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Module 6
ADVANCED LEVEL
Printed and bound by Alison Demarco.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers.
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INDEX
LIVING CELLS
THE SKIN
THE SKELETON
THE MUSCLES
THE BLOOD SYSTEM
THE GENES
THE ARTERIES
THE VEINS
THE HEART
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
URINARY BLADDER & KIDNEYS
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
THE BRAIN
THE EYE
THE EAR
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
THE GLANDS
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THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASE
ANATOMY
Our brain may act like a di-pole radio aerial. There are two fat, but highly separate, hemispheres
with a plate wrapped round each one (called the cerebrum and cortex respectively). The two halves
are neatly insulated from each other by a membrane and ventricles, and connecting these two halves
is a thick band called the corpus callosum. There appears to be some signal detectors and signal
generators underneath this, called the limbic system, thalamus and other specialist components.
The cerebrum is set in its entirely like a jelly in an upturned bowl (the skull), so as to be sensitive to
the slightest mechanical vibration, let alone electro-magnetic ones.
This relatively vast and complicated transmitting and receiving station services an immense number
of small radio sets, each being an individual cell in our body. The receiving aerial of each radio set
is the nucleus, packed with DNA in helical windings. A helical winding is ideal for picking up a
radio signal and all modern radios have a similar device inside. Instead of having a separate tuning
device, the station has been programmed to a fixed frequency. Along the helix are a number of
different bumps, tied to the helix by hydrogen bonds and bases (chemical molecules), each three of
which represents a specific bit of information. Only a specific waveform can be received by the
helix. The distance between one complete winding of the helix is also fixed by hydrogen bonds,
which ensure that it doesn’t stretch or contract.
Apart from a radio receiver, suppose the other part of a double-stranded helix acts as a local
transmitter of the exact same signal it receives - like a two-way radio. Other types of singlestranded structures of DNA and all RNA may only be receivers. The cell can broadcast its signal at
a strength which will depend on how much energy is pumped into the cell by the mitochondria, a
sort of biological battery.
Also, the strength with which the brain can send and receive signals to all its cells will depend on
the amount of energy it has available. An insulator called myelin protects this energy, and this
insulates the whole central nervous system from the rest of the body. If this sheath is destroyed,
energy seep away and the brain's radio signal strength falls off.
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If specific signals from the brain are weakened by its having used up a lot of energy, through stress
for example, then the cells may start not hearing the signals correctly, or not at all. They may go
wild or start doing the wrong thing, broadcasting the wrong instructions. For example, allowing a
build-up of uric acid in the feet, which is called gout; or letting in bacterial infections; wrapping
themselves in a mucous coat, so that they are completely deaf to the signals coming from the brain.
Morphogenesis is the process of millions of cells dying and being born every day, and it is
necessary to replace each one correctly. This traffic could never be handled by a chemicalelectrical system whose speed of transmission down neutral axon is 40 metres a second, if you are
lucky. Nervous transmission is simply too slow. The number of transmissions to and fro down the
spinal cord necessary to keep the brain and its cells in touch with each other would exceed the
capacity of the spinal cord to carry the information.
To recover from electro-chemical
transmissions, the spinal cord needs a rest!
Other things can go wrong - a virus could get into the nucleus and alter the signal by inserting its
own signal into the DNA chain. The structure would then start sending out the wrong fixed signal
to other cells - which would start to ignore the brain's normal signal - unless the cells can be brought
back to normality by an even more powerful transmission from the brain in retaliation. The
electronic warfare causes the headache, which might accompany a stomach upset, or the onset of
influenza.
If the cells are miscoded, this could lead to cancers. Even excessive sunlight can cause mutation of
the skin pigment and skin cancers. Chemicals can also cause mutations by altering the structure of
the DNA and its hydrogen bonds. Direct mechanical damage can occur to cells by burning or
cutting. Pain is the after-effect of the radio distress calls from the cells to the brain.
The AIDS virus can penetrate the blood-brain barrier, or myelin sheath, then establish themselves in
the brain. Then they start altering the brain's signal, slowly and ever so slightly. This virus
specifically alters the signal to the special class of cells designed to seek and destroy foreign bodies
- in other words, it has infiltrated behind the lines. Antibiotics cannot stop it - they have a fixed
signal of their own, which cancels the cells' signals.
It is well known that stress can affect the gastro-intestinal membrane, which in turn can cause
changes in the intestinal flora, so they become incapable of fighting off invading foreign viruses or
bacteria.
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ANATOMY
Cytochrome is found in all living matter. In itself, this pigment is almost colourless. One of its
functions is to control the distribution of oxygen.
Lipochromes are known as 'fat pigments' as they are soluble in fats or solvents of fats. There are
two types of Lipochromes:
(a) those which form a compound with caustic alkali and
(b) those which do not form a compound with caustic alkali.
The latter can be found in both plants and animals. It is principally the reds and yellows which are
formed from lipochromes. If nitric acid or sulphuric acid is added to this dried pigment, it turns
blue.
Melanin is a granular pigment closely allied to haemoglobin and the hormone adrenaline, which
turns dark on exposure to air. It is also allied to tyrosin, a protein product. Melanin is mainly
responsible for black, brown and grey tones and may be due to disintegration and/or decomposition
of haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is a compound in the blood containing carbon and iron and effects red. In some
invertebrates the compound contains copper instead of iron and effects a blue colour.
The following pigments are formed from waste products:

