The motivation of behaviour and consciousness among the Marikana workers: an ethical and psychological dilemma within a practical theological framework.
Abstract
Human behaviour is determined or controlled both through the internal and external factors of the ‘whole’ human existence. The capacity for freedom of action/speech is inherently rooted in the humanistic and existential human capacity to grow into “fully functionally people”. Worker's personal and public strike behaviour incongruency could be as a direct result of external and internal motivation. Workers' apparent freedom of action/speech is nothing else than an illusion, that holds no congruent responsibility for the greater good of man. Within the context of this reality, a spiritual transformation praxis in decision making and responsible action are sought. This search is contextualised within an ethical and psychological and practical theological framework.
Introduction
Critical or public practical theology is called for to address the critical issues in the 21 st century, especially in making “shared and workable decisions about the common good and the common life” (Browning 1996:3). Our world is fragmented and we need constructive social reconstruction in search of a shared praxis to reconstruct tradition/s and to engender practical wisdom (Browning 1996:4).
Browning’s (1996:ix) five dimensions of practical reason/wisdom (visional, the ethical, the motivational, the ecological, and the practical) as adapted by Dreyer
(2008:11) illuminates a multidimensional model of human action. We seek to demonstrate how these five dimensions of the multidimensional model of human action could function as a conceptual framework for human action or determinism and freedom of speech.
The visional dimension deals with questions about who and what labourers are and do in relation to where they work and how they act as workers. It encompasses the worldview of workers as it relates to the common good of all, the quality of life and work conditions.
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The ethical dimension refers to issues of ethics, morality and values as it relate to working conditions, poverty, social and economic inequality, differences in opinions and views and actions on violence. The ecological dimension raises questions of how the common good relates to the world of work and life. Issues such as high levels of unemployment, job insecurity, unbearable workloads, discrimination and abuse in the workplace are detrimental for the motivation and morale of workers. External environmental challenges refer to water and air pollution, inhuman living conditions and scare natural food. The motivational dimension is intricately linked with attainment of people’s needs and the fulfilment or frustration of accessing these needs (material, relational and sense of fulfilment) (Dreyer 2008:13). It focuses on needs like health, income, community life, family life and friendships. The practical dimension attends to institutions, policies and processes, and the well-being of individuals, communities or societies (Dre yer 2008:13). “This dimension is most noticeable in programs for promoting well-being, such as social policies, health programmes, programmes to curb domestic violence, poverty reduction programmes, developmental programmes such as the Millennium Development
Goals programme, and so forth. Programmes at this level is very concrete with regard to rules and roles in relation to labour
– all the other dimensions of the multidimensional model are concretised in these programs (Dreyer 2008:13). It is impossible to elaborate on each of these dimensions in this article. However, the abovementioned framework aims to illustrate that the multidimensional model of human action could serve as a broad conceptual framework for interdisciplinary research on labour issues. Practical theology can make a cross-disciplinary contribution to each of these five dimensions to develop a spiritual transformation praxis in decision making and responsible action. This article is contextualised within an ethical and psychological and practical theological framework.
A spirituality for ethical decision-making functions within the framework of practical wisdom in countering biases, strive; and in engendering reconciliation, solidarity, sisterhood, brotherhood for the common good of society as a whole
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(Stevens 2006: 160). Spirituality for ethical decision-making is four dimensional: it focuses on divine principles such as love and peace; our ultimate life goals and how our actions correspond to it; the development of a virtuous life while developing habits of moral behaviour; and to live by grace and forgiveness.
This calls for spiritual transformation which focuses on our practical behaviour and actions both internally and externally.
Background
The Lonmin mine saga in Marakana and the huge public outcry, as well as recent labour union intrigues within South Africa, will be applied to illustrate theories of determinism and freedom of action/speech, as it pertains to the motivation of human behaviour and consciousness. Sosibo's (2012:2-8) depiction of the becoming of violence as the modus operandi of labour strikes and protests, provides us with a graphic description of how behaviour and consciousness are
‘controlled’ by external as well as internal factors. A recent news broadcast (Enews) on 11 June 2013 announced the suicidal deaths of two police men who were in active service during the horrific shooting of mineworkers at the Lonmin mine. Vavi, the Secretary General of Cosatu, warned about the trends and scenarios unions are facing. About the social distance between workers and the leaders: “Different lifestyles and material realities are creating a leadership which is not fully in tune with what members are facing” (Tabane 2012:3). Mathunjwa’s words to the General Secretary of the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM),
Frans Baleni: “Don’t resort to violence when you lose members. Freedom of association. In 1994 we voted for that freedom”, highlights the complexity of the current situation. NUM maintained that the violence is part of an intimidation strategy”(Sosibo 2012:6). Crispen Chinguno PhD candidate at Wits researched patterns of violence in platinum mines in the Rustenburg area, said violence had
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become routine in strikes in the region. “Workers feel that it adds both positive and negative value. From the perspective of workers they feel the use of violence is working for them. Violence is used as a way of enforcing solidarity ” (Sosibo
2012:7-8). It raises the ultimate question of: What or who determines human behaviour and what are the implications of freedom of strike actions/speech, especially with reference to how it impacts public thinking (opinion), values and reciprocal behaviour.
The rival Association of Mineworkers and Construction’s (Amcu) political threats to the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) an affiliate of COSATU, the largest labour union in the country, met with a great deal of opposition from the management of Lonmin and COSATU (Macleod 2012; Sosobo 2012; Tabane
2012). These events illustrate the power of determination of human behaviour, consciousness and freedom of action/speech. Marikana may just as well be a true reflection of the pervasive current general South African reality of poverty and inequality. We will for this reason apply Marikana with reference to the theories of determinism and freedom of action/speech in terms of the conscious and external factors which control human behaviour. The objective is to analyse how Marikana workers’ ideas and actions during violent labour strikes are influencing ethical decision making and responsible actions.
