Chapter 14, International and Culturally Diverse Aspects of Leadership
KnowledgeBank #1, p. 420
Applying a Motivational Theory Across Cultural Groups
A practical way of understanding how cultural factors influence leadership is to illustrate
how motivation theory might be applied to different cultural groups. Expectancy theory,
which provides specific guidelines to leaders and managers, can be used to illustrate
cross-cultural motivation. Doing so will illustrate the principle that some aspects of
motivation theory apply across cultures, whereas other aspects must be modified. Two
aspects of expectancy theory are especially important for understanding cross-cultural
differences in motivation: perception of individual control over the environment, and
appropriateness of rewards.
Environmental Control. As analyzed by Nancy J. Adler, expectancy theories depend on
the extent to which workers believe they have control over the outcome of their efforts,
and how much faith they have in leaders to deliver rewards.[1] The assumption that
workers believe they have control over their own fate may be culturally dependent. In
countries where individualism dominates, employees may believe more strongly that they
can influence performance and outcomes. In collectivist societies, such as Taiwan and
Japan, the ties between the individual and the organization have a moral component. In
the United States and similar cultures, many people believe that “where there is a will,
there is a way.”
Adler argues that the reasons that people in individualistic societies become committed
to organizations are quite different from those of people in collectivist societies. An
employee in an individualistic culture (such as the United States, Canada, or Germany) is
more likely to ask, “What’s in it for me?” before responding to a motivational thrust.
Employees with collectivistic values commit themselves to the organization more
because of ties with managers and coworkers than because of intrinsic job factors or
individual incentives.
Despite the cultural generalization, the leader must be alert to individual and
subcultural differences. Many Japanese workers are becoming less loyal to their
employers and thus more self-centered and eager for individual recognition. Workers
from rural areas in the United States are much more collectivist than their counterparts
from large cities. One of the many reasons Saturn Motors located its plant in Tennessee is
the presence of a more harmonious and loyal work force.
Appropriateness of Rewards. Expectancy theories are universal because the motivator
must search for rewards that have valence for individual employees. Leaders themselves
must analyze the type and level of rewards that have the highest valence for individuals.
The appropriateness of rewards is most strongly tied to individual differences, yet cultural
differences are also important. The challenge is to find which rewards are effective in the
particular culture.
A study was conducted in a cotton mill in the Russian Republic of the former Soviet
Union. One aspect of the study offered intrinsic rewards in the form of American goods
to ninety-nine weavers from different shifts. Praise and recognition were also used as
rewards. Receiving the goods as well as recognition and praise were contingent upon
increases in the amount of top-grade fabric they produced. The rewards resulted in
increased production. Another motivational technique, employee participation,
contributed to performance decline.[2] The study relates to valence because many people
believe that participation in decision making is a reward for virtually all workers. But
among these Russian weavers, participative management was perceived to have negative
valence. Perhaps participating in decision making was too foreign to their work culture to
be acceptable.
Many American managers have mistakenly assumed that a reward with a high valence
among American workers will also have a high valence among workers from other
cultures. In one situation, raising the salary of a particular group of Mexican workers
motivated them to work fewer rather than more hours. A spokesperson for the Mexican
workers said, “We can now make enough money to live and enjoy life in less time than
previously. Now, we do not have to work so many hours.”[3]
[1]
Our analysis of expectancy theory across cultures is based on Nancy J. Adler, International Dimensions of
Organizational Behavior, 2nd ed. (Mason, Ohio: South-Western College Publishing, 1991), pp. 157-160.
[2]
Dianne H. B. Welsh, Fred Luthans, and Steven M. Somner, “Managing Russian Factory Workers: The Impact of
U.S. –Based Behavioral and Participative Techniques,” Academy of Management Journal, February 1993, pp. 58-79.
[3]
Adler, International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, p. 159.
Chapter 14, International and Culturally Diverse Aspects of Leadership
KnowledgeBank #2, p. 432
Leadership at Progress Energy Speaks Out on Diversity
Progress Energy is a $9 billion diversified energy company, headquartered in Raleigh,
North Carolina. Anne Huffman, vice president of human resources and a member of
Progress Energy’s Corporate Diversity Council answered these questions (among others)
about diversity.
What has been the most satisfying result of your diversity program?
All of our employees have received diversity training and participated in discussion
groups in which we talk about diversity in all of its dimensions—age, gender, race, sexual
orientation, disabilities, etc. Many participants weren’t even aware of their biases until we
got into these discussions. Participants talk about their experiences, and they help each
other learn about and respect people’s differences.
How does Progress Energy measure its progress?
Each year we conduct a survey asking employees to rate the company on such issues as
whether they feel supervisors deal fairly with everyone and whether their contributions
are valued regardless of their gender, race, or job level. Since 1999 the overall
satisfaction score has risen from 70 to 77, out of a possible 100. When over three-quarters
of your workforce is satisfied, you are doing well.
What are your other diversity goals?
One of them is to have closer involvement with the Hispanic population, which has
grown tremendously in our service area. We want to be viewed as a great place for
Hispanics to work, and we’ve held focus groups on how to do this. We’ve also asked our
Hispanic employees to get more involved in the recruitment effort. And this year we’ve
created a corporate diversity scorecard, in which we align our diversity efforts with our
strategic plan, including leadership development, employee engagement and retention.
SOURCE: “Special Advertising Section: Speaking Out on Diversity,” Business 2.0 November 2004, p. 10.