JFK’s Speech to the Houston Ministerial Association:
An Analysis of Audience
Rhetoric is a concept that can be tricky to define. Some define rhetoric as “the study of
all the processes by which people influence each other through symbols” (Campbell and
Huxman xviii). Larson chooses to define rhetoric as “the use of persuasion” (11). If rhetoric is a
person’s attempt to persuade or influence, then rhetoric must be addressed to an audience. A
skilled rhetor is able to analyze his or her audience, and skillfully craft the rhetorical piece to
most effectively achieve the desired result. At first glance, it may appear that a rhetor is
addressing a single audience, all those to who hear or read the rhetorical act. Closer
examination, however, shows that the rhetor is addressing up to four audiences with the same
rhetorical act: the empirical audience, the target audience, the created audience, and the agents of
change. On September 12, 1960, before the Houston Ministerial Association, John F. Kennedy
gave a speech with each of these four audiences in mind.
The first audience is the empirical audience. The empirical audience is the “all those
exposed to the rhetorical act” (Campbell and Huxman 192). For example, the empirical
audience of a speech would be those individuals who hear the speech. The immediate empirical
audience would be those individuals in attendance at the venue while the mediated empirical
audience is those who will hear the speech through another mediated channel such as television,
radio, or the internet. When examining the empirical audience, it is important to keep in mind
the context in which the rhetorical act is taking place as well as the rhetor’s relationship to the
audience.
Kennedy, like many speakers, addresses the immediate audience with a thank-you in the
opening line of his speech. The immediate audience was the Houston Ministerial Association, an
organization made up of Protestant ministers. Being his party’s presidential nominee, he makes
sure to not offend the empirical audience as he gives his speech. He does this by expressing
gratitude for their “generous invitation” (1). Many of the men present at the association’s
meeting had likely expressed concerns about having a Catholic president so Kennedy wanted to
begin the speech in a positive way. When he points out the “the real issues have in this
campaign have been obscured” (4) he adds that some had done so intentionally although by those
in “quarters less responsible than this” (4). This statement likely would not have offended those
present, but Kennedy would have clearly been challenging those in attendance to not
intentionally obscure the issues further. In this way, Kennedy was able to speak generally to the
empirical audience that was present.
The next audience that Kennedy spoke to was his target audience. “Rhetorical acts are
designed to reach people with certain characteristics” (Campbell and Huxman 193). These
people make up what is known as the target audience. The target audience may include all or
none of the members of the empirical audience. While it may seem that a rhetor is addressing
everyone who will listen, this is almost never the case even in epideictic rhetorical acts. For
example, a eulogy may not appear to target any particular audience; the speaker, however,
actually has the grieving friends and family of the deceased in mind, and his humorous stories
are meant to provide them comfort. It is important when analyzing any piece of rhetoric to
identify the rhetor’s target audience.
Kennedy’s target audience was those who were hesitant about voting for him because he
was a Catholic. This becomes apparent when Kennedy said, “So it is apparently necessary for
me to state once again-not what kind of church I believe in, for that should be important only to
me, but what kind of America I believe in” (4). This statement, which appears to be the thesis
for the entire speech, speaks to a concern that many voters had. His goal in the speech is to shift
focus from his religion to his commitment to his country as evidenced by his repeated use of the
phrase “I believe in an America” (5, 6, 8). This focus would not have been necessary for those in
the audience who did not consider his Catholicism an issue when casting their vote. His target
audience likely included people in his mediated audience as well. Kennedy would have been
well aware that news sources would spread his message to those outside of the immediate
audience. Knowing this, Kennedy was able to speak to many Americans who had concerns
about the way his religious beliefs would affect his national policies.