Theoretical framework
A hegemonic anti-leadership and anti-traditional culture is caused by incongruent relationships between workers with severe poverty conditions and leaders with affluent lifestyles (Vavi 2012). This leads to social alienation, distrust, uncertainty, fear and violence which calls for a spiritual transformational praxis to inculcate new values and experiences of meaning and wellness (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz
2003:13). It calls for the creation of ethical spaces (diagnosing and assessing situations) to foster worker and leadership spirituality (Parboteeah & Cullen
2003:149150). Spirituality informs workers and leaders’ vision, mission, goals, objectives and strategies to analyse situations from an internal competency of moral commitment (Doohan 2007:17). Spirituality is a source of motivation and
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inspiration to foster morally sound decisions and actions based on ultimate values (Hess & Cameron 2006:75). Leadership needs to engender spiritualdriven cultural transformation to shift power relationships by fostering change through an intentional and persistent process of formulating a vision, a mission and values (Granberg-Michaelson 2004:109). Workers may behaving unethically due to problems of will and not because of problems of belief and knowledge
(Price 2003:69). Selfinterest and demands of “the other” may lead to immoral actions (Granberg-Michaelson 2004:51). Abuse of self-interest should be opposed by requiring that leaders act on socialised, as apposed to personalised, power motives (Bass & Steidlmeier 1999). Internal-authentic and externalauthentic worker and leadership responsibilities about the common good for the group, organisation, or society are required (Bass & Steidlmeier 1999). Leaders are to reject the other-regarding values (violent strike actions) if they oppose altruistic values for the common good (Price 2003:80).
The key questions which Marikana are raising:
To what extent do labourers control their behaviour and determine the direction of their thoughts and feelings? Are they responsible for the development of their own personality or are their behaviour and development controlled by factors over which they have no control, such as unconscious urges, external environmental factors, physiological and cultural influences, for example? Is it true that early childhood experiences determine personality, so that a person has no control over the course of his later personality development? Some theorists have extreme opinions on this issue; others believe that, while certain types of behaviour are determined by previous experience, man has free choice in other respects (Möller, 1993 p.16).
These questions bring us to the fundamentals of psychology – this is the focus of this paper. The answers thereon, will point to the collective historical results and findings in psychology. It would be inappropriate to neglect reflection on the historical development of psychology (see Möller (1993 pp. 6-15). The reason is
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that psychology is a developmental science 1 , embedded in fundamental philosophical premises and challenged by socio-political and cultural-existential paradigm shifts. Modern (or even postmodern) psychology is an integrated disciplinary science, embedded in the collective reflections, philosophies, empirical work and external phenomena. We will focus on exponents of psychology who made significant contributions and who can assist in finding an appropriate response to the abovementioned questions.
The following respective exponents of determinism, consciousness and freedom of speech, namely Freud and Jung, Maslow and Rogers will be consulted.
The theory of determinism: an introduction
Determinism refers to the cause and effect between human behaviour and consciousness caused by external and or internal factors which lie outside people’s control (Determinism & Psychology, 2008). Proponents of the deterministic theory (Watson, Skinner, Bandura and Freud), however, argued that the unconscious is the driving, determinate force in human behaviour without any external control on human behaviour. Human behaviour is thus not controlled and therefore deterministic. The impulse and force of behaviour lie in the unconscious and not the conscious (De Vos, 2008). Three theorists in this regard, can be distinguished, namely:
1. Freud’s psychoanalysis – the unconscious;
2. Jung’s individuation – collective unconsciousness (connected to ancestry history);
3. Adler’s social theory – the socially inborn, inherent pessimism – resulting in psychoanalysts’ pessimistic view of human beings. People are born with an inferiority complex striving for superiority and power. Their theory was influenced by German thinking regarding people’s strife towards superiority (De Vos, 2008).
1 Or a science of determinism which studies the cause and effect relationship in human behaviour
(Determinism & Psychology, 2008).
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Freud and Jung’s perspectives will be addressed in the following paragraphs.
Determinism through Biological Instincts and Drives
Adult behaviour or personality is predetermined by events in early childhood. The actual cause of behaviour lies in the unconscious and is therefore hidden
(internal) 2 . Human behaviour is based on the principle that people can change, therefore, they must possess a certain degree of free will. Behaviour could have multiple causes. Some causes are conscious and is therefore subject to free will
(Determinism & Psychology, 2008). People have limited free will in making life choices. Behaviour is determined by the unconscious and childhood experiences
(Psychology Approaches, 2008). The unconscious consists of three components: the ‘id’ the ‘ego’ and the ‘superego’. Freud’s theory of human behaviour determines the teleological interaction between the id, the ego, and the superego
(the fabric of personality) (Hall & Lindzey, 1978 p. 36) 3 . The id as the primary resource of psychic energy and the core of being human determines, controls and powers the functions of (the unconscious) the ego and superego. The id as a genetic subjective construct controls people’s reflexes and capacities to respond to natural (pleasure) instincts and drives. These natural, subjective instincts or drives motivate general behaviour in life (Engler, 1985 pp. 58-59; Hall & Lindzey,
1978 p. 37). Amcu ’s violent labour strikes during 2012 could be applicable in this case, in so far as their admittance of dissociating itself with a renowned traditional labour movement, NUM or COSATU . “Freud’s theory of motivation is based solely on the assumption that ( Amcu’s) instincts are the sole energy sources for human behaviour” (Hall & Lindzey, 1978 p. 42) 4 (own insertion). The id acts impulsive and irrationally irrespective of the consequences of its actions,
2 Freud’s theory refers to the human mind with reference to its similarity to an iceberg. Only a small amount of the mind (the iceberg) is visible, namely observable behaviour. The unconscious, submerged mind, however, has the most influence on behaviour (Psychology Approaches, 2008).
