Learners’ Adoption of Learning Strategies
in an African Language Classroom
Akinloye Ojo, University of Georgia
Introduction
A formidable pedagogical orientation in teaching and research has materialized in the
African language field and more so in teaching with the promotion of interactive
learner-focused methodologies. This is reflective of the methodological innovations
within the area of second language teaching and learning, especially with the teaching
of the less common taught languages such as Yoruba, Swahili and Zulu. Significantly,
the second or foreign language learner has now become more drawn into the
planning of the learning process. This has resulted in the continuous refinement and
reformulation of research and teaching methodologies to highlight this interactive
learner-focused orientation.
The development of the learner’s profile incorporating their expectations of the
learning experience as well as its importance to the language learning process
therefore becomes critical (Folarin-Schleicher & Moshi, 2000). In addition to these
expectations, every learner in the African language classroom must be attentively
considered in terms of motivations and goals for language learning, language learning
styles, and past forays into foreign language learning, if any (Arasanyin, FolarinSchleicher & Sekoni, 1996; Folarin-Schleicher & Moshi, 2000; Moshi & Ojo, 2000;
Ojo, 2005).
This paper reports on a portion of a larger study conducted with students in the
African language program (including classes in Swahili, Yoruba and Zulu) at the
University of Georgia. The objectives of the larger study were threefold. The first
was to ascertain the types of learning strategies that the students in the various
African language classes adopt in learning the three available African languages. The
second was to identify the assertion of the students on the preferred frequency of
adopting various strategies. The third objective was to consider the implications of
these strategies and the frequency of their adoption for African language instruction
in the participating African language program. Overall, it is hoped that the report of
the study will serve as practical input for both the students (regarding their preferred
learning strategies) and the language instructors (regarding the implications of the
students’ preferences).
The paper is divided into four sections. The first is a discussion of the current, key
student-centered teaching approach in the growing field of African language
pedagogy. The conspicuous omission, in this major approach, of the role of learning
strategies is noted in the second section along with the discussion of a viable
complementary learner-focused teaching approach with emphasis on the integration
The Joy of Language
of language learning and use strategies. It therefore follows that the next section of
the paper provides the report of the adaptation of Oxford's 1989 Strategy Inventory
for Language Learning (SILL) to assess the students learning strategies as well as the
identification of their best engaged strategies for Yoruba language learning. A
summary of the discussions is presented as the conclusion in the final section of the
paper.
Student-Centered Language Teaching
The primary student-centered African language teaching approach presently is the
Goal Based Approach or GBA (see Folarin-Schleicher and Moshi, 2000). The GBA
is largely based on the principles of the language learning framework (Brecht and
Walton, 1995). Within the framework, instructional modules and methodologies are
proposed to help the language learner manage their own learning. In addition, GBA
also provides an enhancement of other previous language learning initiatives such as
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and Foreign Language Across the Curriculum
approach (FLAC) (See Leaver and Stryker, 1989). GBA has principles and features
that are uniquely applicable to African language classrooms and which ensure that
the needs of the students remain the focal point of the class.
The GPA equips the teacher with reliable methodologies and tools, such as a Goal
Driven Curriculum (Arasanyin, Folarin-Schleicher and Sekoni, 1996), in ensuring that
the students’ language needs and desires are met in class and beyond. Succinctly,
GBA is a useful and applicable approach to African language and culture learning
that tries to ensure focus on the students rather than the instructor or class schedule.
A significant omission in the GBA and the other related approaches is the lack of
consideration of the systems the students employ in learning the language being
taught. A student-centered approach that adequately deals with this omission is the
Strategies-Based Instruction or SBI (Wenden and Rubin, 1987; Oxford, 1996,
Weaver and Cohen, 1997).
SBI is the theoretical “learner-focused approach to teaching (that) emphasizes both
explicit and implicit integration of language learning and use strategies in the
language classroom” (Weaver and Cohen, 1997). The aim of the approach is
equipping the learners to become more effective in their own learning and usage of
the target language. An inherent goal of the student-centered teaching approaches is
increased ‘self-management’ on the part of the students in the learning process. To
achieve this goal, SBI suggests that the students “must first become aware of what
kinds of strategies are available to them, understand how to organize and use them
systematically and effectively, and then learn how to transfer the strategies to new
language learning and use contexts” (Weaver and Cohen, 1997).
The two major components of SBI are strategy training and strategy integration.
