Past paper Answers
1. Use examples from your sport to describe “the need to achieve”
personality characteristic
Nach
- Likes a challenge/take risks
- Not afraid of failing
- Likes feedback
- Sees failure as an essential aspect on the road to success
- Is more competitive/approach behaviour/outcome behaviour/wan to win
- Generally high achievers
- More persistent on tasks/doesn’t give in
- Takes responsibility/internal attributions
- High self efficacy/is confident
2. Use examples from your sport to describe “the need to avoid failure”
personality characteristic.
Naf
- Does not like challenge/take easy route/avoid risks
- Avoids competitive situations/avoidance behaviour/want to avoid shame
- Dislikes feedback/only interested in positive feedback
- Low self efficacy/lack confidence
- Gives up easily/may not complete task
- Does not take responsibility for own actions
- Attributes success externally
- Prone to learned helplessness
- Attributes failure internally/externally
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3. Using a practical example, explain how a coach could encourage a
performer to adopt a need to achieve rather than a need to avoid
failure
Raises self esteem/give success/ raise confidence/ achievable goals
Set performance/process goals
Show successful models/vicarious experiences/ role models
Verbal persuasion/ give encouragement/ give positive
reinforcement/reminder of past performance accomplishments
Lower arousal levels/calm them down/ give relaxation strategies
Attributional retaining/attribute internally rather than externally/decrease
shame linked to failure
4. What are the possible psychological effects on a sports performer
when an audience is present?
- Arousal/drive/anxiety increased
- Dominant response/habit more likely to occur/learned responses
automatic/motor programmes are run
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Weaker players/ novices performance deteriorates ( incorrect dominant
response)/ good performances from well learned/stronger/elite
Extroverts likely to perform better with an audience/ reticular-acting system
(RAS) favours extroverts when audience present/introverts likely to perform
worse with audience present/ RAS does not favour introverts
Gross skills performance may increase/fine skills performance may decrease
Simple skills performance may increase/complex skills performance may
decrease
If audience in familiar setting performance helped/ home field
advantage/disadvantage/unfamiliar
Anxiety raised by being judged/perceived judgement of other/ evaluation
apprehension
The nature of the audience/ significant others
Size/proximity of the audience/how close the crowd are to the player
Distractions – conflict theory
Hostile/partisan crowd behaviour
Attention narrowing/widening/cue utilization
5. If an individual performance is inhibited by the effects of an
audience, how could a coach help the performer to overcome these
effects?
Use of selective attention/ concentration/avoiding distractions/block out
crowd
Mental rehearsal/practice/imagery/visualisation
Positive self-talk/positive thinking/negative thought stopping
Practice with an audience present/in training
Learn skills thoroughly/develop motor programmes
Decrease importance of event/reduce perceived accountability
Increase self confidence/self efficacy/social support/ encouragement from
others
6. Define the term aggression as used in sports psychology. Use social
learning theory to explain how aggressive behaviour in sport is
learned.
Intent to harm/ injure outside the rules of the game/ illegal/violent
Learn behaviour from significant others/ role models
Watching/ observing others who are aggressive likely to be copied/ vicarious
processes
Reinforcement of aggressive behaviour will increase chance of copying
Copying more likely if same sex/ attitude/ age/ ability
Live/ realistic models more likely to be copied.
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7. Give four cognitive strategies a performer might use to eliminate
aggressive tendencies in sport?
Count to ten/mantra/concentrate on repeating words/phrases
Imagery/imagine calm/control/quiet place
Mental rehearsal of activity/ imagining ones own actual movement
Forgetting/distancing from aggressive cures/walking away/ removing yourself
from situation/ thought stopping
Displace feelings/ play harder/ take it out on someone/ something else
Take up an activity, which will release tension/ aggression/ take an interest/
be motivated by non aggression
Reasoning with ones- self that aggression is wrong/ remembering
consequences/ recognising implications of aggression/ knowing he
punishments/ self talk/ positive thinking
8. What are the main qualities of a leader
Can communicate effectively
Is driven/highly motivated/ enthusiastic/ reliable/ determined
Can motivate/ influence others/ charisma/ has presence/ is respected
Has a clear vision/mission/goals/ ambitious/ good decision- maker
Empathy/ understanding needs of others
Good knowledge of the sport/ activity/ experienced
Good practitioners/ good at the sport themselves/ show right attitude
9. Explain the different circumstances that would demand a task
orientated style by a leader.
when discipline and control is needed/ hostile groups
If lack of time
For large groups
In early stage/ cognitive stage of learning/ beginner
For team players who generally prefer training and instruction style
Males prefer autocratic style
If in a dangerous situation
(Fiedler) task style better in situations that are extremely favourable and
extremely unfavourable/ extremes of favourableness
When task is clear and unambiguous
If leaders personality is task orientated/ autocratic/ authoritarian
10. Explain the different circumstances that would demand a social
orientated style by a leader.
when a group members can/ wish to participate in decision making/ those
who prefer democratic approach
For more advanced performers who have knowledge to contribute
To motivate group members/ ownership/ feel valued
If demands of situation is social ( friendly match)
When task demands greater interpersonal communication
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If leader and group members are well known to each other
Females prefer democratic/ social approach
Task structure is not dangerous
For small number/ individuals
(fiedler) In situations that are moderately favourable
If leaders personality lends itself to democratic/ social approach
11. Use practical examples to describe the components of a positive
attitude towards training and performance. What influences a
positive attitude to training and performance?
