts of capitalism,
colonialism, and entrepreneurship, with the ‘Odyssean man’ presented as an avatar for
‘Western man’, driven by the subjectification of the self and the need to self-promote and
self-serve.
Although the desire to self-serve could be considered a distinct trait of
capitalist man, there is otherwise no weight to Belsky’s assertion.
Particularly in
economic terms, the Homeric world operates in a significantly different way to the
Western world, and the examples cited simply emphasise the workings and values of a
very different and unique brand of kingship. The paper would have been more convincing
if the author had chosen to prove the existence of other ‘modern’ concepts that are
traceable in the epics as a means to explain their continued relevance and importance. The
paper does however provide further insight into the place of Homer and Homer-inspired
retellings in the modern world, briefly drawing on Elizabeth Cook’s Achilles, Margaret
Atwood’s Penelopiad, and Wolfgang Peterson’s film Troy (see Roisman below).
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Suzuki, Mihoko, “Rewriting the Odyssey in the Twenty-First Century”, College
Literature, 34:2 (2007), 263-278.
Mihoko Suzuki’s paper ‘critiques’ two recent post-feminist rewritings of the Odyssey:
Margaret Atwood’s Penelopiad and Mary Zimmerman’s stage version. Suzuki provides
useful insights into the aims of two prominent contemporary writers who have
transformed myths to make them speak to new audiences and reflect new critical
interpretations. Suzuki is apparently in support of both texts: she explores their authors’
intentions but stops short of evaluating the success or legitimacy of these, and the reader
must assume that she considers these to be self-evident. Both Atwood and Zimmerman
make the narrative voice female and polyphonic, and telescope the Odyssey to focus on
the female cast who redress the gender balance by giving their accounts. These often take
the form of a ‘palinode’ (a reversal or retraction song) which revise history and undermine
traditional perceptions of events. One useful observation that Suzuki makes is that the
Odyssey itself revises and critiques the Iliad, a notable example being when Achilles
expresses his anger at his decision to choose a short and glorious life over a long and
unremarkable one. In sum, Suzuki’s paper offers some insight into recent reimagings of
Homeric myths and emphasises the dramatic and modernising potential of classical texts,
but offers little else in the way of a critical perspective on either source texts or new texts.
Stael, Hilde, “The Penelopiad and Weight: Contemporary Parodic and Burlesque
Transformations of Classical Myths”, College Literature, 36:4 (2009), 100-118.
Hilde Stael’s paper is a more detailed and theoretical critique of Margaret Atwood’s The
Penelopiad and Jeanette Winterson’s Weight (a retelling of the Atlas myth).
Stael
compares the two texts and finds that, despite being published concurrently and written in
apparent isolation, they display striking similarities in theme and narrative technique.
Both use ‘postmodern metafictional parody’ (defined by Linda Hutcheon as “repetition
with critical difference”, p.101) to establish their critical intentions, drawing particularly
on burlesque and scatology to disrupt high and low literary genres and “neutralise ancient
class distinctions” (p.107). The implication is that these transformative techniques are
becoming increasingly common and may therefore be worth subverting rather than
adopting.
Another technique that Atwood uses which may feature in Ajax is to
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deliberately mythologise unrecorded events and demythologise recorded events, thereby
inverting the literal and the figurative. Stael’s paper demonstrates how both authors use,
and have to some extent pioneered, these techniques, exploring some of the devices and
techniques that may work for Ajax. Stael also makes an observation that is similar in spirit
to some of the other critics mentioned: Atwood’s and Winterson’s reimaginings are
similar to Satyr plays which were themselves comic reworkings of tragedy, therefore the
process of transformation is as old as the classical texts themselves, but what is new is the
particular transformation.
Roisman, Hanna M., “Helen and the Power of Erotic Love: From Homeric
Contemplation to Hollywood Fantasy”, College Literature, 34:2 (2008), 127-150.
Alongside Ajax and Achilles, Helen is one of the three main characters in Ajax. Hanna
Roisman’s paper compares and contrasts a modern retelling of the story of Troy,
Wolfgang Peterson’s 2004 film Troy, with the Iliad. The paper is therefore interesting as
it deals with ‘subject’ and ‘concept’ as well as providing ‘context’. The main problem
with Roisman’s paper is that she mistakes Troy for a retelling of the Iliad instead of either
a transformation of the Iliad or a retelling of the Troy story in general. This serves as a
warning and demonstrates the single-minded conservatism of some scholars, particularly
classicists, in relation to modern versions of classical texts. “There is no trace in Troy of
at least three of the six scenes through which the Iliad show’s Helen’s personality and
predicament,” Roisman observes disapprovingly (p.128) – but this should come as no
surprise because Troy does not claim to be a version of the Iliad. Roisman explores the
different ways Helen has been characterised, which presents interesting possibilities for
my own characterisation, but is bent on proving the superiority of the Iliad’s Helen to
Troy’s, a “wisp of a film” (p.128). However, Roisman admits that Helen is only a “minor
character” in Troy (p.128) and, in doing so, undermines the fairness and legitimacy of a
comparison with the Iliad. She then reduces the two representations of love, seen as the
main characterising force behind Helen, to Imperfect and Realistic (Homer) versus Perfect
and Unrealistic (Peterson), the latter apparently following typical Hollywood fantasy style.
But this is premised on the author’s own conception of love as inevitably fading over time.
