IDENTITY WORK, REDEFINITIONS OF SELF AND SELF-CONFIDENCE IN THE
NARRATIVES OF POLISH ENTREPRENEURS. THE PARADOX OF
INDIVIDUALISTIC COLLECTIVE IDENTITY. 1
Abstract
The paper deals with a problem of entrepreneurial activity in Poland after a collapse of communist system. The
entrepreneurs build their motivation to found the firm and to manage it later by confronting themselves with
imaged and negative attitudes to entrepreneurial activity in Poland. There is one main biographical process,
“identity work” that consists with two sub - processes: 1. The looking – glass – self - process is aimed to solve
the problem of imaged negative perception of someone owns activity (entrepreneur) by her/his direct and
indirect significant others; 2, subjective - self - process directed to creation of a self confidence and positive
image of a person and self–acceptance as an entrepreneur. The work on identity is a permanent biographical
process and it lasts during the whole career of entrepreneur. The process consists of dealing with emotions, such
as shame and pride, and with the moral considerations, when the entrepreneurs act not always according with
rules of law. The inner conversation is the main ‘place’ where the construction of motivation is being conducted
by the work on identity.
The analysis has shown that the so called psychological features determining the inclinations to become
entrepreneur are created in the long process of work on identity. The psychological ‘entrepreneurial traits’ seems
to be not inherited in social or biological sense, they are very often achieved biographically by the hard work of a
subject (identity work), that has not possessed them before a moment of starting an entrepreneurial activity. The
consequences of the whole process are often the interviewees statements showing proves of identity change.
The analysis shows also the problem of identifications of entrepreneurs with the social group with the same
name. “Collective identity” of entrepreneurs is not built on a collective image of the group because of the lack of
common “positive” vocabularies of motives and a set of neutral of identity names in the language that could
describe their endeavors. The collective identity of entrepreneurs is based on the individual identity work
referring to a very individual and exceptional situation of a subject. Collective identity of entrepreneurs is a very
individualistic one.
The paper is based on the research project ‘Entrepreneurship and unemployment. The mirrors, commonalities,
and discrepancies’ done in Lodz (Poland, 2004-2006) where the main method of collecting data was a narrative
interview. The methodology of grounded theory was the main source of analytical procedures used in an
elaboration of gathered empirical data.
Introduction
- The goal of the paper is an analysis of general biographical process called „identity work” (identity self-work)
among entrepreneurs, that started the business in Poland after transformation of the political and economic
system in 1990.
Identity work can be associated and intersect with biographical work, when an individual rework her biography
to construct a new identity or try to maintain a previous one. The concept of identity is connected with a concept
of biography and, strictly speaking, with biographical processes. Changing of identity or “reconstituting of
identity” (biographical process) are elaborated and situated in biography of individual (Strauss, 1993: 136, 142,
99 see also Strauss, 1969: 144 - 146) and accompanied by biographical processes like “reaffirmation of achieved
position”, “early crystallization of position”, “devaluation of previous position”, “ratification of new beliefs in
the position” (ibidem, 143 – 146 se also 99). The biographical processes are associated with thought processes
when an individual in her imagination put some problems in fantasies, daydreams and pictorial images to
elaborate and sometimes to solve some biographical problems (ibidem, 130 – 130). An individual can assess,
judge, plan and make choices about new direction of biography and identity.
We can say also that generally the analysis of identity has been de facto an analysis of biography in Chicago
tradition of sociology (Rokuszewska – Pawełek, 2005: 292 - 294) and we follow the direction of analysis (see
also Prus, 1980: 244 –257; Goffman, 1961: 125 – 170; Goffman, 1963: 32 – 40; 62 – 72; Hewitt, 2000: 92 - 94).
The issues of natural life histories, career, moral career and identity or biographical selves formation/ascription
are connected with the concept and analysis of biography.
1
A version of the paper was presented at XVI ISA World Congress, Research Committee on Biography and Society RC38,
Durban, June, 2006
1
The main theses of paper
- The identity work is strictly connected with a type of basic action of an individual in her work, in our case
entrepreneurial action.
- Motivation of entrepreneurial action is directly associated with an identity self – work.
- Personal features (descriptive) of entrepreneurs that are parts of an identity are effects of identity self - work
and have processual character (are attained gradually as biography proceeds in time).
- The process of identity self - work never ends during the career of entrepreneur (see. Fig.1).
Research and analytical method
- There has been done 40 narrative interviews and 40 unstructured interviews with entrepreneurs, 972 photos and
36 photo – elicited interviews with entrepreneurs, 30 narrative interviews with unemployed (2004-2006). The
companies employed from 1 to 300 people. The majority of the companies were small companies with
employment from 1 do 50 people.