Components of a positive attitude
- Cognitive – cognitive element/ a belief that training/ playing well is worth
while
- Affective element – emotional aspect ensures enjoyment/ positive feelings
towards training/ likes training.
- Behavioural element – behaviour towards training shows commitment/
persistence/ high level of effort/ attends training
Influences for a positive attitude
- Socialisation/ how you are brought up/ adopting norms from you culture/
religion/ expected behaviour
- Past experiences/ past success/ winning/ perceived high ability/ previous
enjoyment/ fulfilment
- Significant others/ peers/ friends/ family/ role models/ elite athletes you look
up to/ coaches/ teachers
- Media/ portrayal of others with positive attitudes.
12. Mental preparation is an important aspect of sport, One of these
aspects is commitment, identify three other aspects
- Confidence/ self confidence/ self efficacy/ competitive orientation/ state/ trait
sports confidence
- Concentration/ attentional control/ cue utilisation
- Control/ emotional control/ control of arousal/ anxiety/ reaching and
maintaining peak flow/ anxiety management/ cognitive/ somatic anxiety
management/ motivation
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13. The setting of goals is an important element of commitment. What
are the psychological effects on the sports performer of setting
goals?
To give confidence/ raise self efficacy
To raise/ lower/ control/ optimise arousal and give drive/ motivation/ decrease
anxiety/ helps you to cope
Gives a focus for efforts/ a target to aim for/ directs attention
A steeping stone to success/ enables success
To regulate amount of effort for a particular task/ don’t waste energy
Develop strategies to reach goals.
14. Giving practical examples, explain what is meant by product,
performance and process goals to improve performance. What
factors should be taken into consideration when these goals are set?
- Product goals associated with outcome/ end result/ beating other e.g. to win
the league
- Performance concerned with improving own performance/ comparison of self
with previous attempt e.g. time achieved for 100m compared with previous
time
- Process technique/ tactics/ how a movement is performed e.g. finger/ wrist
movement in cricket bowling
Factors to take into consideration when setting goals.
- Specific/ clear goals
- Measurable/ assessment possible/ evaluated
- Agreed/ shared goals/ have common ownership/ purpose
- Realistic/ within reach/ not to easy/ not too difficult/ relevant/ challenging/
achievable
- Time phased/ goals spilt up into short medium – long term/ incremental/ step
by step
- Exciting/ motivating/ stimulating/ should be enjoyable
- Recorded / monitoring of progress
15. What is meant by self efficacy? By using examples from sport show
how a coach could assist a sports performer to raise their level of
self efficacy?
- Self efficacy is the amount of self confidence in a specific situation/
expectation of success in a particular task
Strategies to assist in the raising of self efficacy
- Previous accomplishments/ prior success/ previous positive outcomes
- Vicarious experiences/ show successful role models of similar age/ ability
- Verbal persuasion/ encouragement
- Emotional control/ control arousal level/ calming strategies/ somatic or
cognitive stress management techniques
- Give success/ ensure task is achievable/ achievable goals.
- Attributional retraining.
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16. What is meant by attentional control?
Control of concentration/ focus ( not control attention
Attentional field recognised/ relevant cues need to be picked out from display
for success to occur
Broad and narrow dimension
External and internal dimension
(Broad) attention takes into account a lot of information/ peripheral stimuli
(Narrow) – attention is on very few stimuli/ concentrate on small amount of
stimuli/ informational cues
(External) – Focus is on environment stimuli/ focus directed outwards
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(Internal) – Focus on own feelings / emotions/ thoughts
17. How can attentional styles can affect a sports performer ability to
enter the zone of optimal functioning to achieve a “peak flow”
experience?
Peak flow experience requires control of arousal/ emotions/ drive/ motivation
(ZOF) relates to the optimum arousal level for optimum performance/ the
right amount of drive to succeed/ feelings and actions that are intrinsically
satisfying/ feeling good and playing well.
Attention that is misplaced/ wrong type of attention
Wrong levels of arousal/emotions ( too high or too low)
Internal attention that is confident more likely to achieve ZOF/ too much
external attention hinders entry into ZOF
If stress/ anxiety felt then external focus may help
Strategies/ try to forget the pain/ distract yourself away
Stressful stimuli ( looking at the environment to try and forget the pain of long
distance running
Elite use more associative internal strategies in ZOF
Recreative athletes use more dissociative strategies ( the best runners deal
with their own pain in competition and are in tune with their bodies
If attention is on enjoyment of activity more likely for ZOF / If activity is not
enjoyed less likely to go into ZOF
Some have positive attentional traits/ have ability for both broad and narrow
focus/ both broad and narrow and more likely for ZOF ( player can check
positions of others but be aware of own movements
Some have negative attentional traits/ some are easily distracted/ too much
external and internal stimuli/ ineffective attenders/ cognitive overload ( player
confused/ distracted by movement of other, the crowd and their own feelings)
Increased/ over arousal results in less scanning of attentional field/ taken by
surprise/ not expecting a response by an opponent/ missing important cues
Cue – utilisation can lead to ZOF
Concentration on cues that are the most relevant is important for ZOF to
occur
The more distracted you are the less likely you are to reach ZOF
18. How can the technique of imagery help sport performance
Improves concentration by mental selection of cues/ escape distractions
Raises confidence by picturing success
Control arousal level/ relaxation/ through visualisation/ imagining success/
personal accomplishments
To replicate the feeling of success/ kinesthesis
To manage emotions/ imagine feeling good/ lower stress
Imagining cues can decrease response time/ preparation to respond
Different strategies can be rehearsed/ faults corrected mentally
Mental practice without public failure
Enables injured performer to be cognitively active
19. Outline the trait and Interactionist approaches to personality and
sport.