The next audience a rhetor seeks to speak to is his or her created audience. The created
audience is formed when the rhetor invites the audience to “play roles and take on one or more
personas” (Campbell and Huxman 193). Rhetors seek to change the attitudes and actions of the
audience by creating scenarios the audience can participate in. By feeling like they are part of
something important or by imagining themselves in a different role, the audience begins to better
understand the rhetor’s message. For example, many charity organizations invite potential
donors to see themselves as a part of the brotherhood of all men. This links the potential donor
with the recipients of the charities efforts and will likely make the donor more willing to give.
During his speech to the HMA, Kennedy speaks to his created audience to convince the
members that his Catholicism should not be an issue in the campaign. Kennedy invites his
audience to identify with himself and take on the role of someone being denied his rights as an
American because of his religious convictions. Kennedy states: “For while this year it may be a
Catholic against whom the finger of suspicion is pointed, in other years it has been, and my
someday be again, a Jew-or a Quaker-or a Unitarian-or a Baptist…Today, I may be the victimbut tomorrow it may be you” (7). He is telling his audience to imagine their roles being
reversed. Kennedy creates an audience of potential victims. He argues that this victimization
will continue until “the whole fabric of our harmonious society is ripped apart at a time of great
national peril” (7). By creating an audience of victims, Kennedy is able to reframe the question
as one of national security and not just one man’s run for the White House.
In addition to the created audience of potential victims, Kennedy also invites his audience
to play the role of faithful American. Throughout the speech, he takes on the persona of the
patriot concerned about the well being of his country. As stated previously, he does this through
the use of the phrase “I believe in an America” (5, 6, 8) as well as speaking about his time in the
service (12). The invitation for the audience to join him in this role comes when he uses words
like “our” in paragraphs 13 and 22. Kennedy is uses this plural pronoun to create his audience of
faithful Americans by portraying himself as a patriot concerned only for the well-being of his
country and then identifying his audience with himself.
The final audience to look at is known as the agents of change. The agents of change are
the members of the audience who “have the capacity to do what [the rhetor] desires” (Campbell
and Huxman 193). The agents of change have the power, money, or resources to follow through
with action after being persuaded by the rhetor. Businesses advertise most to audience who will
potentially use their product. For example, a high-end jewelry store is unlikely to place a
billboard in a low income neighborhood. The residents would not be able to afford the jewelry
sold by the store so they would not be agents of change.
Voters are the agents of change that Kennedy addresses in his speech. He most clearly
targets them when he says, “I ask you tonight to follow in that tradition” (14) of judging
politicians on their stances on political issues rather than religious issues. He also states: “And I
hope that you and I condemn with equal fervor those nations which deny their Presidency to
Protestants and those which deny it to Catholics” (16). These statements call the hearers to take
action by not allowing Kennedy’s religious beliefs to affect the way they vote. Because they are
agents of change, it is important for Kennedy to convince them to do this.
Kennedy was a skilled rhetor who was able to target his audience in a way that was
appropriate and effective. When confronting the issue of his religious beliefs, he was able to
craft a speech that was able to change the minds, and possibly the votes, of those in the audience.
It is not likely that he became president because of this single speech, but had he not given it
then it is possible he would not have been elected. Kennedy spoke to the members of his target
audience and those agents of change who were present to achieve his goal- having a fair chance
in his run for the presidency.
Effective rhetors analyze their audience and craft their rhetorical acts to best suit that
audience. They are able to speak to the empirical, target, and created audiences and to the agents
of change to accomplish their goals. It becomes evident that many times the same person may be
part of all four of these audiences. When analyzing rhetoric it is important to keep in mind the
overlap, for example, of the target audience and the agents of change. By analyzing the
audience, one can further understand the intentions of the rhetor and the effectiveness of the
rhetorical act.
Works Cited
Campbell, Karlyn Kohrs, and Susan Schultz Huxman. The Rhetorical Act. 4th ed. Australia:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2009.
Kennedy, John F. Campaign speech. Houston Ministerial Association. Houston, TX. September
12, 1960.
Larson, Charles U. Persuasion: Reception and Responsibility. 11th ed. Australia: Thomson
Wadsworth, 2007.