Marine and Coastal Environment Conservation in Sudan:
The Role of Marine Protected Areas
Brig. Mohammed Younis Abdel Salam
Wildlife Conservation General Administration
Email: myounis7@gmail.com
Abstract
Selected and managed effectively, of marine protected areas (MPAs) have the
potential to be important strategies for conserving representative samples of global
biodiversity and migratory species, and for the development of trans-national
experience in resource management and conservation. This paper describes the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden Region, establishment of an MPA network in the Region.
Critical to the success of this network was the implementation of a common,
regionally-agreed management framework and the development of the necessary
technical capacity and expertise in the planning and management of MPAs (currently
lacking in several countries represented in the Network). Further to that the Sudanese
national representatives in the Network were described. Latest development and
progress in the implementation of Master Plans for both MPAs was also outlined.
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are globally renowned for their unique and beautiful
marine and coastal environments, the diversity of species inhabiting them, the high
degree of endemism, and the value of these resources for human development and as
part of the region’s cultural heritage. The coastal and marine ecosystems have been
used by the inhabitants of the region in a sustainable manner for thousands of years
(Vine, 1986). More recently the use of these environments and resources has
substantially increased with the development of petroleum-based economies that
require sea transport for petroleum exports; the growth of international dive tourism;
expansion of national and international fisheries operations; coastal developments;
and marked population growth in the coastal zone (PERSGA, 1998; Gladstone et al.,
1999; Wilkinson, 2000). This has occurred particularly in Egypt, Jordan and Saudi
Arabia. Despite the enormous economic growth that occurred in some countries in
recent decades, many coastal communities continue to rely for their livelihood on
small-scale usage of marine resources, especially fisheries e.g. in Djibouti, Somalia,
Sudan and Yemen.
Running parallel to the economic and social development has been a growing
awareness of the regional and international significance of many of the conservation
values, which include: the diversity of coral reef habitats in the northern and central
Red Sea (particularly of Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Sudan); the distinct biogeography
and abundance of endemics within the Red Sea; the extensive stands of mangroves
and populations of dugong and turtle in the central and southern Red Sea; the unique
biogeography and biodiversity of the Socotra Archipelago; and the extensive stocks of
commercial fishes in the Gulf of Aden (PERSGA, 1998; Gladstone et al., 1999).
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However, there have been gaps in knowledge about many parts of the region,
especially the coastal areas of the Gulf of Aden in both Yemen and Somalia; the reefs
of the central and southern Red Sea; and the Socotra Islands Group. Scientific surveys
and research in recent years, especially in the latter areas, have provided more
extensive and detailed information on the region’s impressive conservation
significance (Sheppard and Sheppard, 1991; Goren and Dor, 1994; Gladstone, 1996;
Kemp, 1998; Krupp and Hariri, 1999; De Vantier et al., 2000; Gladstone, 2000;
Gladstone and Fisher, 2000; Hariri and Krupp, 2000; Kemp, 2000; Kemp and
Benzoni, 2000).
The Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas
Although 75 MPAs have been recommended for the region, few are established or
managed appropriately (PERSGA, 1998; Gladstone, 2000). In addition, there were
gaps within these MPAs in representation of regionally significant and representative
habitats (Kelleher et al., 1995; PERSGA, 1998).
During the preparation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf
of Aden - a large-scale regional conservation project supported by the Global
Environment Facility (GEF) and executed by the Regional Organization for the
Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) - it
was decided that an ecosystem approach to conservation and management was most
appropriate to assure long-term sustainability of the region’s critical habitats and
populations of globally important species (PERSGA, 1998). This would be achieved
by establishing an integrated regional network of MPAs supported by effective
integrated management and planning. Site selection would ideally be based on a
complete habitat and biodiversity mapping and socio-economic survey of the area;
however, this was far beyond the scope of the project. Hence, a pragmatic approach
was adopted and the following criteria were used to identify MPAs for inclusion in
the regional network:
Twelve MPAs were selected for the Regional Network of MPAs for the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden (Fig. 1): Iles des Sept Frères and Ras Siyyan (Djibouti); Ras
Mohammed National Park; Red Sea Islands (Egypt); Aqaba Marine Park (Jordan);
Straits of Tiran (Saudi Arabia/Egypt); Wajh Bank; Farasan Marine Protected Area
(Saudi Arabia); Aibat and Saad ad-Din Islands (Somalia); Sanganeb National Park;
Dungonab Bay and Mukkawar Island (Sudan); Socotra Islands Group National
Protected Area; Bir Ali - Belhaf area (Yemen). The status of these MPAs vary from
MPAs that have been established for many years with legal standing and well defined
management plans, to MPAs that have been proposed but not officially declared by
the national government. The network includes representatives of all major
biogeographical sub-units (Gulf of Aden; north, central and southern Red Sea; Gulf of
Aqaba; Socotra Islands Group) except for the Gulf of Suez; major habitat types within
each sub-unit; prime examples of all types of coastal and marine habitats and species
communities.