Trait
- Born with innate/ genetically determined
- Traits are behaviours that are pre determined rather than learned
- Enduring/ stable/ predictable
Interactionist
- Traits are triggered by environment/ situational factors
- B = F(PE) Is the result of personality traits and the environment interacting/
combination of trait and social learning
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20. Giving examples from sport, explain the view that we develop our
personalities by imitating others.
Social learning theory
Reactions from other reinforce behaviour
Others must be significant to use/ we must value them/ role models whose
behaviour is deemed to be acceptable
Others behaviour may be copied because the reinforcement comes from a
third party who is significant e.g. a players behaviour is copied because a
highly values coach praises the behaviour
Bandura’s experiment showed aggressive behaviour is imitated if model’s
significant
Socialisation/ adopting norms and values of your culture is learned by
observing others
Importance of parental behaviour/ personalities in shaping the personalities
of the young
If model is deemed to be relevant – more likely to be copied e.g. boys more
likely to copy male models.
If the model is similar to the observer then behaviour more likely to be copied
Friendly models more likely to be copied
Powerful/ authoritative more likely to copied
If model’s behaviour is consistent then more likely to be copied.
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21. Identify three characteristics of an effective leader in sport
Good communication skills
Highly motivated/ enthusiastic/ ambitious
Clear goal/ vision/ good decision making skills/ good perceptual skills
Empathy/ gets on well with team mates/ can see other points of view
Good at sport themselves
Good knowledge of the sport/ self confidence
Charismatic/ has presence/ commands respect/ influential/ motivator
Flexible to situational needs/ adaptable
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22. Using Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership, explain when you
might use the task style and person oriented style of leadership in
sport.
Model identified leadership characteristics/ styles interact with the situation/
Interactionist/ situational approach
The effectiveness of these styles depends upon the favourableness of the
situation
Favourableness depends on the relationship between the leader and group
members
Favourableness depends on the leaders perceived power/ authority/ how
important the leader is seen to be
Task leader more effective in moderately favourable situations
Favourable is when relationships are good
Favourable is when the task is clear
Favourable is when the leader has authority
Unfavourable is when relationships are poor
Unfavourable is when the task is unclear
Unfavourable is when the leader has a weak position.
23. Explain how you would use attribution retraining to promote mastery
orientation and avoid learned helplessness.
For mastery orientation
- Learned helplessness is the belief that failure is inevitable/ failure has been
reinforced
- Mastery orientation is having high self confidence/ positive outlook/ need to
achieve
- Attributional retraining is changing/ helping to change the reasons to
maximise motivation
- Attribute success to internal factors/ increase confidence
- Attribute success to stable factors/ increases belief of future success
- Attribute success to controllable factors/ increases motivation
For learned helplessness
- Attribute failure to external factors/ maintains confidence
- Attribute failure to unstable factors/ increase belief of future success
- Attribute failure to controllable factors/ maintains motivation
- Set realistic targets/ process/ performance goals
24. Describe the different types and sources of anxiety in sport.
Often due to fear of failing/ importance of event
Fear of being threatened, fear of injury, fear of hostile crown/ players/
proximity of crowd
- Fear of being embarrassed/ self esteem being harmed/ fear of pride being
hurt
- When arousal is high more likely to get anxious/ vice versa
- Anxiety can be somatic/ body response/ heart rate raised/ blood pressure
raised
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Anxiety can be cognitive/ of the mind/ worry/ apprehension/ feeling of
helplessness
Competitive anxiety/ anxiety caused by competition/ pressure of trying to win
Trait anxiety – anxiety that is in guilt/ genetically determined/ natural anxiety
State anxiety – anxiety arising from a specific situation/ incident/ person/
environment/ past experience/ previous failure
Multi – dimensional anxiety/ theory/ interaction of both cognitive and somatic/
one triggers the other
Perceived judgement from others/ evaluation apprehension.