Lepidotic Acid (modified uric acid)
Yellow

Guaninin (modified uric acid)
Various colours

Flavonol
Yellow and other colours
Introduced pigments:

Carotene
Yellow and Orange

Chlorophyll
Green
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Many names come from Greek roots:
Lipo (fat); chroma (colour); cyto (cell); mela (black); gene (birth); zoo (animal); haem (blood);
chloro (light green); phyll (leaf).
Man has several layers of skin and these are considered in two parts:
(1) The dermis (corium), which is composed of two layers of living tissue, and lies
beneath
the epidermis. There is no pigment in this layer of man's skin.
(2) The epidermis (cuticle), which lies on the outside and is composed of five layers. Only the
Negro has pigment in the epidermis.
It lies deep in the fourth and fifth layers.
However, in the rest of mankind, the pigment lies only between the dermis and the
epidermis. The epidermis is otherwise colourless and transparent. In the deeper layers
there are living cells, There are dead cells in the outer layers. The dead outer cells are
constantly being rubbed away and replaced by others from beneath.
Lipochromes contribute to red and yellow, whilst melanin, depending on its concentration,
contributes to every effect from yellow to black. Haemoglobin contributes to red and yellow.
These colouring matters are produced in the body by little understood chemical processes. Melanin
may be a product of the blood resulting from a disintegration or decomposition of the blood
pigment, but its exact origin is not known. It is related to the hormone adrenaline. Haemoglobin is
a compound containing iron and protein. In the average vertebrate's blood, a molecule of haem
contains four atoms of carbon and one atom of iron. This forms the colour. The protein contains
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and perhaps some sulphur and this is colourless.
The yellow of jaundice may result from an iron deficiency, but is more likely caused by the
absorption of bile into the blood. An abundance of iron is thought to cause freckles. The blackness,
brownness or blueness of the iris is due to the amount of melanin there. A lack of pigment and the
presence of air bubbles in the hair result in white and grey hair. This may, or may not, have been
caused by organisms eating the pigment while chasing microbes.
The natives are dark-skinned in places where the sunlight is most intense, as in the tropics, and
where it is reflected most strongly, as in the arctic regions. Men of lighter races become tanned on
exposure to strong sunlight. The actinic rays (beyond violet) of sunlight can be injurious to the skin
and eyes and can effect chemical changes within the body, coagulate blood, provoke the formation
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of melanin and kill living substance. Therefore, darkening of the skin when it is exposed to strong
sunlight may be a protective reaction.
Only black pigs can be kept in tropical America.
There is a theory that the white man evolved by adding salt to his food and by drinking milk. Salt is
known to be a bleacher. Milk contains chlorine and also has a bleaching effect. The black man
evolved by eating fruits and vegetables containing manganates. It has also been said that Negroes
who drink milk and eat meat are not as dark as those who eat only fruit and vegetables.
Carbon dioxide and oxygen influence the redness of blood. A healthy blood condition and a
healthy and delicate skin is indicated by the rosy cheeks of the young. White men can appear all
colours under different conditions, so he might more appropriately be called "coloured". The negro,
whom we refer to as "coloured", is black, which denotes an absence of colour. A white man can
appear nearly white from loss of blood, fright, shock, etc. He can appear grey from pain; red from
exertion, anger, etc. He will appear greenish from biliousness and introduced poisons; blue from
cold, lack of oxygen and poor circulation; yellow from jaundice; purple from strangulation; brown
from sun tan and black from decay. Blue-skinned men have been seen in side-shows. In this case,
the blue is an accidentally-introduced pigment. When men and women handle certain powders in
munition factories, they turned a bright yellow. An unusual concentration of melanin causes purple
birthmarks. In Fiji, some of the natives dust their hair with lime to keep off the sun and the white
lime turns their black hair to a purplish red.
THE GENES
Genes are the ingredients for a human being they are what determines the colour of our hair, skin,
eyes, our body shape and a certain part of our personality. Our genes are a direct combination of our
mother and our father and this is why every one is an individual with their own special genetic
recipe. Identical Twins are an exception to this rule. They have an identical genetic make up and