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Management Framework of the Network
The approach taken in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Regional Network has been to
develop a regional framework for management. This regional framework includes: (1)
regional objectives, goals, and strategies for the Network that will be used as a basis
for developing site-specific objectives, goals, and strategies in each MPA in the
Regional Network; (2) mechanisms to coordinate management across each of the
MPAs and to strengthen regional management capabilities; (3) Development of sitespecific master plans for selected MPAs in the regional network; (4) guidelines for
planning and managing MPAs that are based on international best practices and
adopted to suit the unique conditions of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; (5) support for
the development of additional MPAs in each country through the provision of
regional guidelines for the identification and selection of MPAs. This paper provides
an account of management components (1) and (2), because of their potential
relevance to other regional networks.
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National Network of Marine Protected Areas
Sanganeb and Dungonab MPAs were both declared National Park in 1990 and 2005
respectively. They form the potential nucleus for a national network of MPAs
representing the different habitats and biodiversity of the Sudanese coastal and marine
environments. South of Port Sudan lies Sawakin Archipelago – an important area for
resident and migratory bird species. At least 3 species of sea turtles were reported to
nest in many islands of the archipelago. Another area North of Sanganeb is Shaab
Rumi which was made famous by Cousteau under water constructions and popular for
its large groups of hammerhead Sharks. These two areas are potential additions to the
national network. The Wildlife Conservation General Administration has great
intentions of studying them and later declares them as national PARKS.
DESCRIPTION OF SANGANEB NATIONAL PARK
The Red Sea contains some of the world’s best coral reefs. Within the Red Sea the
central part, which includes the entire Sudanese coastline and a large section of the
Saudi Arabian coastline, conditions are optimal for coral growth and reef
development, and this is where diversity of reef organisms is greatest. Sangeneb Atoll
therefore lies at or close to the center of marine biodiversity in the Red Sea.
In addition to their unique geological structure, the reefs at Sanganeb National Park
(SNP) are unusual in that they are in excellent overall condition, have a high species
richness with a large number of flagship species (e.g. large fish, sharks etc.), are not
immediately threatened by human activity and have good potential for non-extractive
development compatible with the conservation aims of the park (e.g. tourism, bioprospecting). Having no resident population and not being an important traditional
fishing ground, also adds to SNP being a strong candidate for effective management.
Indeed, since at least the early 1980’s Sanganeb Atoll has been identified as a
potential World Heritage Site, and more recently has been suggested again (Pilcher,
2001). Gaining World Heritage Status is a long-term goal of this management plan,
but it is recognised that the area must be managed effectively before this status can be
achieved.
LOCATION AND SIZE
Sanganeb Atoll is located approximately 30km north east of Port Sudan at N19º42’
E37º26’ (Figure 1). Sanganeb is a small atoll by global standards: its maximum length
along its North-South axis is 6.5km, and its maximum width is 1.6km, making it
comparable to some of the smaller atolls in the Pacific Ocean. The area of reef flat
and shallow fore reef is approximately 2km2, and the area of enclosed lagoon is
approximately 4.6km2.
The total area enclosed by the present boundaries of SNP is approximately 22km2.
The buffer zone presented in this plan increases the area of SNP to 270km2.
Topography and Bathymetry
The Red Sea forms part of an extended rift valley caused by the faulting of
continental blocks that have sunk as the Arabian Plate moves away from the African
plate and towards, colliding with the Central Asian Plate. This process has resulted in
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a stepped profile of the continental margin, with the shallowest being less than 50m
deep and supporting numerous fringing and barrier reefs, deeper shelves of 5001000m depth and finally the floor of the Red Sea with its hot brine pools and
metaliferous muds at depths of more than 1000m. Sanganeb Atoll rises from a shelf
with its base at about 800m depth. With the exception of the man-made structures
built on the reef flat in the south, there is no dry land at Sanganeb.