With strategy training, there is explicit teaching of how, when, and why strategies can
be used to facilitate language learning and language use activities. The intention is to
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Akinloye Ojo, Learners’ Adoption of Learning Strategies
help the students explore ways that they can learn the target language more
effectively, thereby self-managing their own learning. The students get an increased
awareness of how strategies can simplify their learning and hence become
empowered in the learning process. Strategy integration is the ultimate task of the
language teacher. Daily class materials are integrated with strategies that are both
explicitly and implicitly embedded into the language tasks to provide for
contextualized strategy practice. Reinforcement is provided through strategies-based
activities and the permission of students to choose their own strategies
spontaneously without the teacher’s continued prompting (Weaver and Cohen,
1997).
Right from the onset, it must be noted that there are limitations on the novelty of the
SBI in language learning. In the field of African language teaching, there is a
compelling realization that classrooms are dominated by activities considerably based
on strategies and which involve the use of one strategy or the other. It is also realistic
to state that all students do use strategies and that the successful African language
learners are actually the students with the best learning strategies. However, the
realization of what these strategies are, their prevalence and success rates in African
language learning, and even the students’ awareness of these strategies is significantly
absent.
The attainment of this realization by both teachers and students is important in order
to maximize their benefits and ensure the adoption of the most appropriate learning
strategies. The focus of the SBI includes identifying the wide variety of these
strategies and increasing awareness of how, when, and why strategies can be used to
accomplish language tasks (Weaver and Cohen, 1997). These will provide students
with the opportunity to understand both what they can learn in an African language
classroom and how they can successfully and effectively learn the particular African
language.
Language Learning Strategies
A successful SBI depends on language learning and language use strategies. For our
purpose in this paper, it is important to understand the language learning strategies.
There is a significant amount of research already done on the identification,
description and classification of language learning strategies (Rubin, 1989; O’Malley
and Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Weaver and Cohen, 1997, Cohen, 1998). Three
taxonomies by Rubin, O’Malley and Chamot, and Oxford however dominate the
academic discussions. These have similar cognitive and metacognitive strategies but
are different in terms of pedagogical orientation (Weaver and Cohen, 1997). Rubin’s
strategies framework for cognitive learning focuses on getting, storing, retrieving and
using target language information. O’Malley and Chamot include a category of social
or affective strategies. Oxford, on the other hand, attempts to meet the needs of the
‘whole’ learner throughout the language learning process.
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Using an integrative approach based on the commonalities in the different research
on language learning strategies, Weaver and Cohen, 1997 defines language learning
strategies as,
“the specific behaviors, steps, and actions taken to enhance one’s own
learning, through the storage, retention, and use of new information
about the target language. They are the conscious thoughts and behaviors
used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and
understanding of a target language. They facilitate language learning.
Language learning strategies facilitate language learning tasks, represent
goal-directed behavior, and personalize the language learning process.”
Language learning strategies are divisible into four general classifications: cognitive;
meta-cognitive; social and affective strategies (Weaver and Cohen, 1997):
i. Cognitive strategies deal directly with the manipulation of target
language structures. They involve the identification, retention, and
storage of words, phrases, and other elements of the target language.
These will include summarizing language information mentally, orally or
in writing and classifying vocabulary according to topic or part of speech.
ii. Meta-cognitive strategies help learners control the language learning
process. They deal with learners’ efforts to plan, organize, monitor, and
evaluate language learning activities. Examples of these include planning
how to accomplish the language learning task and monitoring one’s
comprehension and production of the language.
iii. Social strategies reflect external efforts to learn the target language.
They represent the actions that the learners choose to take in order to
interact with other learners, a teacher, or with native speakers. These will
include using other students or a language expert as a learning resources
and cooperating with others to complete a task, pool information or
solve a problem.
iv. Affective strategies reflect internal efforts to regulate the language
learning process. They involve learner motivation, emotions, and
attitudes. Examples of these include encouraging oneself through
positive self-task and positive attitudes and using rewards when one has
accomplished learning goals.
(ref.: Weaver and Cohen, 1997)
Assessment of Yoruba Language Students’ Learning Strategy Use
The study described here is scrutinizing in nature. The report and discussions of the
study is based on the Student Volunteers’ (henceforth SVs) rating of how they use
language learning strategies from an inventory of language learning strategies
(Oxford, 1989). The SV ratings are calculated, tabulated and presented according to
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Akinloye Ojo, Learners’ Adoption of Learning Strategies
the types of strategies mostly adopted. While the ultimate goal of the SBI is creating
students’ awareness about these strategies, the focus here is primarily on the
identification of the most widely and least used strategies by the SVs. This will
hopefully help to ascertain the kinds of strategies that are either mostly used or least
used by the SVs in learning Yoruba. It is anticipated that the identification and
analysis of these strategies will provide the concerned teachers and students added
information on the benefits of the best strategies and the challenges in using the least
adopted strategies.