are therefore always the same sex and it may be very difficult to tell them apart. Non-Identical
(Fraternal) twins come from 2 separate egg cells released at the same time and therefore have
different though similar vital ingredients.
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Genes can be Dominant or Recessive. When 2 different genes meet i.e. one for brown eyes and
one for blue eyes. Brown eyes are the dominant gene and the child will have brown eye colour.
Each cell in the body contains 46 Chromosomes these are contained in the nucleus and provide the
instructions. Each cell contains a blueprint for the entire organism. This can be found in the DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid) . DNA is a structure like a twisting ladder which is know as the Double
Helix. The rungs of the ladder and the order of these rungs is what determines the genetic code. The
rungs are constructed from substances like Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine and Guanine.
The sex cells - the sperm and the egg contain only 23 chromosomes. Therefore when they unite they
form a set of 46 chromosomes. This fertilised egg cell contains 46 chromosomes which copy
themselves exactly for each cell as the egg splits, splits and splits again and again.
One pair of chromosomes determines the sex of the child. It all comes down to Xs and Ys. A man
has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. A woman has two X chromosomes. The egg cell
always contains the X chromosome whereas the sperm cell can contain an X or a Y chromosome.
The sperm and egg combination can be XY or XX. The sex of the baby will thus be determined by
this special pair of chromosomes.
LIVING CELLS
Our bodies are made up of living cells. They all contain one basic structure but have different
shapes and sizes. Most cells reproduce themselves for growth and to replace dead and damaged
cells. The Ovum or egg cell is the largest cell and the smallest are in the brain.
Cells are independent of each other but they are able to work together. Cells that are involved in the
same process are called Tissues i.e. muscles, bones and tissues. Tissues that work together are
called Organs like hearts, lungs and kidneys. Organs that perform similar functions are known as
Systems i.e. the reproductive system, the respiratory system.
Cytoplasm is the fluid within each cell. It is contained by the Cell Membrane. Floating in the
Cytoplasm is the Nucleus. This is the Brain of the cell and holds the instructions in the form of
Genes made of the chemical DNA. Also floating in the Cytoplasm are the Mitochondria,
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Endoplasmic Reticulum, Lysosomes, and the Golgi Complex. The Mitochondria provide the
energy for each cell. The Endoplasmic Reticulum are the transportation service for each cell. The
Lysosomes are packets of digestive enzymes and the Golgi Complex are the storage components of
each cells.
THE SKIN
The skin is made up of a series of layers which protect us, provide waterproofing and a sunblock,
keeps out harmful bacteria and converts sunlight into necessary Vitamin D. It also has an excretory
function of expelling urea and other waste products through sweat and the pores. Sweating helps
maintain the body temperature at a constant level. Sweat glands also respond to our feelings which
is why nervous people sweat more, or menopausal women have hot sweaty flushes.
The Epidermis is the upper layer of skin cells that is made up of dead skin cells containing
Keratin. Keratin makes the skin surface a hard, protective layer. The layer beneath that is the
Malphigian Layer. This is where the new cells are made. The process is continuous. New cells are
made in the Malphigian Layer and pushed to the Epidermis and when they arrive they are long and
flat, dead and hard. They rub off quickly and are replaced. The Malphigian Layer also produces
Melanin which determines the skin colour of the person. Our tans are controlled through Melanin
which increase to cope with the bright sunlight. The Dermis is the layer containing hair roots,
glands, blood vessels and nerves. Beneath the skin layers is the Adipose tissue this is a fatty layer
that provides insulation and some nutrients.
THE HUMAN SKELETON
The Skeleton is the bodies frame work and acts as a support system which is also protective. For
example, the skull protects the brain. The largest bone is the thigh bone and the smallest is the
Stirrup in the inner ear.
Bone contains several layers. The outer layer is the Compact bone this consists of rings which
encircle channels bringing food and Oxygen to the bone cells. These channels are known as the
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Haversian Canals. The Compact bone is protected by the tough Periosteum layer. The inner part
of the bone is the Spongy part. It is a strong network of spaces and bone cells. Marrow is at the
core of the bone. Its job is to manufacture red and white blood cells.