25. Using examples from sport, explain how anxiety can be managed to
improve performance
Mental rehearsal/ going through the actions in mind
Imagery/ imagining success/ doing the activity correctly/ imagine not being
anxious/ a calm place
Meditation/ mantra
Positive self talk/ convincing yourself that you will succeed/ reasoning with
yourself
Positive reinforcement by someone else/ influence of others who are
significant/ behaviour modification
Negative thought stopping/ stop doubt/ block out negative thoughts
Block out distractions
Muscular relaxation/ gradually relaxing all the major muscle groups/ tense
muscles and then relax them/ deep breathing
Biofeedback/ being aware of how your body feels and then dealing with the
tension
Removal from the situation/ stimulus that is causing worry
Flooding/ over stimulated by stress stimulus so that you able to deal with real
stressful anxious situations/ more experience of anxious situations/ more
competition
Duplicating the real game, competition in training to get used to the stressful
stimuli, recorded crowd noise/ fans in to watch training
Raising confidence
Give success/ make task easier/ goals that are achievable
26. Explain the personality characteristics and situational factors, which
would encourage a “Need to achieve” personality
Personality
- Innate personality characteristic/ natural traits/ enduring
- Drive to achieve success/ high achievers
- Outcome orientated/ approach behaviour/
- Want a challenge/ excitement/ takes risks
- Persistent on task/ sticks to the job in hand/ determined
- Take responsibility for actions/ does not fear failure
- Likes feedback/ likes evaluation/ sees failure as a step to success
Situational factors
- Likes competitive situations
- Challenging yet achievable e.g. 50/50
- Needs high incentive value of success
- Home/ Away effects/ familiarity/ hostility/ new situations/ unexpected
- Level of danger
- Presence of others/ encouragement/ praise from others
27. What does social loafing mean and how is it caused.
- This is the loss of personal responsibility
- Withdraw effort and motivation
Caused by:
- Lack of accountability
- No identifiable role/ individuals not valued
- Lack of self confidence
- High level of anxiety ( trait and/ or state)
- Injury/ illness
- Off the pitch problems/ psychological/ emotional/ social issues
- Incorrect strategies/ tactics by coach
- Effects of the crowd
- Perceived/ actual low ability/ learned helplessness/ attribute to internal stable
factors/ negative past experience
- Situational stressors/ weather/ unfamiliar surroundings
- Perception other are not trying
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28. As a coach of a sports team explain how you would limit the effects
of social loafing and improve the cohesiveness of your team.
Select those who are less likely to social loaf from past experience/ team
players
Give credit for personal success/ highlight individual performance/ reward
assists
Set/ emphasise appropriate goals
Clarify/ give individual responsibility/ roles
Punish social loafing/ non cohesive play/ drop from team
Co-ordination practice/ set plays
Encouragement/ social support/ encourage friendship/. Team building
exercises
Reinforce/ praise/ reward teamwork and cohesive behaviour
Encourage group identity/ belonging
Good leadership ( with qualification)
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29. Identify what causes anxiety in sport
Competition/ evaluation/ importance/ situational factors
Conflict
Frustration
Perceived low ability/ poor play/ poor officials decisions/
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injury/ illness
Perceived danger
Trait anxiety – natural tendency fro anxiety/ genetic
State anxiety – Over arousal in specific situation
Lack of self confidence
Cognitive – psychological/ mental anxiety/ irritability/ worrying
Somatic – Physiological/ bodily reactions/ raising heart rate/ blood pressure/
adrenaline
30. Explain what strategies you could use to manage your cognitive and
somatic anxiety in sports setting.
Relaxation/ Progressive relaxation techniques ( PRT)
Biofeedback
Positive thinking/ negative thought stopping/ self talk/ rational thinking/
imagery/ visualisation/ mental rehearsal
Selective attention
Setting SMARTER goals
Reinforce/ recognise personal success/ positive reinforcement/ past
experiences
Practice to build motor programmes/ become more physically proficient/ over
learning
31. The effect of an audience on a sports performer can either help or
hinder performance depending on a number of factors. Using
examples from sport identify and explain these factors?
Competition factors/ level of competition/ importance of event/ friendly v
league
The other competitors/ the nature of the opponents / close rivals/ local derby/
co- action effects
Social reinforcement/ crown getting behind you/ supporting/ encouraging
Hostile/ away game may hinder/ home/ away effect / home field advantage
Evaluation apprehension/ perception that the audience are judging/ talent
scout/ selector.
Noise of crown/ physical proximity/ size of crowd
Arousal level is increased/ optimal arousal / peak flow
Therefore dominant response more likely
Perception of skill/ ability level
If performer is well skilled this can help autonomous phase
If performer is a novice this can hinder/ cognitive phases
The nature of the task/ skill
If task is gross/ simple/ dynamic more likely to help
If task is fine/ complex more likely to hinder
Personality factors
Hype A/ High Anxiety personalities / High A Trait/ High trait anxiety/ NAF
inhibits performance/ TAF
Type B/ Low anxiety/ NACH enhances performance / TAS
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Extroverts seek situations with high arousal so may do better with audience/
introvert do not seek external stimulation therefore may do less well
Caused by reticular system/ RAS/ extroverts have low level of internal
arousal/ introverts have high levels of internal arousal
Attentional control changes/ narrow or broad which may affect performance/
can be distracted/ can be more focuses/ distraction – conflict theory.
32. Confidence is important to an accomplished sports performer. How
would a teachers or coach raise the confidence level of a novice in
sport?