The study was conducted with the approval and support of the African language
program. All the students in the various levels of Yoruba language were offered the
opportunity to be part of the study. As it turns out, all the participating SVs were
registered in the upper level class. Six students agreed to be part of the study after
being informed of the study’s objectives and the benefits (including an opportunity
for an evaluation of their profile in a student-advisor conference with the researcher).
There were further reviews with interested SV in private sessions about their
responses on the SILL. These sessions indicated to the students the kinds of
strategies that they have frequently used, the ones they seldom use and the ones that
they need to consider using in their effort at learning the new African language. In an
effort to guard personal information, the evaluation of the analysis of each SV’s
profile is not provided here.
Study Questions
The study draws its motivation from the fact that in the case of the SVs, "there may
be some language learning strategies that you are not yet using which might be
beneficial to you (Oxford, 1989: 61)." The following are three specific questions that
this study, via its design, is intended to address:
I. What types of language learning strategies are mostly used or are used the least by
the SVs? In other words, what types of learning strategies appeared to be most
preferred by the SVs and which appear to be the least preferred?
II. What are some of the implications of these mostly used or least preferred
strategies for teaching the SVs?
III. What possible observations and/or possible benefits, if any, can be found in the
analysis of the responses of the SVs in this study to recommend a bigger and
field-wide study of language learning strategy use in African languages
classrooms?
The adapted Instrument and its Application.
The adapted instrument for the study is R. Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language
Learning or SILL (Version 5.1, 1989). The SILL was designed to gather information
about how foreign language students go about learning the new language. Each item
on the SILL represents a particular kind of language learning behavior. When used
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with individual students, SILL can help the students know more about themselves as
language learners and it will provide teachers with tools to assist students in learning
more effectively (Oxford, 1996). SBI research has shown that the SILL does identify
the best kinds of strategies that students use in learning a new language (Weaver and
Cohen, 1996). It has also been used for numerous studies and translated into
different languages.
The SILL has further been developed into versions for either English speakers
learning a new language or Speakers of other languages learning English (Oxford,
1996). It contains eighty statements related to learning a new language. These
statements were divided into six parts: Remembering more effectively; Using your
mental processes; Compensating for missing knowledge; Organizing and evaluating
your learning; Managing your emotions; and Learning with others. In response to
each item, students were expected, on a separate answer sheet, to respond on how
true the statements are in terms of what they actually do in the process of learning
the new language. Each response was marked by a number from 1 to 5 according to
the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Never or almost never true of me
Generally not true of me
Somewhat true of me
Generally true of me
Always or almost always true of me
Further clarification was given on these possible answers with description of each
response on the front page of the SILL with the general instructions. The
descriptions are as follows:
1. Never or almost never true of me means that the statement is very
rarely true of you; that is, you do the behavior which is described in
the statement only in very rare instances
2. Generally not true of me means that the statement is usually not
true of you; that is, you do the behavior which is described in the
statement less than half the time, but more than in very rare
instances.
3. Somewhat true of me means that the statement is true of you
about half the time; that is, sometimes you do the behavior which is
described in the statement, and sometimes you don't, and these
instances tend to occur with about equal frequency.
4. Generally true of me means that the statement is usually true of
you; that is, you do the behavior which is described in the statement
more than half the time.
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Akinloye Ojo, Learners’ Adoption of Learning Strategies
5. Always or almost always true of me means that the statement is
true of you in almost all circumstances; that is, you almost always do
the behavior which is described in the statement.
The administration of the SILL lasted about half an hour. In all, there were no right
or wrong responses to the given statements nor were there best overall averages for
each part. This ensured that the SVs were free to respond in terms of how well the
statement describe their own learning and not in terms of what they think should be
done. The students were also informed of the fact that there would probably be no
common responses since “people learn languages differently, and no single formula
is right for everybody. BUT: there maybe some strategies which are generally useful
in most circumstances…” (Oxford, 1996: 280).