- The method of research comes from Symbolic Interactionist perspective, where exploration and inspection
are necessary activities in naturalistic sociological research (H. Blumer, 1969; Prus, 1996; Smith, 1990). The
aforementioned parts of naturalistic research logic and sociological analyses have been conducted by using
grounded theory methodology procedures (Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978; Schuetze, 1984; Strauss, Corbin,
1990; Konecki, 2000).
Identity self – work
Initial definition – It is mainly the work of the individual on her identity, i.e. on creating the content aspects of
individual self-concept in reference to her core activity. We created the concept of identity self-work (when an
individual works by herself on her identity) to differentiate it from the work done on identity of individual by
other persons.
- Identity self - work appears „automatically” in association with core activity or planning of this activity.
- Identity self-work is a form (quality) of mind and self (co)existence.
Motives
- Motives have character of verbal answers („because motives”) to a question „why have I/you founded the
firm?” Motives are needed in the identity self-work to confirm the assumed self concept as an entrepreneur and
activities connected with the identity. The subject is aware of constructing the motives and verbalizes it to
manage the actions and understand the actions of others („Me” aspect of self; Hewitt, 2000).
Motives of starting the firm:
1. ‘THE WILL TO BE INDEPENDENT’
2. Having a special personal features (as a leader or a very active person)
3. Passion (hobby)
4. „The competition in actual work” (e.g. coming from younger employees)
5. Boredom in actual work
6. „I am an entrepreneur by accident” – declared lack of an explicit motive.
- Some of the entrepreneurs accent their activity in the childhood, they show their abilities and engagement
coming from this period of their life (biographical work). This allows them to find causes (motives) of their
actual economic activities. It allows also to build „biographical continuity”: „I am” from childhood still the
same person now, when „I am” successful in business (identity work). Past motives are often identical with
current ones (see also Hewitt, 2000: 92 - 94). This type of interpretation activity is also some form of identity
self-work, i.e. building the base of identity for motives construction (Motives/Identity, M/I).
- The common sense definition of entrepreneurial action is connected with creating the entrepreneur
identity at the start of business [A/I] (initial thesis)
- Some motives come with turning points in an individual biography and become the casual conditions of
starting the business (thesis). The turning points could be associated with taking decision of leaving the job,
negative estimation of subject by executives at work, firing from job, deterioration of financial condition of
company, bankruptcy, the need to ascribe to subject the economical success of the firm.
- Motives give a meaning to actions and identity connected with them. They influence on motivation of
entrepreneurial action (EA), i.e. willingness (desire) to continue business at all.
- An individual has a POSITIVE meaning of work and feels satisfaction from work after construction of motives.
This gives her the feeling of individual strength and self confidence („I like my work and I am good
businesswoman”).
2
- It could be difficult to continue entrepreneurial action without satisfaction that arises motivation. We can put
the thesis that meaning of EA is always connected with building and supporting the Identity/Motives and
in consequence motivation. [second initial thesis]
Analysis of identity self – work
- „The identity self-work” is a process of comparison of self - image of an individual with perceived self –
image set by others and finally new identity construction and at the same time a building the self –
esteem/self confidence and a defense of this esteem in the situation of negative perception of self done by
others. The work is done by the individual in inner conversation without the significant help by other persons,
although there is a lot of examples of identity work done on a subject by other agents in the literature on the
subject (compare to Strauss, et. al. 1985: 138 - 139; Goffman, 1961; Schweingruber, Berns, 2003: 464 – 466;
Taylor and K. Littleton 2006; Prus, 1996: 152; D. Snow and L. Anderson 1987; Einwohner, 2006; Fine, Victor,
1994).
- The identity self-work lasts also during the whole entrepreneurial career and EA.
- Entrepreneurship as a phenomenon and personal “feature” of entrepreneurs (and the entrepreneur identity)
emerge from EA.
- Entrepreneurial Action it is a set of connected activities, that leads to creation of diverse values, that could be
translated to an economic value. These acts, according to our research, consist of activities connected with
financial and calculative approach to: production/services, investment, management, building the relations
and company image creation.
- Identity self - work among entrepreneurs consist of two subprocesses: subprocess of looking – glass self
and subprocess of subjective - self observed on the level of self - reflection and/or presentation of self
(thesis) during a narrative interview. The both subprocesses become base of meta - process that we call
„identity self-work”.
- The process of „presentation of self” during the interview is a some form of „externalization” of self –
reflexive „identity self-work”. The division to internal and external is a matter of consensus: „The
external world is a symbolic representation, a 'symbolic universe'. Both this and the interior worlds are
created and re-created through interaction. In effect there is no divide between external and interior
world." (Strauss, 1993: 27, assumption 5; see also Hermans, 1987; Schuetze, 1975, 1984; Riemann, Schuetze,
1991).