Performance accomplishments/ give success/ give achievable goals
Vicarious experiences/ show others performing well/ use of role models/
demonstrations
Verbal persuasion/ encouragement/ positive reinforcement/ praise/ positive
feedback/ encourage satisfaction
Control of arousal/ calm them down/ cognitive/ somatic relaxation
Mental rehearsal/ mental practice/ self belief
Level of sport specific state confidence should be raised/ increase/ enhance
trait sport confidence
Positive attribution/ re attribution/ attribute failure to unstable factors/ attribute
success to stable factors.
Be non competitive with skill learning/ process/ performance goals
33. Using examples from sport, describe what is meant by an attitude in
sport.
Attitude is a predisposition towards an attitude object e.g. training or
participation in sport/ set of beliefs and feelings
Cognitive element/ a belief about training/ playing well/ participation
Affective element/ emotional aspect such as enjoyment/ positive feelings/
hostility/ negative feelings towards training/ playing/ well / participation
Behavioural element/ behaviour towards training, playing shows commitment,
sticking to the task.
34. Explain how attitude in sport can be formed?
Past experience/ previous matches
Attribution / internal attributions to past success or failure
Learned helplessness / reinforced failure
Significant others/ reinforcement from role models, imitating and copying
parents or peers or sports stars.
Socialisation/ cultural expectations adopting the norms of your culture
Media/TV
Religious beliefs
In the presence of other
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35. Identify undesirable prejudice that might be found in sport and
explain how such an attitude might be changed.
A prejudice such as racism ageism sexism
Cognitive dissonance may change attitudes/change one element of the
triadic model and other elements will change to gain consonance
Use of significant other/ role models to persuade/ persuasive communication
Influence beliefs/ cognitive aspect to show how undesirable
Influence emotions/ affective aspect to show how undesirable
Influence behaviour directly/ use of praise for no prejudice behaviour/ use of
punishment or negative reinforcement for prejudicial behaviour
36. Using Psychological theories and practical examples, explain
possible positive and negative effects of an audience on sports
performance?
(Drive theory) – arousal/ anxiety increased
(drive theory) dominant response most likely to occur, learned responses
automatic
Weaker players performance deteriorates
Good performance from well learned/ stronger/ elite/ correct dominant
responses
RAS personality theory - extroverts likely to perform better with an audience
RAS - Introverts likely to perform worse with an audience present
Home field theory – if audience in familiar setting performance helped. Home
field advantage
Evaluation apprehension – anxiety raised by being judged/ perceived
judgement of others
Proximity theory - Proximity of the audience/how close the crowd are to the
payers
Cue utilisation – distractions/ widening of attentional focus
Attentional control – attention narrows for those who are used to audience /
high levels of ability.
37. Describe the strategies that may be used to combat the effects of
social inhibition
Use of selective attention/ concentration avoiding distractions focus on cues
within play only
Mental rehearsal/ practise/ imagery/ visualisation
Positive self talk/ positive thinking / negative thought stopping
Practise with an audience present in training
Learn skills thoroughly/ develop motor programmes
Decrease importance of event/ reduce perceived accountability
Increase self confidence/ self efficacy
Social support/ encouragement form others, positive reinforcement
Knowing your zone of optimum functioning
38. Describe and explain two main theories of personality in sport
Trait
- Trait/genetic approach shows that we are born with our personality
characteristics
- Traits are enduring/ we express our personalities consistently
- Type A trait shows high levels of personal anxiety/ stress
- Type B shows low levels of personal anxiety/ stress
Interactionist
- Influence of environment – Interactionist approach involved traits combining/
interacting with the environment B=F(PE) / mixture of trait and social learning
theory
- Cue – the environment trigger/ acts as a cue for the appearance of a trait
- Hollander role) Social environment/ situation affects role related behaviours/
how we behave in a particular situation
- Hollander trait – Core characteristics that is enduring / semi permanent
- Traits may be dominant – If situational factors are not strong then traits
dominate behaviour
Social Learning
- Copy – Social learning stated that we learn / copy our personalities from
others
- Role models – If significant/ role model then personality characteristics more
likely to be copied/ imitated
- Early influences – Early learning from parents/ carers can affecr the
characteristics we copy
- Fit into society – Socialisation / characteristics are copied if it enables us to
adopt the norms and values of our culture / to fit in to be accepted from
others into a group
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39. Identify the qualities of an effective leader in sport
Charismatic/ a natural leader/ commands respect/ has personal authority
Goof communicator
Can motivate and encourage
Empathetic / can put themselves in the shoes of others
High level of knowledge
High level of personal skill
Well organised/ can structure approach effectively
Trusts/ believes/ respects those they lead.