3 Skinner and Watson argue that structures of personality (id, ego, superego) cannot be observed and is, therefore, unproductive to study (Engler, 1985 p. 368). Skinner’s theory omits a psychoanalytical approach in the stimulus-response theory of psychology and focuses rather on behaviourist principles. ‘Skinner’s psychology does not focus on the person, but rather on the direct observable variables and forces in the environment that influence a person’ (Engler, 1985 p. 368).
4 Skinner’s psychology does not focus on the person, but rather on the direct observable variables and forces in the environment that influence a person (Engler, 1985 p. 368).
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in a manner that may be harmful to the self or others (Engler, 1985 pp. 58-59).
Amcu
’s public moral and political ‘example’ emphasises Engler’s argument. The ego emerges out of the id and act as an intermediary to address the wishes and demands of the id, namely: the needs of the striking workers, in relation to appropriate enactments with the objective world of reality (Engler, 1985 p. 59;
Hall & Lindzey, 1978 p. 37). The ego is the ‘executor of the personality’ grounded in the objective reality and engaging in a reality-testing process. The ego controls all the cognitive and intellectual functions of the mind and consequent human actions (Hall & Lindzey, 1978 p. 37). It ‘reality-check’ the id and control engagements/actions/behaviour with the external world in the interests of the fuller personality (Hall & Lindzey, 1978 p. 59). The ego can integrate the often conflicting demands of the id, the superego, and the external world (Hall &
Lindzey, 1978 p. 37). Amcu ’s violent behaviour, as well as the integration and
‘control’ of conflicting personal and public demands of the mineworkers, could be an example of impulsive and irrational harmful behaviour. The question could be asked: Why did the superego and that of cultural stalemates not defend parental dependency-transactions and traditional values and ideals of the public?
The superego emerges as an outcome of parental-childhood dependencyinteractions and is an
‘internal representative of the traditional values and ideals of society’ (Hall & Lindzey, 1978 p. 37; Engler, 1985 p. 60). “The superego is the moral arm of personality; it represents the ideal rather than the real and it strives for perfection rather than pleasure (Hall & Lindzey, 1978 p. 38)”. The superego’s predominant objectives are to (1) inhibit, particularly, the sensual or aggressive impulses (condemned by society) of the id, (2) persuade the ego to substitute moralistic goals for realistic ones, and (3) strive for perfection (Hall & Lindzey,
1978 pp. 38-39). It may seem as if Amcu ’s id and ego played a more dominant role in the determination of behaviour and consciousness. Freud’s theory is, therefore, in Amcu ’s case, correct that human’s are genetically and subjectively controlled through ref lexes to respond to natural instincts and drives. Skinner’s theory, however, is that freedom is an allusion, because people are unaware of the environmental causes/consequences of behaviour (Psychology Approaches,
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2008). Was Amcu
’s behaviour also influenced by a ‘cultural’ violent strike or only individual/isolated (internal) factors? Another perspective is that humans are totally determined by experiences (Determinism & Psychology, 2008). Bandura’s
“reciprocal determinism” theory demonstrates how the environment influences people who on the other hand influence the environment (Determinism &
Psychology, 2008).
Determinism through Collective Unconsciousness
Carl Jung (in Engler, 1985 p. 83), on the other hand, taught that personality is a complex network of interacting systems (complexes) that seeks eventual harmony (self actualisation 5 ). Jung’s basic methodology applies the ego; the personal unconscious with its complexes; and the collective unconscious and its archetypes 6 (Engler, 1985 p. 83). Jung’s theory consists of the ‘total’ personality and related aspects of the psyche 7 with reference to two primary human attitudes and four basic human functions (Engler, 1985 p. 84). Jung’s, other than
Freud’s theory of the unconscious refers to repressed personal characteristics, which views the unconscious as referring to the source of consciousness and the matrix of new life possibilities (Engler, 1985 p. 84) 8 .
The conscious perception and development of the self, the ego, is responsible for people’s awareness of feelings of identity and continuity (living). The personal unconscious and the collective unconscious interact with our ego, the self. The personal unconscious refers to repressed and forgotten personal life experiences
5 “Self-actualisation is a teleological process of development that involves individuation (the systems of the individual psyche achieve their fullest degree of differentiation, expression, and development) and transcendence (integration of the diverse systems of the self toward the goal of wholeness and identity with all of humanity). Individuation is a lower level of total personality development and transcendence a deeper self or essence emerges that unites a person with all of humanity and the universe at large” (Engler, 1985 p.
94).
6 Refer to a universal thought form or predisposition to perceive the world in certain ways (Engler, 1985 p.
87).
7 The psyche refers to all psychological processes: thoughts, feelings, sensations, wishes, etcetera and represents both conscious and unconscious processes (Engler, 1985 p. 84).
8 Freud’s theory focuses on the motivation of personality the libido or sexual drive. Jung’s theory apposes
Freud’s instinctual basis of personality regarding sexuality as reductive or simplistic; reducing all activities to sexual behaviour. Jung’s theory refers to sexuality as symbolic, “having a mysterious quality of otherness that cannot be fully described” (Engler, 1985 p. 93).