GEOLOGY AND SEDIMENTS
Sanganeb reef is widely reported to be the only atoll in the Red Sea because it
encloses a large central lagoon and it rises 800m from a base on the continental shelf.
There is some debate over what strictly constitutes an atoll, and to be more technically
precise would require both a more rigorous definition of the term ‘atoll’ as well as an
investigation into the geological origins and structure of the Sanganeb reefs.
However, for the purposes of this management plan Sanganeb will be considered as a
true atoll adding to its intrinsic value and uniqueness.
There have been no specific investigations into the sediments of SNP but being
composed entirely of the remains of calcareous organisms, the sediments of Sangeneb
Atoll are likely to be almost 100% carbonate with a very small contribution from
wind blown dust from both the Arabian and African landmasses.
CLIMATE AND OCEANOGRAPHY
Air temperature around Port Sudan varies from a winter minimum of 10-12ºC to a
summer maximum of over 40ºC.Average air temperature in May often exceeds 35ºC.
Surface seawater temperatures range between 26.2 and 30.5 °C, while at greater
depths (150m) they range from 23.9 – 25.9ºC. The Seawater temperature regime can
be categorized as having a low annual variability and a small seasonal temperature
range that is optimal for coral growth and reef development.
Sudan lies within the North African desert and semi-desert sub-zone, and there is no
regular terrestrial runoff to the sea. The average annual rainfall on the Sudanese coast
is about 111mm but it is only after torrential rains, which occur mainly in November
and December, that there is some freshwater input to the Red Sea. This means that
turbidity, particularly for offshore reefs is very low. Underwater visibility is very
good, typically 20-30m, and occasionally reaches more than 40m. Sunlight is
therefore able to sustain plants and corals to a depth of up to 70m.
Salinity in the central Red Sea is relatively high (39 - 41 ppt) compared to most of the
world’s seas and is caused by high evaporation rates and the lack of permanent
freshwater input anywhere along the Red Sea. Salinity is kept in equilibrium by the
inflow of lower salinity seawater through the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, which
connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden and the rest of the Arabian Sea.
From May to October, surface currents flow in a southerly direction, for the rest of the
year they flow northwards. The tidal range in the central Red Sea is about 55cm on
extreme spring tides, but otherwise is about half of this. There is also an annual tidal
cycle caused by differences in pressure between the summer and winter months. In
winter months the sea level is about 100 cm higher than in the summer.
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HABITATS
The structure and zonation of Sanganeb reef is typical for the Red Sea and has been
reasonably well studied (Vine & Vine, 1980; Mergner & Schumacher, 1985), and a
habitat map derived from satellite imagery is presented in Figure 2.
In areas where the reef is wider than about 20m there is an area of back reef that
supports a lower coral cover (less than 15% live coral cover) with patches of sand,
coral rubble and exposed reef framework. Massive growth forms of Porites and
Goniastrea dominate here. Such areas are most extensive to the north of the atoll and
in the area around the Lighthouse.
The majority of the reef flat is in shallow water, particularly in the summer months
when sea levels are about 15cm below those occurring in winter. Coral cover is
moderate (10-30%) and dominated by massive and encrusting growth forms,
particularly colonies of Porites, Gonisatrea and Montipora, but there is a greater
diversity of coral species compared to the back reef. The reef flat supports numerous
herbivorous fish particularly Surgeonfish (Acanthurus sohal) and Parrotfish (Scarrus
sp. and Bolbometopon muricatum). Only around the northern point of Sanganeb is
there an area of slightly deeper reef flat, with an average depth of 2-3m, which is
exposed to the higher wave energy arriving from the North.
Around most of the outer rim of Sangeneb the reef drops vertically by 5-10m to a
debris slope that continues to fall away at a steep angle, often 40º or more, to another
shelf at 20-30m. In some areas (e.g. on the south eastern edge) these drop offs
continue down to depths of at least 50m and more. The drop off from the reef flat to
the reef slope is spectacular because of the diversity of fish life and the variety of
coral. From a diver’s perspective they represent some of the best dive sites because of
the rich marine life and the sense of exposure that comes with diving on vertical cliff
walls in very clear water. This zone supports the greatest diversity of life and is
without question the most important part of the reef from a conservation point of
view.
Little work has been done on the deeper outer slopes that fringe the atoll. Sharks are
known to inhabit this depth range, and more search effort in this zone will
undoubtedly reveal the occurrence of species of fish and corals that have not yet been
observed at SNP.