40. Explain how factors other than personality can affect the type of
leadership styles adopted in a sports situation
(Task) effected by the type of task/ what sport/ skill/ actions being carried out
(clarity of task) – If clear task then task/ autocratic style more effective
(complex tasks) if situation demands high levels of information processing/
decision making then democratic style best
(Arousal) – of task requires high arousal/ dynamism required the task/
autocratic style better
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(Danger) if task dangerous then task/ autocratic style is best
(problem solving) – of tasks demand problem solving then laissez fairer best
(environment) – the situation/ environment affects style adopted
(Hostile) – if situation hostile tasks/ autocratic style maybe best
(Extremes) – If situation extremely favourable/ unfavourable then autocratic
is best
(Moderate) if situation moderately favourable them democratic best
(Preferred style) the preferred style of the group can affect / characteristics of
group
(Age) – Youth prefer autocratic/ adults/ elderly prefer democratic style
(Skill Level) – If highly skilled group members then laissez faire style better
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41. Using practical examples identify some of the causes of aggression
in sport
Perceived/ actual unfairness e.g. ref / Poor decisions
Frustration e.g. over poor performance/ losing
Displaced aggressions/ other influences outside of sport
Hostile crowd
High expectations/ pressure to perform/ win
Others aggression/ retaliation/ copying
To be accepted in a group / peer pressure
Cultural determinants / it is expected
Game determinants/ expected/ norms in the game
Personality characteristics
To intimidate/ dominate opponent
Rivalry/ local derby/ previous ill feeling
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42. using psychological theories and practical examples from sport,
explain aggressive behaviour
(Instinct/ nature theory) – Instinct/ natural/ innate tendencies
(Frustration/ aggression hypotheses) – Frustration – aggression hypotheses/
frustrating circumstances blocks your goal
(Catharsis) – To achieve catharsis / to feel better to release frustration
(Aggressive cue hypotheses) – Aggressive cur hypotheses/ signals/ cues
stimuli cause aggression
Because cue is identified with expected/ desired behaviour
(Social learning/Bandura) Social learning need to copy
To be significant other/ role models
Copying more likely if similar model e.g. gender/ age / ability
Males more likely to be physically aggressive than females
Live/ realistic models more likely to be copied
(Socialisation) – Socialisation/ cultural and values determined by your
behaviour
(S-R) – Conditioned response/ S-R bond that has been learned/ operant
conditioning
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(operant/ reinforcement) – You get praise/ reinforcement aggression will
reoccur
43. Describe methods that can be used to eliminate aggressive
tendencies in sport.
Cognitive techniques/ lower psychological arousal
Count to ten / mantra/ concentrate on repeating words/ Positive self talk
Imagery/ imagine calm/ control/ quiet place
Mental rehearsal of activity/ imagining ones own actual movement
Forgetting/ distancing from aggressive cues/ walking away removing yourself
from the situation
Displace feelings , play harder in the game, take aggression out on someone
else or something else
Take up an activity which can release tension/ aggression/ be motivated by
non aggression
Reasoning with ones self that aggression is wrong/ remembering
consequences/ rational thinking knowing the punishment
Somatic techniques/ lower somatic/ physiological arousal
Relaxation/ progressive relaxation techniques/ breathing exercises
Use biofeedback/ information on physiological arousal is recognised and
dealt with
Yoga
Give role of responsibility
44. What is meant by concentration in sports performance
- Control of focus
- Attentional field/ style recognised/ realise what you need to maintain focus
- Relevant cues need to be picked out from display ( for success to occur) cue
utilisation / Selective attention
45. Using examples from sport explain the effect of different attentional
styles on performance
- (Nideffer) – Broad and narrow dimension
- External and internal dimension
- (Broad) – Attention takes into account a lot of information/ peripheral stimuli/
can enable performer to take in peripheral information
- (Narrow) – attention is on very few stimuli/ concentrate on small amount of
stimuli/ information/ cues/ can enable performer to focus on import element in
the environment/ watch the ball
- (External) – focus is on the environment stimuli/ focus directed outwards
- (Internal) – Focus on themselves/ emotions/ thoughts
Effects
- (External) – can enable performer to concentrate on outside factors can
escape inner pain/ exhaustion
- (Internal) – performer can concentrate on feeling good/ zone of optimal
functioning
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Information overload/ too much information can cause confusion
The right attention can enable to deal effectively with distractions / will not be
put off
Effective attention will improve reactions/ reaction time
Effective attention can prevent negative feelings
Enables positive attributions
Good performers can draw on a range/ combination of different styles
Attentional style linked to type of skill/ sport.
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46. Describe the characteristics of performer who need to achieve in
sport?
Approach behaviour/ tendency to approach success
(NACH) very competitive
Likes a challenge
Likes/ seeks feedback
Takes risks/ high confidence
Not afraid to fail/ views failure as a route of success
Attributes success internally
Attributes success to stable factors
Attributes failures to unstable factors
Attribute failure to controllable factors
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-
47. Explain what is meant by learned helplessness in sport?
Feelings/ affective response/ emotion
Liked to hopelessness/ being useless/ having low ability/ failing inevitable
Due to perceived/ actual failure/ poor past experiences
Failure reinforced by others
Avoidance behaviours/ hides from responsibility/ seeks to escape/ lack of
persistence/ gives up easily/ not try from their best
Attribute failure to internal factors
Attribute failure from stables factors
Attribute failure to uncontrollable factors.
48. Explain how you would help a sports performer to reattribute to
avoid learned helplessness and to promote mastery orientation
Attribute failure to controllable/ internal factors convince they can control part
of future performances.