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(complexes: thoughts, feelings and memories) (Engler, 1985 pp. 84-85).
Complexes influence new ideas with reference to a particular person or object, reinterpret it and inform and determine interpersonal relationships. This informative and determinative function influence the way how people react towards others (Engler, 1985 p. 86). Amcu ’s recent violent strikes demonstrate how one’s complexes impacts on objects, such as political aspirations (power) and how that determine interpersonal relationships. Jung applies the concept:
‘mothering complex’, referring to basic human ideas, feelings and memories. The
‘mothering complex’ influences interpretation of ‘other mothering experiences’ and determines human behaviour towards others. Some complexes may complicate the disengagement of people from particular situations and may even
‘dominate an entire personality’. Hitler, for example, was driven by inner forces to obtain ultimate (conscious and unconscious; personal and collective) power
(Engler, 1985 p. 86). People in general may share the collective unconscious or
“transpersonal” (emotions such as joy, grief or anger) that transcends people or diverse cultures (Engler, 1985 pp. 86-87). Amcu
’s members and leaders publicly demonstrated the collective unconsciousness (of dissatisfaction and anger against the NUM/COSATU union) 9 that transcended South Africa’s new found democratic order and constitutional principles and even cultural practices. “… falling in love with a “perfect other”, feeling overwhelmed by a piece of art or music, or being drawn to the sea …” are examples of the collective unconscious, which expresses itself in shared symbols with universal meaning (Engler, 1985 p.
87).
The central archetype, the self acts as a unifying agent of the different personality aspects (Engler, 1985 p. 90). The self directs and orders psychic energy in such a manner that it express personality complexes appropriately. Life situations and personal needs determine social and emotional behaviour (Engler,
1985 p. 90). Jung’s theory holds that one’s personality is not centred in rational
9 See Ehrenreich, Tony (2007) in www.elp.org/labourconference/interview.
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ego consciousness, but in a tendency towards preferred 10 attitudes 11 and functions 12 . Jung’s theory are being supported by the irrational collective behaviour of Amcu members , who’s behaviour (attitude, thinking, feelings, sensing, intuition) are determined through internal and external orientation to society. The significance of attitudes and functions lie in the ways (through meaning and comprehension or valuing and judging) it determine how people relate (either through individuation or transcendence) to the world and to other people (Engler, 1985 p. 92) 13 . The first half of life is concerned with individuation.
Consciousness and gender-specific behaviour are then being developed. The second half of life focuses on transcendence. Transcendence fosters closer interaction with and expresses the collective unconscious as well as unity with humanity as a whole. Jung’s theory holds that true personality is in harmony with all its opposites, and forms an integrated whole. There is no distinction between the separate conscious or unconscious, mind or body (Engler, 1985 p. 94). The current general public uncertainty of South Africa’s labour future could only be addressed, satisfactorily, if one could speak of Amcu
’s ‘transcendence’, the interaction between the individual and the COSATOalliance’s collective unconscious and unity with the broader South African population.
Theory of Freedom of Speech: an introduction
Humanistic psychology refers to the whole person (holism). The enacting person reciprocally observes human behaviour, individually (Psychology Approaches,
10 See Myers and Myers (1991).
11 The Jungian theory refers to dominant and more developed archetypes, attitudes as introversion (the internal orientation of the psyche towards the subjective world, and extroversion (the external orientation of the psyche towards the objective). One may, therefore, refer to both a conscious extrovert and an unconscious introvert and vice versa (Engler, 1985).
12 “Functions are ways of perceiving the environment and orienting experiences [1933b]. The function of sensation refers to sense perception of the world. Thinking gives meaning and understanding to the world.
The function of feeling involves valuing and judging the world. Intuition, perception via the unconscious, informs us of the atmosphere surrounding experience and future possibilities. … A synthesis of the four functions is required for an actualised self” (Engler, 1985 p. 92).
13 Skinner’s theory distinguishes between two types of behaviour (respondent and operant). “Respondent behaviour refers to reflexes or automatic responses (tapped knee-jerking leg) caused by stimuli. Such behaviours are unlearned and occur involuntarily and automatically’ (Engler, 1985 p. 370). Operant
(spontaneous) conditioning behaviours are spontaneous and its consequences determine its subsequent frequency” (Engler, 1985 p. 371).
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2008). The exponents of freedom of speech and responsibility (Maslow, Victor
Frankl and Carl Rogers) represent the existential, phenomological and humanistic psychology approach. Freedom of action/speech and responsibility is embedded in humanistic movements. The impact of World War I and II motivated the abovementioned exponents to seek to enhance human beings through phenomology and existentialism methodologies. Maslow, for example, after Pearl
Harbour, sought to contribute positive aspects in human behaviour through the humanist movement (De Vos, 2008).
Behaviourism is based on empirical and scientific methodologies. This approach leaves limited room for growth and creativity although it can have a place to alter certain types of behaviour. It is not related to wholeness or uniqueness of man.
The humanist approach was in resistance to the behaviourist’s rigid scientific approach (De Vos, 2008). Maslow undertook research o n unique individuals’ special characteristics. Carl Rogers is also a humanist to a certain degree.
Rogers distinguishes between organismic experience and its phenomenal field to differentiate the (conscious) self, through the organismic evaluating process in the individual. Children for example, have an individual need for development of the self. People have an own inner sense of self, but this is often determined by external circumstances (through an external locus of control) or significant others which could lead to incongruence. Person centred therapy aims to make people aware of the inherent uniqueness/goodness through unconditional emphatic positive regard. Rogers does not use questioning (a lot). Incongruence is the experiences of the self which are basically incongruent to the organismic self.