The lagoon contained by the atoll’s reefs is open to the west. A sill lying at around
10m separates the deeper parts of the central lagoon from open water, and this rises in
places to form small pinnacles and patch reefs. No information is available
concerning the nature of this sill or the benthic life that it supports, and a bathymetric
survey across the lagoon opening would provide useful information that might assist
the safe navigation into and out of the lagoon.
The lagoon itself is a complex of semi-enclosed areas that are partially isolated from
each other by reefs. The southernmost lagoon is the most sheltered and the shallowest,
with depths no more than 20m. Access to the north is possible through a small pass no
more than 3m deep and 5m wide, and on its southern limit there is access to the
Lighthouse via the Northern Jetty. The whole lagoon is fringed with coral and rising
from the lagoon floor are small patch reefs and coral bommies, making navigation
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moderately hazardous particularly at night. Sediments here are likely to be very silty
because very little wave energy can disturb the seabed.
To the north lies another semi-enclosed lagoon, separated from the main lagoon by a
patch reef that rises from about 20m depth. This area is the preferred anchorage of the
live aboard dive vessels visiting SNP. The seabed here is between 20-25m deep and
has a high cover of coral, particularly massive colonies (dominated by Porites lutea)
that can rise 5m from the seabed. Conditions at the seabed are moderately turbid,
resulting in low light levels and a degree of sediment stress for the corals. Further
north lies the main lagoon, which has an average depth more than 20-25m. Most of
the reefs that fringe the lagoon drop vertically to debris slope at 5-10m which
descends eventually to the lagoon floor. There is very little available information
about the nature of the lagoon floor, and this warrants more investigation to establish
the distribution of flora, particularly seagrass, and fauna. In the very northern section
of the main lagoon there is a complex of ribbon reefs that have semi-isolated shallow
pools and provide very sheltered habitats. Overall, the diversity of hydrographic
conditions encountered within the lagoon area is high and this is reflected in the
ecology it supports. Important amongst the ecological roles that the lagoon plays is
that of a fish nursery and spawning ground, including for Sailfish.
The open water surrounding SNP is also an important component of the Park.
Average water depths are 500-800m so marine life here is pelagic, and includes
cetaceans, marine turtles and commercially important fish species. Vine & Vine also
report a pinnacle rising to within 20m of the sea surface immediately to the north east
of the atoll attracts large numbers of schooling pelagic fish.
FLORA
The algae of SNP have been studied by El Hag (1994) and a list of species is
presented in Appendix 7.4. The findings show that the flora of Sanganeb Atoll is
typical for coral reefs of the Indian Ocean and all species have a wide distribution in
the tropical Indian Ocean. There is no published information regarding the occurrence
of seagrass in the lagoon at SNP.
FAUNA
Hard and Soft Corals
Abiotic conditions in the central compartment of the Red Sea are optimal for coral
growth and reef development. Perhaps due to these optimal conditions, the number of
coral species observed in the Sudanese Red Sea is greater than that for either the
northern or southern Red Sea. To the north conditions are sub-optimal due to the low
winter temperature extremes occurring there, and to the south higher concentrations of
nutrients imported to the Red Sea from upwellings in the Gulf of Aden probably limit
reef development by increasing rates of bioerosion, concentration of phytoplankton in
the water column and macroalgal biomass. The hard and soft coral fauna at Sanganeb
Atoll is therefore likely to be amongst the richest in the Red Sea. To date a total of
124 cnidarian species, including scleractinians, have been recorded at SNP (Mergner
& Schmacher, 1985). The composition of coral assemblages within SNP and
elsewhere in the Sudanese Red Sea are generally well known.
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Habitat Map of SNP
Key to Habitat Map
very shallow sand on reef flat
back reef - sandy areas with
occasional coral colonies
Reef flat with high coral cover
Reef Slope (down to 3-5m depth)
shallow lagoon with predominantly
sandy seabed
Scattered coral on sand 5-10m
depth
coral on sand / reef rock ~10-20m
Image Information
Sensor: Digital Globe Quickbird
Acquisition Date: 18th November 2002
Unsupervised Classificiation (ETM1-3)
Atmospheric and Geometric Correction
Processing by: Rebecca Klaus
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Commercially-important invertebrates
There are populations of a number of commercially important invertebrates present
within SNP and of these the most important are trochus (Trochus dentatus, locally
known as kokian) and sea-cucumbers.