Attribute failure to unstable factors/ changeable factors/ aspects that are not
permanent or enduring e.g. include effort luck, tactics
Use role models / significant other/ leader coaches
Use vicarious experiences/ to see those of similar ability succeed in the task
Positive reinforcement/ encouragement/ verbal persuasion / positive
feedback
Raise self confidence/ self esteem
Enable success to be experiences/ give success/ enable positive outcomes/
achievable goals
-
Control arousal/ calm them
Use mental practice/ imagery of successful movement
Use goal setting that is specific
Measures target/ goal
Goals must be challenging
49. identify the characteristic of a “need to avoid failure” personality
Innate personality characteristics/ natural traits/ enduring
Avoidance behaviour
Avoids challenges/ avoids excitement/ avoids risks
Takes unachievable challenges
Avoids competition
Lack confidence/ self efficacy
Lacks persistence on task/ gives up easily
Avoids taking responsibility fro actions/ attributes success to external factors/
failure to internal factors
- Dislikes/ avoids feedback/ dislikes evaluation avoids audience
- Competition affects achievement motivation
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-
-
50. What factors affect the formation and development of cohesive team
in sport
Selection of those who are team players
Environment of compromise/ players to respect on another
Having a clear view of aims/ goals/ missions/ share the same goal
Participants to share behavioural norms/ similar outlook/ beliefs
Credit for personal success/ highlight individual performance effects
cohesiveness
Overplaying team goals/ aims/ set appropriate goals
The use of co ordination practice/ team building exercises
Encouragement/ social support/ encourage friendship
Reinforcement/ praise cohesive/ motivates behaviour
Punishment/ drop non team un cohesive behaviour
Encouragement pf group identity/ belonging
Clarification/ give individual responsibility/ roles
A leader who encourages teamwork who leads how the team wants
A spilt team up into small subgroups/ combat the ringelmann effect by
dividing into small groups
Winning/ losing
51. Explain how subjective outcomes of a performance in sport can
affect self confidence
Subjective outcomes relate to how the performer rates the performance/how
he or she has done
SC – Trait is the innate/ inbuilt/ natural tendency to be confident
SC State is the degree of confidence in a specific sports situation
If outcome perceived to be good then SC – Trait is increased
-
If outcome perceived to be poor/ a failure then SC – Trait is decreased
Subjective outcome affects competitive orientation/ level of competitiveness
either positively or negatively
If outcome perceived to be good then competitiveness is increased
If outcome perceived to be poor than competitiveness decreases
Positive outcomes / SC – Trait/ competitiveness increases will raise state
sport confidence/ raise self efficacy/ will make performer more confident
Negative outcome/ competitiveness decreases will lower state sports
confidence/ will result in avoidance behaviour
52. using examples from sport explain three main factors that make the
setting of goals effective in sport
-
Goals would be Specific – directly linked to an outcome
Measurable – An objective aspect that is measured
Goals should be achievable – within reach/ attainable/ realistic/ get success
Relevant – at the right level/ challenging
Time phased – include short and long term objectives
Evaluated – use of self assessment reviewed
Recorded – Records kept/ written account enable accountability
53. How are process, performance and product goals used to improve
performance in sport?
Process
- Concerned with technique/ style
- Directs attention/ gives information/ targets to be more successful/ be able to
progress with more effective techniques
Performance
- Comparison with previous attempts/ judges against performances
- Improves times/ intermediate results a stepping stone to improve outcome/
gives feeling of achieving/ satisfaction
Product
- Focus on end result/ to win overall/ concerned with outcome of competition
- - Gives motivation long term goal/ can be used to aim even higher in the
future/ leader to progression/ used as overall aim/ maybe just out of reach to
motivate
-
Goal setting can raise self confidence
Goal setting can control arousal levels
Goal setting can motivate/ develop strategies to reach set goals
Goal setting can direct attention/ focus efforts
Goal setting enables success to be experiences
Goal setting can regulate the amount of effort expended on a particular tasl/
ensures no wasted effort.
54. Outline Wiener’s model of attribution. Internal
Stable
Unstable
-
-
-
External
Giving internal stable attributions means intrinsic qualities/ under your control
that are not easily changeable/ fairly permanent e.g. ability
- External unstable means intrinsic but changeable reasons e.g. effort
External stable means environment/ out of your control, reason that are
unchangeable e.g. Task difficulty
External Unstable means environment by changeable. E.g. luck.
55. Use Weiner’s model to explain how attribution can affect motivation
in sport.
If reasons for failure are internal stable – learned helplessness is the belief
that failure is inevitable/ failure has been reinforced/ can be de- motivate
If reasons for success are internal stable mastery orientation is having self
confidence/ positive outlook/ need to achieve/ high motivation
If losing through emphasis on unstable factors
If winning motivate through emphasis on internal factors
56. Describe and explain what is meant by the zone of optimal
functioning
An emotional/ affective response/ enjoyment/ satisfaction/ fulfilment
Described as peak flow experience
Associated with the elite/ very good performers/ good performance/ best of
their ability
High level of confidence/ sports confidence/ self efficacy
Is relaxed/ lack of stress response/ not anxious
Ideal/ optimum level of arousal of the performer/ high level of motivation that
is under control/ high level of inner drive/ self motivation
Performer has maximum concentration and effort/ focussed
Appropriate attentional control often narrow/ internal attention/ cue utilisation
is good/ right amount of cues
Movements are automatic/ little conscious control
The more experience / able to the performer higher arousal is need for ZOF
57. Actual productivity = potential productivity – losses due to faulty
processes.