The bones to not bend but meet at the Joint. The ends of the bones are softened with tough
Cartilage. The bones are attached to each other by Ligaments. The bones rotate in the Joint with
the help of Synovial liquid which lubricated the Joint.
There are different Joints, for example; The Hinge & The Ball and Socket.
Problems can occur at the bone joint. Over extenuation of the joint by twisting or jarring is known
as a Sprain. When two bones are pulled out of the Socket they are Dislocated.
THE SKELETON
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THE MUSCLES
Although joints are the points of the skeleton that allow the bones to bend this would not be
possible without muscles. Muscles need Protein for construction of cells, Glucose for energy and
Oxygen . If they do not receive enough of these substances they start to use up energy from their
glucose stores. This produces Lactic Acid which is why muscles may begin to ache after excessive
use. A strained muscle may Cramp this is when one muscle is contracted for an extended period
Muscles work through contraction and relaxation. Each muscle works in sequence and in that way
we are able to have precise movement. When movement is controlled the muscles are called
Voluntary Skeletal muscles. Movement like the heart beat is controlled by Involuntary muscles.
The Diaphragm is a flat sheet of muscle. Other muscles include the arm and leg muscles - the
Striped (Skeletal) muscle and consists of long cells. Our internal organs and digestive system is
controlled by Smooth muscles which are short, unstriped cells.
Muscles are attached to bones by Tendons. They can only pull and not push. By pulling our bones
we are able to move our bodies. The muscle contracts once it has received messages from the brain
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via the nerve network. Muscles contract in sequence so that action takes place smoothly. In most
cases each end of a muscle is attached to either side of the joint.
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THE BLOOD SYSTEM
The body contains 5 litres of blood. The blood system is vital for carrying nutrients like water,
Oxygen and other nutrients around the body. It also is responsible for our immune system. Blood
contains both White and Red Blood Cells and also Platelets which all float in a substance called
Plasma.
Plasma is made up of Protein and Salts and Water. Plasma helps transport food to the cells and
waste away from the cells. There are 4 blood group - A, AB, B and O. Each Blood Group contains
different mixtures of Antibody A and Antibody B in the Plasma. In Blood Transfusions the
antibodies in the Plasma may react against the new anti-bodies in the transfused Blood.
Platelets are involved in blood clotting and wound healing. Red Blood Cells are small and made in
the Bone Marrow. They contain Haemoglobin which is the red substance in blood. Haemoglobin
is a transporter of Oxygen. Red Blood Cells contain no Nucleus they are tiny and can squeeze
through the smallest capillaries. Our disease fighting mechanism is controlled by White Blood
Cells. There are several kinds of these. They are constructed in the Bone Marrow . Phagocytes are
one kind of defence mechanism which destroy Bacteria by eating them. When we are ill extra white
blood cells are manufactured. Lymphocytes have special disease fighting proteins on their surface.
These are called Anti-bodies. When we are ill these Lymphocytes and their Anti-bodies are
released into the bloodstream and prevent bacteria from reproducing. Each different bacteria or
virus requires a different kind of anti-body. If the immune system has the anti-body for a specific
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disease it is unlikely that the virus will be successful next time it attacks. This is how Vaccination /
Immunisation works.
Arteries carry blood from the heart around the body. Arteries may “fur” due to excessive
Cholesterol, Calcium deposits, Smoking or other unhealthy activities. This may result in Blood
Clotting in the Arteries.
Veins carry blood from the various bodily organs towards the heart, once all the nutrients have been
used up. Blood travelling through veins has a low pressure and the veins have thin walls to allow
absorption of important nutrients. High Blood Pressure can occur with Stress. Varicose Veins
occur when the blood begins to travel the wrong way in the veins and they become swollen and
painful. Capillaries are connected to arteries and veins and are the smallest blood vessels they for
an important network across the body and reach most of its smallest regions.
THE ARTERIES
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THE HEART
The Heart is the organ that is responsible for carrying blood around the body. It is made of the
strong Cardiac muscle. It is vital to our lives. If the heart stops beating then we will not survive for