Whatever therapeutic approach is used, for example the narrative approach or a person centred approach, it should contribute to the therapeutic value of the process. Rogers’s therapeutic approach refers to “a way of being” – setting yourself aside, developing a “frame of reference” (De Vos, 2008).
Maslow and Rogers’s contributions will now be discussed.
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Freedom of Speech through Self-Actualization 14
People are responsible for communal/individual happiness and well-being as humans and possess an innate (inborn) capacity for self-actualisation; a unique desire to achieve their highest potential as people (Psychology Approaches,
2008).
Maslow’s theory, although complementary to, critiques both psychoanalysis and behaviourism as pessimistic, negative and limiting of conceptions of the human nature. The positive of the human nature (self-actualisation) is rather emphasised
(Engler, 1985 p. 305). Human beings, teleologically speaking, are orientated towards growth, happiness and satisfaction. This is different from the Freudian and Jungian notion of personalities as restoring balance or avoiding/reducing frustration/tension. Motivation (deficiency needs) 15 and metamotivation (selfactualisation) 16 are the primary determining agents of human behaviour.
Motivation and the D-needs are primary and powerful determinants of general behaviour (Engler, 1985 p. 307). The Amcu-politics is predominantly nothing more than the motivation of the D-needs of the majority of the poorest of South
Africa’s population 17 . The ‘Amcu’ critique is that NUM/COSATO has enriched the
B-needs of a small black minority at the expense of a poor majority.
Metamotivation and the B-needs enhance and enrich life so that ever-increasing stimuli actuali se ‘a life lived to the fullest’ (Engler, 1985 p. 308). Maslow’s theory is renowned for the hierarchy-of-needs methodology 18 . Important to note that the majority of poor South Africans are not able to attend to primary D-needs and
14 Engler’s (1985 pp. 320-321) critique on Maslow’s work; the self-actualised person may be elitist and apply only to a few people. “The possibility of self-actualization is limited or even closed to large numbers of the human population, whose environment and lifestyle have yet to meet the lesser needs depicted in
Maslow’s hierarchy, let alone the higher needs. Moreover, Maslow’s concept is culture bound, reflecting his own historical period” (Engler, 1985 p. 321).
15 Refers to reducing tension by satisfying deficit positions; it entails D-needs or deficiency needs
(physiological survival or safety: the need for food or rest; motivate the individual to engage in activities that will reduce these drives (Engler, 1985 p. 307).
16 “Self-actualisation refers to growth tendencies. It entails B-needs or being needs (the organism’s drive to self-actualise and fulfill its inherent potential. B-needs do not stem from a lack or deficiency; rather they push forward to self-fulfillment” (Engler, 1985 p. 307).
17 See Ehrenreich, Tony (2007) in www.elp.org/labourconference/interviews.
18 D-needs refer to basic physiological needs such as safety, belonging, love and self-esteem, which have to be satisfied first and foremost. “B-needs refer to self-actualization, or higher order needs, which are fulfilled after the D-needs have been satisfied” (Engler, 1985 p. 308).
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that it is only the ‘haves’ that are able to demonstrate self-actualisation (Engler,
1985 p. 308). Satisfied deficiency needs may lead to increased optimal, rather than reduced tension, in order to enhance the individual’s opportunities for selfactualisation. It is therefore, obvious that the motivation of people living on a Blevel is radically different from people struggling with D-needs (Engler, 1985 p.
310) 19 . The ideology of Maslow’s theory that a self-actualising person fulfils individual needs and aspires to do the best, does not suffice (Engler, 1985 p.
311). Black and so called ‘coloured’ people have historically demonstrated how one can transcend personal actualisation for the sake of a greater course, freedom, justice, equity and non-discrimination (compare Victor Frankl, 1984).
Frankl’s book: Man’s Search For Meaning , is a practical demonstration that people can transcend individual aspirations to embrace communal and public interests or neglected needs and rights.
Maslow’s theory characterises self-actualisers with the notions of awareness, honesty, freedom, and trust 20 . The theory of self-actualisers is important at this point. It has an inherent tendency for humour in life; a social interest combined with ‘a deep feeling of kinship with humanity’; the ability to demonstrate deep interpersonal relations that can form democratic character structures (Engler,
1985 pp. 314-316).
Self-actualisers, therefore, tend to demonstrate a tendency for a high degree of freedom, to be independent, creative, and spontaneous. This freedom may detach and lead people to withdraw “from the chaos that surrounds others”
(Engler, 1985 p. 316). The ability to be detached and the need for privacy (not secretive) may extend also to other areas of life. Maslow’s theory holds that self-
19 The notion that prerequisites such as cultural, economic, and social conditions are necessary for a person to be motivated on the B-level, so that the person does not need to be preoccupied with physiological or safety needs, is the ideal rather than the norm in especially South Africa. Carl Rogers’ notion that satisfaction of basic needs lead to happier, healthier, and more effective individuals; and that appropriate conditions promote progress and growth, is not necessarily correct, especially in a country such as South
Africa (Engler, 1985 p. 310). South Africans have traditionally demonstrated a collective resilience that transcended both physiological and psychological pathological circumstances.
20 Awareness is to be aware of one’s own inner rightness, nature, peak experiences of life, perception of reality, appreciation and ethical awareness. Honesty is to know one’s feelings (love, anger, and humour – in interpersonal relationships) and to trust them (Engler, 1985 pp. 312-315).