Using a team example from a sport of your choice, explain the model
shown in figure 2 and identify how these faulty processes could have
occurred.
- Actual productivity how a team performer/ winning/ losing of a team depends
on
- Potential productivity is the sum of the players abilities/ how good they are/
what they are capable of achieving
- Losses due to Faulty process – team performer/ productivity is affect by
social loafing/ lack of individual motivation/ learned helplessness of
individuals/ attributions of failure to internal stable factors/ Ringlemann effect/
individual performance decreases as group size increases
- Lack of identifiable roles
- Insufficient accountability/ individual efforts not recognised
- Team performance affected by players not synchronising
- Injury/ illness of players
- Lack of team cohesion/ lack of social cohesion/ disputes
- Insufficient incentives to work together
- Inadequate leadership
- Poor team tactics/ strategies
- Too high/ too low level of competition/ anxiety of team/ goal perceived to be
unachievable
- Negative effects of an audience
- Environmental factors/ stressors
58. How would a coach seek to increase a performer level of selfconfidence or self-efficacy?
- Ensuring success/ give achievable goals/ performance accomplishments
- Vicarious experiences/ show someone else performing the task
- Using a role model of similar ability/ age to motivate
- Encouraging/ verbal persuasion/ praise/ positive feedback
- Helping them to control their arousal levels/ emotional control/ calming them
down / reducing their anxiety levels
- By encouraging positive attributions/ perceptions thinking positively
- Negative thought stopping
- Attributing positively attributing failure to controllable factors
- Attributing success to internal factors
59. What is mean by each of these four terms?
- Extroversion
- Introversion
- Neuroticism
- Stability
-
Extroversion – Affiliate to other people/ outgoing/ sociable/ lively
Introversion – Shy/ reserved/ prefers isolation form others/ nervous/
unsociable
Neuroticism – Extreme emotions/ unreliable/ mood swings/ anxious/
unpredictable/ unstable
Stability = Reliable/ predictable/ balanced/ calm/ even tempered/ controlled/
logical
60. Using examples from sport, explain the Interactionist approach to
personality and identify the limitations of personality profiling
Interactionist
- Traits that are triggered by environmental/ situations/ B-F(PE) social
environment
- Involves a combination of trait and social learning
- Typical responses may be affected by circumstance
- Therefore behaviour is not predictable
- Sportspeople personalities change in different situations.
Limitations of profiling
- Profiling results too vague/ do not link cause and effect
- Results cannot be generalised/ lacks external validity
- Results lack ecological validity/ are not true to real life/ do not relate to sports
performance
- Profiling too subjective/ results differently by different people/ unreliable
interpretations
- Links between personality and sport performance/ sport choice/ task
persistence to tenuous
- Too many demand characteristics/ behaviour of performer may be altered
due to profiling/ internally invalid
61. What makes an effective leader?
- Good communication/ listener
- Vision/ clear goals/ strong mission/ ambitious
- Enthusiastic/ self motivated/ determined/ confident
- Empathy/ cant see point of view of others/ high values
- High skill level in the sport
- Knowledgeable/ experienced
- Charismatic/ inspirational/ motivational
- Adaptable/ flexible depending on situation/ good decision maker
62. Explain the different circumstances in which an autocratic leadership
style and a democratic leadership style would be used
Autocratic
- When discipline/ control is needed/ hostile groups/ newly formed group
- If there is a lack of time/ time to short for more democratic approach/ tasks
that need completion quickly
- For large groups when communication is difficult
- In early cognitive stage of learning/ novices or beginners
- For team player who generally prefer training and instruction style/ game
situations
- Males prefer autocratic style
- If in a dangerous situation/ have control of health and safety
- (Fiedler) Task style better in situations that re extremely favourable/ positive
and extremely unfavourable/ extremes of favourableness
- When task is clear/ unambiguous
- If leaders personality is task orientated
Democratic
- When a group member can / wish to participate in decision making/ those
who prefer democratic approach/ develop team work
- For more advanced performers (who have knowledge to contribute)
- If demands of situation is social (friendly match)
- When task demands greater interpersonal communication
- If leader and group members are well known to each other
- Females prefer democratic
- Task structure is not dangerous
- For small number/ individual sports
- (Fiedler) in situations that are moderately favourable
- If leaders personality tends itself to be democratic.
63. Explain what is meant by cue utilisation and how it effect on
performance in sport.
- Use of relevant stimuli/ information/ signals from the environment
- As arousal increases attention is narrowed/ perceptual narrowing
- Then arousal decreases
- If attention is too narrow, can miss cue/ signals
- Narrow attention can help concentration/ right decision made/ better reaction
time
- Lowering arousal/ anxiety/ stress can help concentration
- Enter zone of optimal functioning/ peak flow experience/ effecting
performance positively
- Low arousal can widen perceptual field
- Widening perceptual field could lead to missed cues
- Widening perceptual field enables use of peripheral information