more than a few minutes. The thumping of the heart is the sound of the Valves shutting.
The Heartbeat is first the valves inside the heart closing and the second thump is the valves outside
the heart closing. This means that blood will not return to the heart once it has left in the Veins. The
Heartbeat increases with Hormones, Activity, Stress, and Fear. It also is increased by Eating as
more blood is pumped to the Digestive System. It decreases through Relaxation and Age. The
Heart beat is thought by some researchers to be implicated in the time keeping mechanism in the
body acting as an internal body clock (the ticker).
The heart is divided into 4 chambers. The left and right Atria and the left and right Ventricles.
The course of blood travels from the heart to the lungs via the Pulmonary Artery from the Right
Atrium. The blood collects Oxygen from the lungs and is then transported back to the Heart via
the Pulmonary Veins into the Left Atrium. The Left Ventricle pumps blood out of the Heart into
the main Artery called the Aorta that transports blood around the body. Blood that is low in
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Oxygen is carried back to the heart culminating in the Vena Cava (Superior and Inferior). These
travel into the Right Atrium.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
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THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestion starts at the mouth. The teeth break down the food. The sharper teeth for cutting and the
back Molars for chewing. The chewing process mixes the for with Saliva containing an enzyme
called Salivary Amylase. This breaks down food into a swallowable form and begins breaking
down Carbohydrates into Glucose. The food then moves down our Throat through the
Oesophagus in a process called Peristalsis. Food is diverted from the Windpipe by a little flap
known as the Epiglottis.
The Stomach contains various enzymes and acid which is produced by the stomach walls.
Digestive Juices break down the food over approximately a 3 hour period killing Bacteria and
sorting the Nutrients from the Waste.
Most digested nutrients are then transported to the Liver which is a vital part of Digestion. The
Liver store Glycogen, Vitamins and Amino Acids. Glycogen can be converted to glucose and
used as Energy. The activity in the Liver produces much of our body heat. The Liver also deals with
Toxins which are taken into the body. It is responsible for Detoxification.
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The Digested food moves into the Small Intestine. The Small Intestine is coiled into a small part
of the body it makes up 4 metres of the 9 metre long Digestive System. The first part of the Small
Intestine is the Duodenum and the last is the Ileum. As the food moves along the Small Intestine it
is digested further by juices from the Pancreas and Gall Bladder and is eventually absorbed by the
blood in the Ileum. The Small Intestine is lined with Villi or tiny fingers. These aid in the
transportation of Amino Acids and Glucose from the Small Intestine to the Blood.
Undigested food continues into the Large Intestine - the Colon. The Blood releases some of its
water to mix with the undigested food. Old Red Blood Cells are also deposited here from the Liver.
Haemoglobin that is not needed is turned into a brown substance which is what colours the Faeces.
The semi-solid waste matter is stored for a while in the Rectum and is then expelled through the
Anus.
Carbohydrates - energy suppliers. Broken down into Glucose and carried by the blood. Starch,
Fructose, Glucose and Sucrose are all Carbohydrates. They come from Bread, Cereals, Potatoes and
Rice. Cholesterol - Made by the Liver and makes up organs like the Brain and Spinal cord. Amino
Acids - Make Proteins. There are 20 basic Amino Acids. Proteins are essential building blocks in
the body. Fats - Supply Energy and carry Vitamins A & D. Fat digestion begins in the Duodenum.
Fats are carried in the Lymph system. Glucose - Carbohydrates are broken down into Glucose
which can be stored in the Liver as Glycogen and is easily converted into Energy. Mineral Salts Iron makes blood cells; Calcium is used for bones and teeth. Sodium and Potassium are needed for
body fluids. Vitamins - we need 15 different vitamins in the body. Lack of certain vitamins can
cause illness. Lack of Vitamin C can cause Scurvy. At the beginning of the 20th century seamen
lacking raw fruit and vegetables developed Scurvy as a result of lack of vitamin C.
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The amount of water in the body depends on how much is drunk, how much excreted through the
pores of the skin and how much expelled in urine. It is balanced proportionally so that the more
drunk the more that is expelled through urine. The more we sweat the less is expelled through urine.