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actualisers are capable of a ‘greater degree’ of concentration and can “remain above the battle, calm and unruffled”, than the average person. NUM’s leaders could be defined as such persons, detached, private and unruffled by storms around them ( ). Self-actualises as individual free agents do not discriminate, interfere in or decide how other people should grow and actualise themselves.
People are, however, allowed to experience the consequences of behaviour without being overprotective. Self-actualisers are, therefo re “autonomous and independent of their physical and social environment” (Engler, 1985 p. 316). Selfactualisers are motivated by individualised growth rather than any deficiency (Dneeds). This individualised philosophy does not depend on the communal world or others for the satisfaction of basic needs, rather on individualistic development and aspirations. Autonomy is, therefore, “the ability to be a free choice agent and to govern oneself” with “more free will than others” (Engler, 1985 pp. 316-317).
The problem, however, lies with freedom, located within individuals, rather than from reciprocal responsibilities of the physical or social environment. The only
‘appropriate’ and ‘motivational’ trait of the self-actualiser lies in an individual drive and capacity of creativity, originality, or inventiveness with regard to whatever activity is undertaken. Self-actualisers generally perceive the world creatively, envisioning new and different possibilities, are spontaneous, simple and natural people; free ‘to be actualised’ at any given moment. Conventional behaviour is not allowed to stifle or prevent doing important things. Self-actualisers are aware of, and public about feelings, thoughts, and impulses. Complexes are subdued if its expression threatens others. It is motivated by an autonomous and individual code of ethics. The code of ethics is based on fundamentally accepted principles rather than on social norms and prescriptions (Engler, 1985 p. 317). Selfactualisers demonstrate a high degree of individualised trust, a mission in life, others and the environment. Self-actualisers are generally problem centred; can accept themselves, others, and the environment; demonstrate a resistance to enculturation; and are independent in thoughts and behaviour. Important to note that self-actualisers are not perfect people; but basically self-fulfilling and achievers; can welcome and is unafraid of differences; and possess the ability to
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transcend and resolve dichotomies (Engler, 1985 p. 318). Selfish and unselfish behaviour may both benefit others, although it frequently benefits themselves.
Maslow’s theory opts for the cooperatively enactments of the self-actualised individual in and through the id, ego, and the superego. This ‘fabric of personality’ fosters both quant itatively and qualitatively healthy individuals ‘different’ from ‘the average’ person (Engler, 1985 p. 319). NUM leaders could be defined as such self-actualised individuals, but misunderstood by the general public. This, however, illustrates the danger of Maslow’s self-actualisation theory – it originated from an individualised Western culture, and does not ‘fit’ within a predominant Ubuntu culture: you are a person because of other persons.
Freedom of Speech through The Self
Rogers’s theory rejected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and behaviourism. People’s behaviour are determined or controlled through perceptions of individual situations (Carl Rogers, 2008). Rogers’s theory opposes the psychoanalytical theory that people are motivated by unconscious biological energy. It also apposes the behaviourists’ approach that behaviour is determined by conditioning. Rogers’s theory views people in totality, as a psychophysical whole (holism). The uniqueness of people is manifested in subjective
(idiographic) experiences. Subjective experiences relate to the way the world is structured and experienced - the way of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Biological drives or reflexes do not determine people’s behaviour. Rogers’ theory of personality focuses interdependently, on psychotherapy, interpersonal relationships and maturity or the ‘fully-functioning personality’ (Engler, 1985 p.
215). The following three concepts in Rogers’s personality theory can be noted:
 organism refers to the whole-person, as a psychophysical unit, the body and personality are a whole and function as a whole (Engler, 1985 p. 216).
 The totality of experiences constitutes the individual’s frame of reference or phenomenal field (perceptual field) and includes physiological processes, sensory impressions and motor activities, conscious or unconscious. Human behaviour is not dependent on stimulus, but based
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on the personal experience of the stimulus, namely the individuals’ respective private phenomenal field.

The selftheory is central in personality theory 21 . Rogers’ clients defined personal experiences in terms of the self concept and sought therapeutic assistance in realising individualised true selves.
The self can be differentiated from its phenomenal field, the individua l’s experiences. Patterns of perceptions of “I” and “me” and perceptions of the relationship of “I” and “me” with others develop due to peoples’ interactions with the environment and evaluations by others. The development of the self or personal (“I”) awareness and value connotations (good or bad; happy or unhappy, hardworking or lazy, etc.) becomes evident. The self thus determines how people perceive or feels about themselves, in terms of people’s personal values and new experiences. Values define the self-concept through a specific individual experience or perceptions from others; and are incorporated into the self-structure (Engler, 1985 p. 217). The self concept is a conscious trait determining human behaviour. The self-concept can remain constant over time and in different situations. The self always functions as a whole or Gestalt.
Nelson Mandela’s life story is an excellent example of valued (self) integration, consistency and functioning as a whole 22 . Behaviour is always consistent with a valued self-concept that fosters self-confidence despite threatening or strange social situations. The self as a conscious criterion empowers people to detach from experiences which are not consistent with the self-concept. Personal actualisation cannot realise if experiences do not correspond with the self.
Individual perceptions of others and situations are determined in terms of how people perceive themselves. Changes in the self-concept will correspond with changes in the way in which others are perceived. Distortion and inconsistency between the self-concept and experiences create a discrepancy in human
21 “Behaviorists rejected the self concept as too vague and subjective and scientifically worthless. Rogers, however, found that his patients referred to their problems in terms of their individual selves” (Engler, 1985 p. 217).