For our purpose, a revised answer sheet was provided to highlight the fact that this
study was focused on Yoruba as opposed to the generic answer sheet. On this
answer sheet, students were asked to provide only their first names or to adapt a
Yoruba name. While ensuring some limited anonymity, this allowed for easy
identification in the analysis of the SILLs as well as for later conference sessions with
participants. The design of the SILL ensures that students’ responses can be analyzed
in terms of averages within the five parts and as such the higher the student’s average
for a particular part of the SILL, the more frequently the student uses that particular
category of language learning strategies. Consequently, the Yoruba language
instructor (the author) can use the class averages for each of the categories and the
overall SILL for planning any strategy training for the class.
The SILL categories and the number of language learning statements or behavior in
each one are as follows:
Part A: Remembering More Effectively:
Groupings; making associations; placing new words into a context to
remember them; using imagery, sounds, sounds-and-image
combinations, actions, etc. in order to remember new expressions;
reviewing in a structured way; going back to review earlier material.
- Contains 15 statements of possible behaviors or strategies
Part B: Using Your Mental Processes:
Repeating; practicing with sounds and writing systems; using
formulas and patterns; recombining familiar items in new ways;
practicing the new language in a variety of authentic situations
involving the four skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing);
skimming and scanning to get the idea quickly; using reference
resources; taking notes; summarizing; reasoning deductively (applying
general rules); analyzing contrastively via comparisons with another
language; being cautious about word-for-word translating and direct
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transfers from another language; looking for language patterns;
adjusting your understanding according to new information.
- Contains 25 statements of possible behaviors or strategies
Part C: Compensating for Missing Knowledge:
Using all possible clues to guess the meaning of what is heard or read
in the new language; trying to understand the overall meaning and
not necessarily every single word; finding ways to go get the message
across in speaking or writing despite limited knowledge of the new
language; for instance, using gestures, switching to your own language
momentarily, using a synonym or description, coining new words.
- Contains 8 statements of possible behaviors or strategies
Part D: Organizing and Evaluating Your Learning:
Overview and linking with materials you already know; deciding in
general to pay attention; deciding to pay attention to specific details;
finding out how language learning works; arranging to learn
(schedule, environment, notebook); setting goals and objectives;
identifying the purpose of a language task; planning for a language
task; finding practice opportunities; noticing and learning from your
errors; evaluating your progress.
- Contains 16 statements of possible behaviors or strategies
Part E: Managing Your Emotions:
Lowering your anxiety; encouraging yourself through positive
statements; taking risks wisely; rewarding yourself; noting physical
stress; keeping a language diary; talking with someone about your
feelings/attitudes.
- Contains 7 statements of possible behaviors or strategies
Part F: Learning with Others:
Asking questions for clarification and verification; asking for
correction; cooperating with peers; cooperating with proficient users
of the new language; developing cultural awareness; becoming aware
of others’ thoughts and feelings.
- Contains 9 statements of possible behaviors or strategies
Observed Patterns of Language Learning Strategy Use
The results from the application of the SILL to the six SVs are presented in this
section. These results are presented according to the average scores of the SVs along
with the overall average score of the 6 SVs in all the categories. An important
element to bear in mind, once again, is that the higher the score in any part of the
SILL, the more frequently the category of strategies in the part are used by the
students. The key to understanding the average scores of the SVs and the discussion
that follows is presented below:
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Akinloye Ojo, Learners’ Adoption of Learning Strategies
High
Medium
Low
Always or almost always used
4.5 to 5.0
Generally used
3.5 to 4.4
Sometimes used
2.5 to 3.40
Generally not used
1.5 to 2.4
Never or almost never used
1.0 to 1.4
The Scores of the SVs on the SILL
The scores of the six SVs (Bose, Akin, Remi, Ayo, Oyin, and Ola) are presented
below in Table 1.
Table 1: SVs’ Scores on the SILL
ID/
Name
Bose
Akin
Remi
Ayo
Oyin
Lola
Pt. A
15
2.60
2.46
2.26
2.20
2.40
3.53
Pt. B
25
2.96
2.80
2.40
2.32
3.20
3.56
Pt. C
8
4.13
4.13
3.63
3.38
3.88
3.38
Pt. D
16
3.25
3.38
2.88
1.63
3.25
2.56
Pt. E
7
2.14
2.29
2.29
2.14
2.57
1.71
Pt. F
9
2.56
3.44
2.56
3.33
4.44
3.00
Ave.