Liquid passes into the Kidneys which act as the body’s filter system. Blood carries waste and
nutrients to the kidneys via a small group of capillaries called the Glomerus. The blood is under
high pressure and the Plasma is therefore forced to expel Water, amino acids, glucose, salts and
Urea into a specific part of the Kidney called Bowman’s Capsules these are tiny filtering units.
Filtered liquid can then be reabsorbed into the blood stream redelivering salts, amino acids and most
of the water back into the body’s blood system.
Waste products such as Urea and some water become Urine. This is transported down 2 thin tubes
called Ureters which lead to the Bladder. The urine leaves the body through a tube called the
Urethra which is controlled by a muscle called the Sphincter. When we need to Urinate we relax
this muscle.
URINARY BLADDER & KIDNEYS
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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
A complex system of Nerves means that we can detect sensation, we can move, we can detect
danger, and we can relay messages around the body. The Brain and Spinal cord are known as the
Central Nervous System (C.N.S.). Nerves coming out of the Brain and Spinal Cord are know as
the Peripheral Nervous System. Peripheral nerves carrying messages to and from the Organs and
Glands are known as the Autonomic Nervous System - this area directs Autonomic activity like
digestion.
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THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sensory nerves carry messages from the Skin and Sense Organs to the C.N.S. Motor nerves carry
messages from the C.N.S. to the rest of the body. Nerve cells are also known as Neurones. They do
not touch each other but contain gaps called Synapses. Messages are fired from neurone to neurone
by an Electrical Impulse. This passes chemicals called Neurotransmitters from neurone to
neurone. When a certain amount of Neurotransmitter builds up the message is passed on. Of course
this process happens at varying speeds depending on how urgent the message needs to be.
Neurones have typically a cell body which is surrounded by Dendrites. These carry messages to the
Cell Membrane. The Axon is a long fibre that connects with the Dendrites of other Neurones. It is
insulated, like an electrical wire, by a protective Myelin sheath.
THE BRAIN
The Brain is the Control Centre. It is immensely complicated and goes far beyond our current
understanding. It not only controls the bodies movement and the C.N.S. but also contains thought,
memory and emotion. Various experiments have been conducted by examining patients with
Lesions in certain parts of the brain. By observing the dysfunction in that person it is possible to
ascertain what that part of the brain is needed for. It is known that the Medulla controls Involuntary
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Activity. (Breathing and Blood Pressure). The Cortex controls Conscious feelings, learning,
intelligence, voluntary movement and personality.
BRAIN - INFERIOR SURFACE
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MEDIAN SECTION OF HEAD
THE EAR
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THE EYE
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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Human Being’s reproduce Sexually through Sexual Intercourse. Sperm from the man’s Testes are
stored in a coiled tube called the Epididymus. During Ejaculation they pass through the Penis via
the Sperm Duct. The sperm are protected by a liquid called Semen that is made by the Male’s
Glands, for example, the Prostate Gland.
Upon entering the female body the Sperm are aided on their journey by contractions of the female
Uterus and Vagina walls. They also Swim by moving their tails. This is a good way of ensuring
that the fittest sperm cells are the first to reach and Fertilise the female Egg cell. The journey takes
about 2 hours. 300 million sperm on average are released with each ejaculation but only a few
actually make it to the Fallopian tubes where fertilisation occurs.
The female’s Ovaries produce eggs (about one a month). Those eggs are passed into the Fallopian
tubes. If the egg is not fertilised at this point it will die and be expelled with the lining of the
Uterus. This process is known as Menstruation and usually occurs every 28 days. The process of
Menstruation is controlled by the hormones Progesterone and Oestrogen.
If fertilisation does occur in the Fallopian tubes tiny hairs carry the egg down into the Uterus where
it imbeds in the Uterus lining and is protected and nourished by the lining of the Uterus which
thickens each month.
The cell once fertilised divides into 2, 4 then 8, 16, 32 and so on and eventually creates the foetus.
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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The Endocrine System is responsible for maintaining levels of hormones in the body. The