Identity self-work, looking-glass self
- Entrepreneurs refuse negative and insinuated to them identities (generally they are perceived in Poland as
thieves, swindlers, crooks...). An entrepreneurs has to cope with different emotions, e.g. shame, that could
arise from imaged situation of being ridiculed, accused, discredited in the eyes of acquaintances.
- The looking-glass self process among entrepreneurs it is also the externalized form of „arena” (dispute) with
common opinions on entrepreneurs coming from media and surveys.
- Thesis -> a creation of identity in the context of looking - glass self during internal conversation is connected
with building the motivation to entrepreneurial action. The subject has to disavow negative perceptions of the
business activity in order to start the operation of the entrepreneurial motives (job satisfaction, having a
dreams, willingness to be independent).
Identity self-work, subjective-self and collective identity
- The process of subjective-self as an element of identity self - work is associated with construction of self
definition of an individual as an entrepreneur and ascription of positive features to the self, that create idealized
identity of entrepreneur and in consequence produce self - confidence.
- There is also underlined in the interviews the strength of will and desires. Entrepreneurs underline also that
they can create a new values. They stress a possibility of an individual influence on organizational reality
THERE IS LACK OF OPENLY DECLARED COLLECTIVE IDENTIFICATION with the group of
entrepreneurs, there is no collective image of the group. An entrepreneur has to create her own success by an
individual effort. The rest of entrepreneurs are perceived as competitors, not as members of the same social
group. Some sings of collective identity are connected with the owned firm, but the theme of individual success
is still underlined.
The identification with others is declared only with significant others however still the main reason of success
in business is an individual entrepreneur and her activities. The significant others support an entrepreneur
emotionally, financially in difficult situations and teach them formal and informal rules of doing business. The
significant others are: spouses, life partners, mothers, parents in law, friends, business – partner, etc. The
business partner become sometimes a close friend and vise versa. Significant other may became a very close
3
friend of entrepreneur (or a spouse) and they finally both create “a couple identity”. They identify very strongly
with themselves and are recognized by others only in “couple”. They can not live or/and work without the
support of each other and being with together. The two persons perceive the reality in the same way and finally
construct one perspective of perceiving it.
The feeling of collective identity is also not connected with participation in stock companies. Entrepreneurs
stress negative experiences that they have had in such companies. They prefer to work in family owned firms.
The so called collective orientation in Poland is more connected with family identification and using family
perception matrix on organizational life than with identification with other social group. The entrepreneurs
declare that they work mainly for their family and children.
The strength of subjective-self can be observed on the linguistic level. The entrepreneurs use mainly “I” pronoun
and stress it during speaking. The self - confidence is here associated with strong feeling of authorship. The
construction of subjective-self and having a high self – esteem show a character of “individualization of
success”. This is the reason of refusing the collective achievements and collective identities by entrepreneurs.
We can put the thesis that collective identity is here associated only with identification of entrepreneurs with
microstructures. There is a lack of declared identification with broad category of entrepreneurs and/or nation,
what we can see for example in the published memories of Akio Mority, the creator of Sony Corporation in
Japan (Morita, 1990: 4). National identification appeared in our research only once and it has happened during
the photo – elicited interview.
The consequences of entrepreneurial action and motivational perpetuum mobile
- The EA create the specific consequences, i.e. motives to continuation of taken action and to a change of
identity that set up a motivation (motivational perpetuum mobile?). The psycho – social consequences of
business activity are mainly connected with the change of identity and in the process of looking for the proves of
the change.
- The consequences coming from identity self-work are:
A/ work-effects satisfaction, it means identification of satisfaction with an individual success;
B/ perceived changes of individual identity and/or confirmation of the identity;
C/ the joy of creation;
D/ future perspective of time, i.e. looking to the future is associated with perceived „a compulsion of
continuous enterprise development” by entrepreneurs.
The psychological and behavioral effect of the feedback between action and consequences is following:
ACTION-> CONSEQUENCES: success, change of identity, joy, future => satisfaction (conscious
motives)-> WILL, strong desire to individual acting (motivation) -> ACTION
The consequences of entrepreneurial action are not static and finally constructed. They are „temporary effects”
(for the time being). They should be all the time actively being maintained. They have then processual character.
Conclusions
- An entrepreneurial action has a processual character.
- The research data support the thesis that the entrepreneurial action is covered with continuous „identity
self-work” in the conditions of negative perception of entrepreneurs in Poland.