22 Compare Mandela’s book: A Long Walk to Freedom (1994).
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behaviour (Engler, 1985 p. 218). This may be the reality in
Amcu members’ personal and public actions (2008). Consistency between the self and experiences leads to good psychosocial adjustment or congruence.
Rogers’s theory views the dynamics of personality as an active process of growth, rather than the objectification [Freudian], thereof, in terms of understanding it. Each person is unique and individual and has the free will to change at any time (Carl Rogers, 2008). Motivation or tendency of personality refers to how the personality functions, namely “the fully functioning person”. The concepts: self-actualisation, symbolisation, congruence, positive regard and selfregard define motivation of personality (Engler, 1985 p. 219). The following paragraphs will provide thicker descriptions, of these concepts.
Freedom of speech through psychophysical development, actualisation and self-actualisation are inherent tendencies of the human organism to sustain and strengthen itself and to grow towards adulthood and maturity (Engler,
1985 p. 219). Selfactualisation, as the only motivating factor in Rogers’ theory, is the conscious part of the human organism (the self) that differentiates itself from the phenomenological field (Engler, 1985 pp. 219-220).
Freedom of speech through symbolisation (perception)
Personal views of the self (as criterion) critique which experiences are allowed and not allowed into consciousness. Experiences are, either, ignored, symbolised or incorporated into consciousness. If some of the experiences’ contents threaten the self-image, it cannot be symbolised (Engler, 1985 p. 221).
The ANC, ANC Youth League and SACP’s joint statement illustrates an inability for true symbolisation: “The self-concept is the only criterion according to which experiences are denied, irrespective of their social acceptability, and the denied experiences are sometimes the most positive ones, such as love, selfacceptance , gentleness, etc” (Engler, 1985 p. 222).
As a result of a feeling of anxiety, a specific experience is denied without the experience having to enter
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consciousness (Engler, 1985 p. 222). This maybe the rationale for Amcu
’s public behaviour!
Freedom of speech through congruence
Congruence 23 refers to the accurate symbolisation between the self and experience when the meaning of a certain experience constitutes or affirms part of the selfstructure by validating it as a true representation of the organism’s experience 24 . In another sense, it refers to selfactualisation when the “ideal self”
(who the person would like to be” is congruent with their actual behaviour (selfimage) (Carl Rogers, 2008). The state of congruence motivates people to be more ‘open and receptive to new experiences without feeling threatened’ by others or the environment. The ongoing Amcu-rivalry with NUM may demonstrate a certain ‘defensiveness’ on Amcu’s part, not to accept responsibility for apparent
‘unethical’ behaviour. Accurate symbolised-congruence motivates people to be non-defensive. This motivates people to live realistic personal and communal/environmental lives and to sustain harmonious relationships with others. Such a position fosters a mature or ‘fully functioning person’ (compare
Mandela, 1994). The selfconcept of Mandela “is of such a nature that all experiences can be incorporated into it”. Non-defensive individuals demonstrate
‘psychological freedom’ [Rogers]. Such people are open to and fully aware of their present feelings, experiences and living conditions:
Psychological freedom exists when the individual has the opportunity to symbolise his experiences, in other words, when he is not forced to deny or distort his thoughts and feelings to retain the love and appreciation of other people [Rogers &
Kinget, 1959] (Engler, 1985 p. 223).
23 The incongruent position should also be considered: “Incongruity between self and experience implies that there is also incongruence between the self-actualising tendency and the more basic actualising tendency. ... This hampers personality growth and lead to emotional problems. The organismic valuing process becomes ineffective, because there is no longer any inner force to allow the individual to make choices which are true to his own actualisation. When congruence is restored, the self-actualising and actualising tendencies become harmonised” (Engler, 1985 pp. 222-223).
24 “All stimuli, whether from within or outside the person, are symbolised clearly, without in any way distorting the meaning thereof or without using any defence mechanisms” (Engler, 1985 p. 222).
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Incongruence (discrepancy) occurs when people deny and distort their actual
(organismic) experiences, only to retain their ‘good public image’ 25 – resulting in false self-concepts. This denying and distortion is acutely illustrated by Bosiso ’s depiction of Amcu ’s behaviour. Incongruence between the self and experience is reflected in people’s anxious behaviour. An anxious behavioural position enters consciousness and is always incongruent to the self-concept and leads to a changed self-concept (Engler, 1985 p. 224). Anxious human behaviour is experienced either internally 26 or externally 27 . The model of incongruence
(conflict between self and experience), anxiety and defensiveness/defence mechanisms (denial and distortion) are applied to reduce anxiety and ultimately to protect the person (Freud and Rogers in Engler, 1985 p. 225) 28 . The person’s openness to experiences is restricted and freedom of behaviour is limited
(Engler, 1985 p. 224). The collective unconsciousness (Jung) of the poor stricken workers may be the primary motivation for Amcu ’s behaviour of ‘denial’ and
‘distortion’ of individual experiences and a limitation of freedom to ‘speak his own mind’.
Freedom of speech through positive regard
Behaviour is guided by the self and experiences which do not correlate with the self-concept are often denied or ignored, thus not symbolised. Incongruency, therefore, between the self and experiences and a distorted self-concept can develop due to the principle of positive regard [Rogers, 1959] 29 :
25 “ Amcu is good because it approves of the plight of the poor (self-concept) as opposed to ‘ he feel jealous of him, don’t like him, hate him’ (actual organismic experience), or the person who sees himself as a loving person, without hate, whereas he actually experiences both aggression and hate” (Engler, 1985 pp. 223-
224) (own insertion).