Average national exports of kokian for 1980-1997 suggest a harvest of almost 300
mt/year. This places Sudan as the third largest producer of trochus shells, behind the
Solomon Islands at 578 mt/year and New Caledonia at 349 mt/year over the same
period. Sudan is therefore by far the largest producer of trochus outside the Pacific
Ocean (Eltayeb, 1999). The popularity of the fishery probably stems from the lack of
fisheries infrastructure along most of the mainland, particularly the lack of ice-making
facilities and cold storage. However, catch per unit effort and the total catch landed
has fallen recently, and there are strong signs that this is due to over collection.
Trochus was observed at normal population densities on the reef flat during May
2003, suggesting that they have not been over-exploited within SNP.
Exploitation of sea cucumber (bêche-de-mer) along the Sudanese coast was initiated
in the late 1970’s and since then production has been based on two species
(Holothuria sp. and Actinopyga sp.). In 1981, 15 metric tons of dried sea cucumber
was exported. Thereafter, production stopped because of low prices on export markets
and difficulties in collecting but with in the present situation of declining fish and
kokian landings, sea cucumber exploitation has resumed. It is likely that bêche-demer is over-exploited in Sudan (PERSGA, 2000) and recently PERSGA has approved
a project to demonstrate the viability of a sea cucumber hatchery. Both commercial
species of bêche-de-mer were observed on the reef flat in SNP at low population
densities, suggesting that there has been some exploitation in the recent past. Research
on the natural distribution and abundance of both trochus and sea cucumbers is
currently in progress in Sudan.
Pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera and ornamental seashells or ‘surumbak’ (mainly
Strombus and Lambia species) are also collected in Sudan, particularly from the fringing
reefs in shore. Giant clams (Tridacna squamosa and other species) are very abundant
on the reef and may represent a totally unexploited population. Other invertebrates
with commercial potential, particularly from a medical research point of view, include
sponges, nudibrach mollusks and ascidians. No research has been conducted at SNP
on these groups.
Coral Predators
Outbreaks of Crown of Thorns Starfish (COTS, Acanthaster planci) occurred in
Sudan in the 1980’s and were extensively researched by the Starfish Research Group
of Cambridge University. This species can cause severe damage to coral reefs, and
while occasional outbreaks are probably a natural occurrence, it is important that they
are controlled in areas where the reefs are of direct commercial value e.g. dive sites,
as has been done successfully at Ra’s Mohammed National Park in Egypt. COTS
feeding scars were observed on a few Acropora tables in SNP during May 2003,
indicating that while they are present, COTS are presently at normal background
population densities.
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Other feeding scars were also observed on coral colonies, particularly between the
south-west headland and the Lighthouse. The most likely cause is Drupella, a
corallivorous gastropod that can cause widespread damage to corals in much the same
way as COTS.
Fish
The coral reef fish fauna of SNP has been surveyed by Krupp et al (1994) and has
shown to be highly diverse with over 251 species so far identified, with an estimate of
the actual number of species put at over 300. In addition to reef associated species, a
large number of pelagic fish can be observed in the open waters of SNP including
species of tuna, barracuda, sailfish, manta rays and sharks. Of particular interest are
the sailfish that are reported to spawn in Sanganeb lagoon during the early summer
months.
As with the coral reef itself, the diversity and abundance of fish life is one of the key
natural resources within SNP and must be treated accordingly in the Park’s
management plan. A check-list of coral reef fish is presented in Appendix 7.4, but
below is a description of some of the more valuable species, and the management
issues associated with them.
Bumphead Parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum)
Bolbometopon muricatum is the largest of the Parrotfish, reaching 120cm in length,
and forms schools of 25-30 fish. This species feeds on encrusting algae, benthic algae
and live coral; it is the only Parrotfish whose diet is more than 50% live coral, and a
single large individual will consume approximately one cubic metre of coral skeletons
per year, releasing the material again as fine sand. Schools of this fish typically occur
on coastal coral fringing reefs and outer reef slopes where it is most commonly
observed on reef fronts and reef flats. Juveniles most frequently inhabit lagoons, while
adults occur in clear lagoons and on seaward reefs in depths to over 30m. During the
field visit in May 2003 a school of 25 Bumphead Parrotfish were observed feeding
over the shallow reef flat in the eastern section of the atoll.
Individuals of this species live for at least 35 years (maximum age probably 38-40
years), and maturity is not reached until about 9 years of age making them vulnerable
to over-fishing. As a result of its high value and slow rate of reproduction, this fish is
very seriously over-fished and is now becoming increasingly rare. Recently, it was
reported from only 11% of reefs in the Indo-Pacific (Wilkinson, 2002).