80
2.95
3.01
2.60
2.36
3.21
3.11
An interesting picture emerges from the scores of the six SVs, Four of the six SVs
(Bose, Akin, Remi, Ayo) score relatively higher the use of strategies in Part C which
are those strategies that are used to compensate for missing knowledge. The other
two SVs (Oyin and Lola) appear to prefer the use of strategies in Part E (strategies
that are used to manage emotions) and Part B (strategies that involve the use of
mental processes) respectively. On the other hand, three of the SVs (Bose, Akin and
Lola) score quite low on the use of strategies in Part E (strategies that are used to
manage emotions) while two other SVs (Remi and Oyin) appear to least prefer the
use of strategies in Part A (strategies that are used to remember materials more
effectively). The outstanding SV (Ayo) appear to least prefer the use of strategies in
Part D (strategies that are used to organize and evaluate learning).
These frequencies of strategies use are better illustrated in Graph 1 below.
The implications of these scores for the Yoruba language classroom are multiple. As
posited in the SBI methodology, strategies integration is the duty of the language
teacher and in this particular situation, strategies training is also the duty of the
teacher (and researcher). Pedagogical activities that will encourage the use of
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strategies beyond the meta-cognitive ones that compensate for missing knowledge
(guess work; gestures; code-switching or borrow) must become prevalent in the
language instruction. The language instruction would, for instance, need to result in
more students adapting strategies that will make them use their mental processes or
be more affective in the language learning process. Activities such as practicing
Yoruba in a variety of authentic situations involving the four skills (listening, reading,
speaking and writing), doing language comparisons, lowering anxiety and keeping a
language diary.
On the other hand, more students must be given strategy training to adapt strategies
that will help them organize and evaluate their Yoruba learning. Activities such as
linking new materials with materials already learned. Such training (as well as
teaching) should also encourage the use of strategies that will allow the students to
remember the materials more effectively. These will include placing new vocabulary
into a context that will allow for remembrance or using Yoruba imagery or sounds,
(or sound and image combination) to remember new expressions.
Overall, the average score of the
SVs in the Yoruba class in all six
categories was medium (2.90). As
shown below in Table 2, the scores
varied from a low medium score of
3.21 (by Oyin) to the lower medium
score 2.36 (by Ayo).
5
4.5
Bose
4
3.5
Akin
3
Remi
2.5
Ayo
2
Oyin
1.5
Lola
1
All Six
0.5
Pa
rt
Pa A
rt
B
Pa
rt
C
Pa
rt
D
Pa
rt
E
Pa
r
A tF
ve
ra
ge
0
SVs /6
2.56
Med
2.87
3.76
2.83
2.19
Med
High
Med
Med
Table 2: The Averages of the SVs’ Scores on the SILL
3.22
Med
2.90
Med
These average scores, illustrated in Graph 2, indicate that the 6 Yoruba SVs use
language learning strategies only sometimes.
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Akinloye Ojo, Learners’ Adoption of Learning Strategies
In response to our
study concerns, the
following can be
observed about the
language learning
strategy use of the
six SVs in the
Yoruba language
class:
a.
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
The language
A
B
C
D
E
F
Overall
learning
strategies, as a
whole, are not Graph 2:Mapping the averages of the SVs’ Scores on the SILL
highly preferred. Most of the scores for the various groups of strategies were
between generally not used (1.5 – 2.4) to sometimes used (2.5 – 3.4).
b. There is however a singular preference for the category of strategies that
compensate for their missing knowledge which are generally used (3.5).
c. Although only one category of strategies is highly preferred, the Yoruba SVs are
adequately involved with the use of all these six strategy categories including the
five other categories of remembering more effectively, using their mental
processes, organizing and evaluating their learning, managing their emotions
and learning with others.
d. There is the need, at least for the group of SVs, to be exposed to the process of
strategies training so as to make them better aware of the viable language
strategies that the changing methodology o
c. The variations in the adoption of these strategies by the Yoruba SVs will have a
significant implication on the teaching of the language especially as the
instructor must work to integrate these variations into the SBI for the class.
d. The observed variation and implications of the adoption of these strategies is
significant enough to recommend a bigger and field-wide study of language
learning strategy use in more African languages classrooms?
Conclusion
This study and the observations contained is hoped to be a preliminary study in the
assessment of language learning strategies used by students in African language
programs. The observations that are drawn from the responses of six Yoruba
students at the University of Georgia on a strategy inventory indicate three
significant things. First, it confirms that students make use of different language
learning strategies in the Yoruba language classroom, whether they realize it or not.
Second, it shows that there are some language learning strategies that Yoruba
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language students preferred and some which they use more frequently than others.
The study should serve to inform both Yoruba and other African language teachers.
The small number of participants in the study however precludes the possibilities of
making firm generalizations but the observations can serve as an input for a bigger
and better designed study within the field of African language teaching to study the
different language learning strategies used by students.
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