26 Refers to “a feeling of confusion, unpleasantness and apprehension, without the cause of the feeling being known” (Engler, 1985 p. 224).
27 Refers to “the behaviour of the person who experiences incongruence, and thus anxiety, … as defensive”
(Engler, 1985 p. 224).
28 “Freud’s ultimate goal was the appropriate channelling of urges; Rogers’ ultimate goal was a state of congruence between self and experiences” (Engler, 1985 p. 225).
29 “In order to hold the love of a parent, the child interjects his own values and perceptions, which he does not actually experience. He then denies awareness of the organismic experiences that contradict these introjections. Thus, his self-concept contains false elements that are not based on what he is, in his experiencing [Rogers, 1966:192] (Engler, 1985 p. 226).
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Positive regard refers to the need for love and emotional warmth, to be understood and respected and accepted as one is. It does not refer to an instinctive urge, but a secondary or acquired need in all people which develops very early on as a result of the love and attention the baby and child receives from his parents and other people who are important to him. Incongruence exists between the self and experiences when the person has to orientate his behaviour in such a way that he can obtain or retain the love and approval of others and he thus no longer acts in accordance with his true feelings (Engler, 1985 p. 225).
Positive regard refers to the disapproval of incongruent experiences or the loss of love and regard by others for someone’s specific organic experiences which are symbolised as feelings of hate (Engler, 1985 p. 225). Retaining the others’ positive regard motivates the person to assume a different disposition, such that
“a distinction emerges between what he really experiences and his true self”
(Engler, 1985 p. 226). It is only through unconditional positive regard that no incongruence between the self and experience, becomes possible 30 . The question remains: How do the Lonmin workers sustain their unconditional positive regard towards Amcu? What triggers such an incongruence and discrepancy between the Amcu alliance and the general public (or traditional
Ubuntu values) experience, besides, the reality of the majority of South Africa’s poor population. Or does the reality of poverty serve as the ultimate collectiveunconscious and conscious determining factor in public human behaviour?
Freedom of speech through self regard
Self-regard relates to positive-regard and emphasises the value a person attaches to specific self-experiences or the total self-concept (for example, thinking positively/favourably; feeling valued, unfavourably and inferior).
Favourable self-regard (or congruence) is experienced when organismic experiences are properly symbolised and the self and the ideal self are in
30 “Unconditional and positive acceptance with no demands and conditions for love and appreciation cancels any need to deny experiences. Conditional positive regard leads to the denial of experiences and the development of an incongruent self-concept, incongruent with true experiences” (Engler, 1985 p. 226).
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harmony. Self-regard is dependant on the positive regard of others, 31 but could also lead to a negative self-regard, due to the self-actualising tendency. The self can, however, develop a positive attitude that is not directly dependent on the environment. It is important to note that, self-regard can develop independent of other people’s judgement and most importantly, dependent only on the person’s own values. This may be the determining and distinguishing factor between the personalities of Amcu leaders and Nelson Mandela! Rogers’ theory of motivation of human behaviour is therefore not determined by physiological drives and needs. Human needs or drives are thus only determined by human beings’ active, conscious tendencies towards self-actualisation (Engler, 1985 p. 226).
Conditional positive regard of others leads to the denial and distorted symbolisation of experiences which threaten the self-concept. This leads to incongruence, anxiety, inflexibility and a stereotyped world of experiences. The
ANC’s ‘recall’ of president Mbeki from the presidency, serves as an example of conditional positive regard. Unconditional positive regard by others leads to the symbolisation of experiences and congruence between the self and experience towards self-regard and self-actualisation (Engler, 1985 p. 227).
Positive regard of others can influence the person not to be guided by the criterion of their organismic valuing process, but by the eliciting of others’ positive regard with this behaviour. Greater value is placed to the positive regard of others than to their own organismic valuing process (Engler, 1985 p. 228). The satisfaction of the need for positive regard is based on someone else’s frame of reference (Engler, 1985 p. 229), and false symbolisations are now incorporated into the self-structure and the integration characteristic of the person is consequently lost. The self-concept contains more distorted symbolisations which do not represents his organismic experiences correctly, while other elements in his organismic field of experiencing are not incorporated into the self-
31 “The child experiences his mother’s disapproval of his behavior as disapproval of himself as a person. If the disapproval occurs regularly, he may deny the symbolization of his own experiences and fail to actualize his own potential so that he can just obtain or retain the positive regard of his mother – thus incongruence” (Engler, 1985 p. 226).
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structure (the denied symbolisations). The personality is no longer a whole and no longer integrated. Behaviour is one moment regulated by the self, the next moment by the organismic experiences which are not incorporated into the self.
The organism is no longer the only criterion for experiences. For the sake of positive regard, in terms of the environment or public, the own experiences are falsified and ar e based on the symbolisations on other people’s criteria. The own value system appears to be intact, but are in fact based on the opinions of others. Amcu lives with such a reality – as long as people such as Malema, the former president of the ANC’s Youth League, dictates a distorted value system,
Amcu will remain trapped in conditional positive – and even conditional selfregard. Positive regard by others becomes now the criterion according to which
Amcu leaders and workers ‘must’ make personal value judgements in terms of self-regard (Engler, 1985 p. 229).
Conclusion
Human behaviour is determined or controlled both through the internal and external factors of the ‘whole’ human existence. The capacity for freedom of speech is inherently rooted in the humanistic and existential human capacity to grow into “fully functionally people”. Amcu workers and leaders’ personal and public incongruency is a direct result of external and internal motivation. Amcu
’s apparent freedom of speech is nothing else than an illusion, that holds no congruent responsibility for the greater good of man.
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