Theory for cognitive psychology
Attribution Theory
Social cognition
People try to make sense of the world and what is going on around them. Attribution
theory explains the processes that people use to explain their own and other peoples
behaviour. When something happens, we look to what has caused it to happen and
explain it in rational terms. We usually explain what has caused certain behaviour by
saying it was something inside ourselves (internal attribution) or something beyond our
control (external attribution).
For example if you got really good marks in your English GCSE you could explain your
grade A in terms of how well you revised, or natural ability both of which are internal
attributions, or you could say what a brilliant teacher you had which would be an external
attribution.
Attribution theory explains the processes that people use to explain their own and others’
behaviour. In order to understand the processes that we use to explain our own and
other people’s behaviour we could use one of the most influential theories of causal
attribution which is the covariation theory of Harold Kelley.
Kelley suggests that attributions about the causes of behaviour are usually made in
terms of internal or dispositional causes (that means that there is some aspect of the
individual that is causing the behaviour), external or situational causes (there is
something in the physical environment that causes the behaviour) or a combination of
the two. In short, Kelley suggests that causal attribution is a rational process that people
use to explain behaviour by examining three types of information.
Consensus
The first type of information used is ‘consensus’ and this is the extent to which people
around us share the same reaction to the same stimulus as the person whose behaviour
is being explained.
Consistency
The second type of information people use is ‘consistency’. Consistency refers to
whether the reaction of the person is the same on other occasions to the same stimulus.
Distinctiveness
The last type of information is ‘distinctiveness’ and this refers to whether the person
reacts in the same way to other stimuli.
According to Kelley, if consensus was low, consistency was high and distinctiveness
was low, then behaviour would be attributed to internal (or dispositional) factors. If
Ginny was afraid of a dog and we knew that not many other people were afraid of the
dog (low consensus) we also knew that Ginny had been afraid of the dog before (high
consistency) and that she was afraid of other dogs too (low distinctiveness), then we
would tend to attribute her behaviour in terms of ‘something about her’. We would
perhaps think that she was a timid person.
Kelley argued that if consensus, consistency and distinctiveness were all high then an
attribution to outside forces would be made. Say, for example, James did not win a prize
on a quiz show and everyone that James knew had also failed on that particular show;
he had, however, won prizes on other shows. People would tend to attribute his
behaviour in terms of the quiz show. We would perhaps think that the questions on that
particular show were very hard.
The self serving bias
(Miller and Ross, 1975) suggest that people have a tendency to attribute success to
internal (or dispositional) factors and failure to external (or situational) factors. For
example, suppose that a student is asked to explain the reason for passing a psychology
exam. Now, there could be many reasons given but, people usually explain their result
in terms of internal factors such as having a ‘high IQ’ or put it down to ‘all the hard work I
put in’. It is not very often that people attribute success in exams to external factors
such as ‘a really easy exam paper’ or ‘soft marking’.
However, suppose a student is asked to explain why they failed a psychology exam.
Again, there could be many reasons given, but the most common explanation would give
external factors such as ‘bad teaching’ or ‘a really hard exam paper’. It is not very often
that a person will attribute failure to internal factors such as ‘I didn’t revise well enough’.
There are two main explanations for the self serving bias that have been put forward.
The first suggests that the bias may be explained in terms of motivational or ‘need
serving’ terms. For example there is a need to protect one’s self esteem and
(Greenberg et al, 1982) suggest that if a person explains success in terms of internal
factors then their self esteem is improved. In the same way an explanation for failure as
an external factor protects one’s self esteem. Another explanation for the self serving
bias could be that of a motivation to appear in a favourable light to other people (Weary
and Arkin, 1981).
The second explanation for the self serving bias can be explained in cognitive or
‘information processing’ terms. This explanation suggests that people usually expect to
succeed at a task, although there are some occasions in which they expect to fail.
Consequently, intended and expected outcomes tend to be attributed to internal factors
and unintended or unexpected outcomes may be attributed externally.
Activity
Take a look at the statements given by football managers and decide whether they have
an internal or external explanation for their success or failure.
Locus of causality
Internal attribution
External attribution
Success
Failure
Attribution 1 – Tottenham manager after his team had been beaten in a league game:
“We were awful, a complete contrast to last week…we won’t win anything if we go on
playing like this.”
Attribution 2 – Crystal Palace Manager after his team had won a league game:
“I have to admit that the goal was a little bit lucky, but who cares? At the end of the day
winning is the only thing that matters,”
Attribution 3 – Manchester United player following a victory in a cup tie:
“When – is fit he’s worth a goal start to us. His return to the side today really spurred us
on.”
Attribution 4 – Burnley manager after his team had lost a league game:
“When you hit the bar and the post you know it isn’t going to be your day, and it wasn’t
ours today.”
Attribution 5 – West Ham player after his team had won a league game:
“We’ve got it together now and are playing like a team. We should do very well this
season.”
Attribution 6 – Tottenham manager after his team had lost a league game:
“The penalty decision turned it. It was a diabolical decision. They weren’t in it until that
happened.”
Attribution 7 – Stoke City player after his team has lost a league game:
“The centre forward for the opposition is a great player. We couldn’t stop him… he was
the difference between the two teams.”
Attribution 8 – Manchester United player after his side had won a cup-tie:
“I wasn’t expecting it to be as easy as that. I don’t think they played as well as they are
capable of playing.”
Attribution 9 – Everton manager after his team had lost a league game:
“You create your own luck in this game. They did and we didn’t. That’s why we lost.”
Attribution 10 – Nottingham Forest manager after his team had lost a league game:
“After that performance, I need to take a look at the transfer market. If there are eleven
decent players on offer I might just sign them all.”
Attribution 11 – Liverpool manager after his team had won a league game:
“We’re possibly the best team in Europe at the moment. I doubt if anyone could match
us after that performance.”
Attribution 12 – Coventry manager after his team had won a league game:
“We don’t have stars in this team. Everything we achieve comes from hard work. We’re
triers and we deserved it today.”
Attribution 13 – York City manager after his team had won a cup tie:
“I suppose the conditions didn’t help them… they’re probably used to playing on a pitch
with grass on it! The pitch stifled their play which made it easier for us to compete.”
Attribution 14 – Nottingham Forest manager after his team had lost a league game:
“We haven’t practised penalty taking in training because professional footballers should
be capable of beating any goalkeeper from a direct kick twelve yards out. Our players
obviously aren’t.”
Attribution 15 – Liverpool manager after his team had lost a league game:
“It’s about time the league outlawed these (plastic) pitches. Football is supposed to be
played on grass.”