- The requirement of continuous identity self-work is a very important feature of an EA. This work is the
distinguishing mark of their „categorial identity” (not collective one). The entrepreneurial action can be
associated with so called “spirit of capitalism”, that is based on firmness in action, rationality, dynamism and
innovativeness and willingness to sacrifice (Weber, 1994; Berger, 1994, Radkiewicz, Kośmicki, 1995, por. także
Schumpeter, 1960), although at present it must not associate with the all aforementioned features (Potz, 2005).
Entanglement of the features used in the description of entrepreneurial identity could indicate their collective
identity. However it is not an identity connected to symbolic distinction of the collectivity from the other groups
and perception of it as an collective body shaping in some way the social reality. The trace of any self –
conscious collective identity is rather connected with microstructures, i.e. ascription of „couple identity” to self
(identification of self with life partner or friend) or collective identification on the level of company/family and
significant others. However these are not identifications with the broader social category of entrepreneurs or
nation.
The necessity of continuous identity self-work is a very important feature of entrepreneurial action. This work
is a distinctive feature of their “categorial identity” but it is not collective identity that is connected with
conscious self – categorization bonded to collective activity.
4
- The work on individual identity is done also by indicating the satisfaction from individual independence,
individual economic success, job satisfaction and/or realization of life passion (aspect „Me” of self). Motivation
it is an „I” aspect of self, that is not conscious and consists of impulses to act, desires and generally of readiness
and sensitivity of an organism to react to stimulus coming from a milieu.
- Motivation in the case of entrepreneurs refers also to the dimension of „continuous vigilance”, i.e. continuous
and careful observation of market, tendencies in the business, owned firm, the changes in law and politics, etc.
- Motives („Me” phase of self) influence upon motivation to act -in longer time - (phase „I”) and at the same
time maintain self – concept of the entrepreneur what is necessary in the situation of a lack of external, and
managed by an organization, motivational system.
- Identity is then a very important element of an self-motivational process. An entrepreneur has to motivate
herself having in mind her actual self – concept and comparing it with this one before starting the business.
- Collective identity of entrepreneurs as a group is not felt but paradoxically build from individual identification
with a success and microstructures (family, significant others, owned company). The entrepreneurs have to
motivate themselves recollecting their self concept and comparing it with this before taking the entrepreneurial
action. It is also distinctive feature of „categorial identity” of entrepreneurs.
Refereeing our theoretical findings to other theoretical concepts we can state that the identities of entrepreneurs
presented in the narrative interviews have more character of „personal identity” than “social identity” or
“situated identity” (Hewitt, 2000: 95 – 98; see also Bokszański, 2005). The personal identity is more associated
with an individual autonomy than with social associations and social involvement as it is with social identity.
The fundament of personal identity is an individual life project, plan and it consequences. Project is announced
by an individual in different situations, one of them is situation of narrative interview. The location in the
broader collectivity is based here on unique and individual features than on socially shared goals as it is in the
context of social identity. However the announcements of personal identity are situated in the setting of narrative
interview when a role of interviewee is fully undertaken.
Discussion
- What kind of relation is between personality and entrepreneurial action? Deterministic one?
- Are there societal and structural determinants of entrepreneurial and enterprise action? (Berger, 1994;
Sułkowski, 2005; Jackson, Marcinkowski, 1996; Strużyna, 2004; Doktór, 2000; Williamson, 1998)?
- We can answer to these questions that we have rather here with a situation of biographical process and inner
conversation of a subject, where a self – concept, and associated with it motives are still worked out (reworked)
and actively being maintained to get a relative identity coherence and stability during life time, that finally arises
motivation to entrepreneurial action.
- These processes allow us not only understand phenomenon of entrepreneurship (described sociologically by M.
Weber and others) from a subject point of view, but also to explain the phenomenon at the base of its symbolic
and psycho – social origin.
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Fig.1. Integrative Diagram of Axial Coding (I-identity self-work, M – motivation; * aspects described in the paper)
Significant
others (I/M) *
Motives (I/M)
(e.g. independence„causal condition”)
*
Entrepreneurial action (process) *
Identity work
(dimension)
*
1
2
3 4
(„Properties”)
5
6
Initial
difficulties(I) –
intervening
conditions
Self processes: Looking
-glass self and
subjective self processes
(I)*
Internal conditions (psychosocial)
„External conditions”
(e.g.. market, politics)
‘Intervening conditions’
Continuous
vigilance
(M)
(dimension).
Difficulties during
entrepreneurial acting (I)
– „intervening conditions”
Maintaining motives (I/M)
„intervening conditions” *
„Consequences” (I/M)
*
7