Napoleon (Bumphead) Wrasse, (Cheilinus undulatus)
The Bumphead or Napoleon wrasse, Cheilinus undulatus, is one of the largest of all
reef fishes and the largest in the wrasse family. It can reach well over two meters in
length and 200 kilograms in weight. Like many large reef fishes, the Napoleon wrasse
does not appear to be particularly common. Its lifespan of at least 20 years, and low
replacement rates, mean that it is susceptible to even low levels of fishing pressure.
This species is considered a gourmet food fish particularly in South East Asia and is
appreciated for the fine taste and texture of its flesh. It has become a small, but
significant component of the international luxury trade in live reef fish that has
expanded rapidly within the last decade in developed areas of southeast Asia. With
the advent of night spearing and the growing demand for exports, there is
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considerable concern that this widespread but uncommon species is now threatened.
It was included in the 1996 IUCN Red List as vulnerable, and is now a species on
which the Grouper and Wrasse specialist group of the IUCN Species Survival
Commission is focusing. Reefcheck reports that it is present on only 12% of reefs
throughout the Indo-Pacfic Ocean.
Groupers
So far a total of nine species of grouper has been recorded within SNP of which the
Spotted Coral Grouper (Plectropomus maculatus, known locally as Najil) is the most
important commercially and from a conservation perspective. This is a key species for
the Saudi export market, the largest for Sudan’s seafood products. Catches of this fish
now show a high percentage of small individuals because of the widespread use of small
meshed nets, and a symptom that is likely to be a sign of over-fishing. This species is the
focus of grow-out aquaculture in South East Asia (e.g. Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia
and Thailand) but the supply of fingerlings is from wild-caught stocks. The size of the
stock within SNP is not known, but is likely to be relatively healthy because of the low
fishing pressure, and should therefore be totally protected.
Sharks
In winter months, especially from November to April, hammerhead sharks tend to
form schools at the south-west and north-east points of the atoll. These may be
observed at shallower depths around 20m in the early morning (before 09:00) and in
the evening immediately prior to sunset. At other times they remain in deeper water,
at around 70-90m (Vine & Vine, 1980). The reliable presence of sharks and other
large pelagic fish contribute strongly to the value of a diving destination, and since
diving is a non-extractive use of these resources it is completely sustainable. Indeed,
there are significant conflicts between the diving industry and the shark fishing
industry in countries such as the Maldives where both fishing and tourism are very
important sectors in the national economy.
Marine Turtles
Vine & Vine (1980) reported that turtles are frequently sighted in the waters around
Sanganeb Atoll, but more recent anecdotal reports suggest that turtles are now
uncommon. It is possible that SNP is a feeding ground for Hawksbill Turtles, and it is
possible that Green Turtle can be found in the surrounding waters periodically. Not
enough information is available on the status of turtles in SNP, or their use of its
habitats. There are no turtle nesting sites within SNP.
Cetaceans
There are very few data on the identity and distribution of cetaceans in the Sudanese
Red Sea. Anecdotal observations suggest that Humpback Whales (Megaptera
novaeangliae) and Pilot Whales or False Killer Whales occur around SNP during
winter months, and a pod of 8-10 Bottlenose Dolphins (Turciops truncatus) was
observed around the mouth of the lagoon in May 2003. This pod is probably resident
and females from it have been observed to give birth inside the lagoon. Individuals of
this pod tend to approach small boats and bow-ride, which adds greatly to the
potential for dolphin watching tours.
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More research is required to establish which species of cetacean are present in
Sudanese waters in general and those surrounding SNP in particular. Furthermore, in
order not to displace resident cetaceans from their home range in the face of
increasing visitor numbers, it is important to develop a set of guidelines to control
dolphin watching that takes into account the welfare of the animals, particularly
during the birthing season.
NON-INDIGENOUS SPECIES
No alien or introduced species are known to occur at SNP.
RESOURCE USE
The main user groups of SNP are tourists, SPC for the operation of Sanganeb
Lighthouse, and fishermen while shipping also has the potential to impact the Park.
Each of these is discussed below.
Tourism
Tourism is by far the most important direct use of SNP’s resources. Currently the
majority of visitors are divers who are attracted by the world class diving that is
available at Sanganeb Atoll. However, despite the quality of diving available, SNP
only attracted about 800 divers in 2000, rising from 425 in 1987 which is a very small
figure compared to similar sites elsewhere in the world. The underlying reason for
such low visitor numbers should be investigated further, but are most likely due to the
weak perception of Sudan as a tourist destination, difficulties in obtaining tourist
visas, and difficult travel to Port Sudan from overseas.