Hormones are responsible for most of the vital processes inour body necessary for our survival.
Reproduction, Glucose, Growth, Adrenaline.
The Pituitary gland is the master controller responsible for most hormones in the body. The
Hypothalamus region of the brain controls the Pituitary. The Pituitary is responsible for controlling
hormones that in turn control other glands of the body. For this reason it is generally considered to
be the Boss. The Pituitary controls the release of ADH an anti-diuretic Hormone responsible for
water retention and production, linked to urine production and thirst level. The Pituitary also deals
with the Growth Hormone. It is also involved in child birth, producing Oxytocin which controls
contractions of the womb as well as Prolactin which encourages lactation.
Femininity is controlled by the hormones Progesterone and Oestrogen. These are produced by the
Ovaries and are responsible for the female characteristics and prepare the uterus for the fertilised
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egg cell/menstruation. Masculinity (sperm production, body hair etc..) is controlled by
Testosterone a hormone produced in the Testes.
The Thyroid Gland and the Parathyroid Glands situated just behind the Thyroid are found in the
neck. The Parathyroid are responsible for Calcium levels in the body. The Thyroid gland produces
Thyroxin which controls weight. It controls the rate at which food is converted into energy.
The Pancreas is linked to Diabetes. It is responsible for Insulin production. This controls the
amount of Glucose in the blood and the rate at which excessive Glucose is converted into Glycogen.
The Adrenal Glands control the production of Adrenaline. This is an emergency hormone which
is produced in moments of nervous tension, fear and excitement and promotes swift action. It
provides a short term boost of extra energy that gives our muscles an extra Boost. The Adrenal
glands also modify Salt levels in the body.
THE GLANDS
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THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Breathing is controlled by the Diaphragm which is a sheet of muscle forming the floor of the chest.
The Diaphragm usually moves about 10mm in quiet breathing. When the Diaphragm contracts we
breathe in and when it relaxes we breathe out. When the space inside the chest cavity increases
(The Pleural Cavity). The air pressure inside the body is less than outside the body and air rushes
in to equalise the pressure. This is the process of breathing out, the reverse happens when we
breathe out. Adult lungs hold roughly 5 pints of air.
The incoming breath of air passes through the nose and mouth which is lined with Cilia. These are
small hair-like structures which carry sticky mucous to trap small particles of dust and dirt. Our
nasal passage contains larger hairs to catch larger particles. Smoking seriously damages the
function of the Cilia and it is therefore quite likely that smokers will contract respiratory diseases.
As the air passes down the wind pipe, or the Trachea, it is cooled and moistened for the lungs.
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The Trachea branches into 2 main Bronchi, which in turn divide into smaller and smaller bronchi
resulting in the smallest Bronchioles. These are about a half millimetre in diameter and culminate
in tiny air sacs known as Alveoli. There are millions of Alveoli and they control the passage of
Oxygen into the blood stream.
CHEST & ABDOMEN
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
THE ANATOMICAL DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASE
Skin
The colour of the skin gives a good indication of the state of health of an individual. It is possible to
diagnose cancer, wounds and contusions from the colour of the lips, hands, eyes, feet and torso.
Pale
Anaemia - skin is pale due to lower haemoglobin levels.
Purple
Heart Disease/Respiratory diseases - due to improper blood
Oxygenation.
Red
Hypertension - The skin’s veins, arteries and capillaries are
dilated. Scarlet Fever/Sun burn/ Inflammation - red over a
specific area.
Yellow
Jaundice/Hypertension - there is an increase of bilirubin in the
blood.
Discoloration
Pregnancy - around the abdomen and nipples.
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Darkened / Pigmented
Pellegra - specifically on the backs of hands, forearms & face.
Diabetes Mellitus or prolonged arsenic treatment.
Lack of colour / clammy skin
Poor circulation - lack of colour in the extremities.
Looseness
Poor tone.
Tightness
Nervous tension, growths.
Inelasticity of the skin
Atrophy.
Dry skin
Age, itches, scurvy, kidneys, lack of vitamin A.
Moist skin
Over-emotional, over excited, fever. Profuse sweating may
also be
due to pain, parasites, bone breaks,
tuberculosis, or menopause.
Hands
This diagnosis is used specifically in China for the treatment of children.