Finally, Roisman claims that Troy “attempts to gain sympathy for Helen by legitimising
her elopement and denying its consequences” (p.137) – that is, by presenting war as
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inevitable and driven by imperialism. She confuses cause and effect: given her own
admission that Helen is a minor character, it seems unlikely that Peterson would base the
characterisation of war around the peripheral Helen instead of the other way around. In
sum, the paper is biased and flawed, but offers a detailed discussion of Helen in a number
of modern cinematic sources.
(2) Subject
Duffy, William, “Aias and the Gods”, College Literature, 35:4 (2008), 75-96.
This paper focuses on Ajax and his relationship with the gods in the Iliad. Ajax has two
signature traits: he is the second best soldier in the Greek army and he alone receives no
divine favour, whereas other notable heroes such as Achilles and Odysseus have divine
patrons who intervene on their behalf. William Duffy uses “extra-Iliadic” sources to
illuminate Homeric relationships and concludes that, contrary to the consensus among
classicists, Zeus has a significant emotional attachment to Ajax and demonstrably acts on
his behalf on occasions when it does not compromise his divine plan, the survival of Troy.
Hector in particular is Zeus’ favourite, and when Hector is brought into the equation, the
true nature of the Ajax/Zeus interactions is revealed. Although Duffy provides convincing
textual evidence to support his theory, he overlooks the possibility that the
Zeus/Hector/Ajax dynamic serves to emphasise Ajax’s other signature trait: even in his
relationships with the gods – which are typically intimate and reciprocal – Ajax is second
best. As well as providing excellent close-text analysis of the way Ajax relates to the rest
of the Homeric cast, Duffy’s paper is rare (especially in Literature Online) in that its
primary focus is on Ajax, and to this end provides a valuable bibliography.
Moore, Mary B., “Exekias and Telamonian Ajax”, American Journal of Archaeology,
84:4 (1980), 417-434.
Mary Moore’s paper provides a useful discussion of the depictions of Ajax by the potter
and painter Exekias, exploring key scenes that will feature in my own writing, including
his suicide. The focus of the paper is twofold: (i) to prove Exekias’ special interest in
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Ajax (the hero features more than any other in the painter’s known output, which is
considerable, yet is otherwise barely represented at all in Attic vase painting), and (ii) to
suggest the reason for his interest.
Moore’s answer to the latter is underwhelming:
Exekias was probably from Salamis, which was traditionally thought to be the home of
Ajax. Moore does not attempt anything beyond this; she does not, for example, identify
anything of Exekias’ life or extrapolate aspects of his personality from his unique
treatment of Ajax when exploring his stylistic and thematic fixations. She does however
succeed in proving Exekias’ special interest in Ajax above and beyond the regularity of
his appearances on surviving pottery (which may be unrepresentative of his total output)
through some shrewd analysis.
As well as illuminating scenes from Homer and
Sophocles, Exekias’ treatment provides new source material about the myths surrounding
Ajax. In summary, although the argument that structures the paper is disappointing and
underdeveloped (at best Moore’s speculations bookend the paper), the ekphrasis is good
and the analysis of the visual legacy of Ajax is comprehensive.
Shapiro, H. A., “Exekias, Ajax, and Salamis”, American Journal of Archaeology, 85:2
(1981), 173-175.
As a rejoinder to Mary Moore’s paper, H. A. Shapiro offers some alternative explanations
for Exekias’ special interest in Ajax, although he does not deny the possibility that he was
a Salaminian who enjoyed celebrating the heroics of a fellow local. Shapiro focuses more
on the historical context: Salamis is positioned in the Saronic Gulf between the two major
powers of Athens and Megara; throughout its history, from the Archaic period onwards, it
has changed hands and been the subject of legitimising propaganda. With this in mind,
Shapiro offers two main alternatives to the Salamis-as-homeland theory: (i) Ajax was the
subject of a vase-based campaign to advertise Attic claims to Salamis; and (ii) there were
alleged descendants of Ajax living in Athens in the sixth century, the Philaidai, who had a
particular interest in the annexation of Salamis and may have been patrons-of-the arts to
Exekias. Shapiro’s paper is short but well argued and is interesting both from a purely
academic perspective and because it explores the way that the meanings and cultural
values associated with Ajax have changed over time.
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(3) Context
Weil, Simone, “The Iliad, or The Poem of Force” in War and the Iliad, with Rachel
Bespaloff, trans. Mary McCarthy (New York: New York Review Books, 2005)
Simone Weil’s seminal essay argues that the Iliad is best read as a poem about force.
According to Weil, every person has the power to exert force and modify the behaviour of
another person, force being defined as the power by which X turns Y into a ‘thing’. The
result can be death, but worse than this is being transformed into a thing whilst still alive –
a thing with a soul but without the power to exert its own force. The enduring appeal of
the Iliad lies in the exploration of these extremes of force, as well as the balance and
objectivity of the narrative: all men are its victims, even Achilles; all men vacillate
between pure passivity (‘inert matter’) and pure momentum (‘blind force’). Written in a
hurried style that reflects both the importance of what is at stake in the Iliad and the
imminence of the Second World War, Weil concludes that force cannot be eradicated, but
that the unique spiritual force of the Greeks, which enabled them to avoid self-deception
and identify with both conqueror and conquered, can serve as a lesson to the Western
world. Any creative retelling of the Iliad should in some way respond to Weil’s essay,
and consider the nature of the continued relevance of the world of the Homeric heroes.
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