Lighthouse and Shipwrecks
The Lighthouse is a major feature of SNP with considerable potential for further
development as a Park asset (e.g. as part of the visitor centre, look out point, feature
of interest). As a historic building that adds considerably to the attraction of SNP, it
should be managed and maintained accordingly. Some minor repairs to the
Lighthouse and surrounding buildings are required as well as other measures to
improve the overall appearance of the site.
Two significant ship-wrecks are present within SNP. The first is of a coastal dhow
that struck the outer reef over 20 years ago and the other is of a luxury yacht that sank
in the lagoon after years of neglect. Both are features of interest, particularly the
luxury yacht, ‘The White Elephant’ since it was once owned by Elizabeth Taylor.
Both should therefore be preserved for the benefit of future visitors.
Fishing
Fishing within the Park
Fishing pressure within the Park boundaries is low. There is some hand-lining for
Grouper and Snapper from the Lighthouse jetty and from dive vessels while they are
at anchor, and the catch is for consumption by SPC staff and tourists respectively.
There are anecdotal reports of collecting bêche-de-mer from the reef flats during the
summer months when there are no dive vessels at Sanganeb. There are also reports of
artisanal fishermen targeting grouper as they form spawning aggregations in May,
June and July.
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It should be noted that information about the timing and location of fish spawning
aggregations should be kept as secret as possible and should not be published.
Information of this sort can be used by unscrupulous businessmen to over-exploit
resources to make fast money. Care should therefore be exercised in disseminating the
results of research in this regard.
Description of Dungonab Bay and Mukawaar Island National Park .
Location and Size.
The Dungonab Bay – Mukkawar Island Marine Protected Area (hereafter referred to as ‘the
Dungonab Bay National Park, DBNP, or the Park) lies on the central Sudanese Red Sea coast.
Figure 1A and Figure 1B show the locations of Dungonab Bay National Park and the other
currently developing marine National Park in Sudan at Sanganeb Atoll.
The external boundaries of the National Park.
The southern boundary of the DBNP lies close to and slightly south of Sheikh Okod,
approximately 125km north of Port Sudan. The northern boundary lies to the north of Khor
Shanaab, 195km north of Port Sudan.
On its western (landward) side the DBNP includes a substantial ‘buffer zone’ of coastal land
between 5km and 10km wide. This buffer zone includes the two principal villages of the area,
13
Mohammed Qol and Dungonab. This terrestrial buffer zone will enable the management of
impacts from terrestrial sources, which may otherwise render the MPA ineffective.
This terrestrial zone is essential for successful management of the marine environment.
Protection of subtidal areas is likely to be wholly or partly ineffective if activities on the
adjacent shores are not carefully controlled. Direct and indirect impacts on marine
communities by shore-based activities are a common reason for failure of both short and long
term protection programmes aimed at coastal and marine communities.
On its eastern (seaward) side the Park extends between 6km offshore at its northern end, and
30km offshore in the area of Mukkawar Island and the large complex of reefs to the south of
the Dungonab Peninsula.
The Park extends a straight-line distance of approximately 70 km north-south, and slightly
over 40km east-west at its widest point (Figure 3). The total length of coastline in the Park,
including Dungonab Bay and peninsula and the major islands, is over 200 km. A detailed
description of the boundaries of the Park, and how they should be marked, is provided in
Appendix 1, Legal description of the boundaries of the Park.
Topography and Bathymetry.
Topography.
The mainland shore throughout the MPA is for the most part backed by a gently sloping
coastal plain varying in width from 5km, to the south of Mohammed Qol, to over 30km
north of Dungonab Bay and towards Khor Shanaab. The coastal plain is composed of sandy
and gravel deposits, in many places overlying fossil reefs. The coastal plain is backed by the
Red Sea Hills, rising to over 1500m. In some areas, particularly south of Mohammed Qol,
low raised areas of fossil reef up to 15m high extend to the waters edge. These form the
edges of some significant features, such as Mersa Inkefal.
At the western end of Khor Shanaab the hills approach the coast, and limit easy access to the
shore along the northwestern side of Khor Shanaab. However, between Khor Shanaab and
the northern Park boundary, the coastal plain once again reaches 20km or more in width.