Red - indicates a cold

Purple - fever/inflammation

Darkness - life threatening illness specifically spreading to the palm

Blue - excitement, fever

Pale - anaemia, scurvy
Finger Nails
Connected to the liver among other things. Should be compared with the eyes. Nails reveal
emotional and nutritional states of the body.
Eyes
72 conditions are discernible through studying the eye. Each part of the iris, pupil, corners and
surrounding eyelid can tell a different story of health. The science has its origins in Chinese
medicine.
Red in the large corner of the eye (by the sinuses) indicates a strong heart. In the opposite corner of
the eye (by the temple) indicates a weak heart.
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The eyeball colour is linked to the liver; the pupil to the kidneys; the whites of the eyes to the lungs;
the eyelids to the stomach.
Lips
The colour of the lips gives an indication of the colour of the stomach.

Very red - gas, fermentation, inflammation, high acid levels

Purple/blue - problems with circulation

White - weak stomach

Dark - indicates abnormality. In women this can indicate menstruation
Tongue
This indicates a possible 120 conditions or illnesses. A few are listed here:

Yellow coating - indication of disease/inflammation/constipation/toxins

Dark red/smooth - serious kidney condition

Red - inflammation of the system

Root of tongue - kidneys

Sides - liver

Centre of the tongue - stomach

The tip pertains to the heart
The Ears
The ears are related to the kidneys. The ear contains hundreds of reflex points and is essential for
equilibrium and subtle vibration of energies.
Wax, pus, hard of hearing - malfunction of the kidney. Itching at the lobes or in the opening - high
acidity or kidney inflammation
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Hair
Connected to the kidneys, the condition of the hair is related to the healthy condition of the
individual. Hair dye effect the wavelengths absorbed by the person. Some coal tar dyes are
reputably carcinogenic.
Excretions
Urine
Stools
-
pale yellow is normal. Dark indicates the presence of toxins and poisons.
-
bloody urine - there is bladder infection/kidneys/prostate/malignancy.
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white urine - weakness
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strong yellow indicates inflammation
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brown is the normal colour
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darkness indicates poisons or inflammation of the liver/large intestine
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black - internal bleeding. Very black - the problem is higher up the body
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white - trouble in the liver, stomach or kidneys
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cramps/small faeces - trouble in the large intestine/colitis
General Appearance
You can tell a lot about a patient merely by their general appearance, the feeling you get from them,
the general impression they make as they enter the room. The gait, carriage and voice can indicate
burdens, opinions and trauma. The face may be anxious, depressed, exhausted, strained, emaciated
or obese. Dramatic weight loss could be an indication of emotional problems, diabetes, anaemia or
chemical poisoning. Chills may signify shock, malaria, drugs or the body's attempt at purification
of toxins.
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