The western edge of Dungonab Bay is formed by the Ras Rawaya Peninsula (referred to in
this Management Plan as the Dungonab Peninsula). This is a low-lying sand and gravel
peninsula primarily composed of extensive areas of fossil reef. The low hills of Jebel Abu
Shagrab and Jebel Tetwaib (important for terrestrial wildlife including the Eritrean gazelle
Gazella dorcas littoralis) are located at the southern end of the peninsula.
Islands.
There are numerous small islands at the southern end of Dungonab Bay, and to the south of
the Bay towards Mukkawar. Islands within the MPA are either:
1) Very low-lying (generally less than 1m elevation) with halophyte vegetation on sand,
overlying fossil reef rock. These islands tend to be small, many being less than 100m
across, or
2) Slightly uplifted (1–2m) flat – topped fossil coral reef, demonstrating the classic
central Red Sea undercut profile at the waters edge.
3) Mukkawar, and Mayteb Kebir are unusual in the Park, being high rocky islands
(approximately 100m and 40m high, respectively) composed of uplifted sedimentary
rocks and fossil reef.
14
Bathymetry.
Dungonab Bay.
Dungonab Bay is approximately 13km across at its southern end, and extends 31km from
north to south. The total area of the bay is 284.5km2. The maximum depth of the bay is
42.5m, with an average of 15.9m (Farah 1982).
There are three main features of the bay:
1. A large southern basin within the Bay. This is separated from the deeper water
outside the bay by a wide shallow sill approximately 5m deep. Maximum depth
within the southern basin is 42.5m, with an average of 34.1m;
2. An almost circular northern basin partially isolated from the southern basin by
islands and another shallow sill. This northern part of the bay reaches depths of 15m,
with an average of 7.2m;
3. The long narrow basin of Khor Naitaib (13km long and 1.5km wide along most of
its length, reaching 22.5m depth, averaging 6.6m) almost enclosed within the
Dungonab Peninsula.
These will be referred to in this Management Plan as the Southern Bay, the Northern Bay,
and Khor Naitaib, respectively.
Other areas.
Immediately to the south and south-east of Dungonab Bay is a large complex of shallow
reefs and islands, rising from a sea floor varying in depth from less than 20m (immediately
to the south of the Dungonab Peninsula) to over 100m, and as deep as 400m or more
(offshore reefs and islands including Mayteb Kebir, Shambaya, Merlot, Angarush and
Abington). The channel between Mukkawar Island and the mainland is devoid of reefs or
shoals except close inshore, where broken or patchy fringing reefs and rocky outcrops on a
shelving sandy sea floor are found along both sides. To the south of Khor Inkifal and
towards Sheikh Okod extensive inshore shallow areas host complexes of seagrass beds and
coral reefs.
The eastern, seaward side of the Dungonab peninsula, and the coast from there northwards to
the northern boundary of the Park, is fringed by continuous fringing reef broken only by the
mouth of Khor Shanaab. This reef is backed along much of its length by a lagoon up to
500m wide, and up to 15 m or more in depth in places. The reef face here drops away rapidly
in stages to over 400 metres. Two important offshore reefs lie within the Park boundaries off
this coast, rising to the surface from deep water.
3.3. Climate and oceanography.
Sudan lies within the semi-desert and desert zone of North Africa. The coastal plain is hot and
very dry, with only occasional and brief fresh water run-off into the sea during the rainy
season in November – December (there are no natural perennial inputs of fresh water on the
Red Sea coast). A consequence of this is low nutrient levels throughout much of the Red Sea,
with resultant low levels of turbidity in many areas. Seawater clarity in the region is thus
generally very high, particularly in deeper water areas and around offshore reefs where
visibility of up to 70m has been recorded (PERSGA 2001). However, poor weather conditions
and rough seas can reduce visibility in some shallow inshore areas of the Dungonab Bay
National Park to almost zero at times.
15
During the winter air temperatures in the Park area may fall as low as 15ºC (Farah 1982), but
summer temperatures regularly reach the mid 40s centigrade or higher (Farah 1982, Sheppard
et al. 1992).
Surface water temperatures throughout most of the Sudanese Red Sea range from
approximately 26ºC to 31ºC. The semi enclosed and shallow waters of Dungonab Bay are
highly unusual in this respect: the water temperature here ranges from a low of 19ºC in winter
to approximately 35ºC in summer (Farah, 1982), possibly the greatest range of temperature
variation for any moderately large body of water in the entire Red Sea basin.
At greater depths the Red Sea is globally unique in that its deep waters maintain temperatures
of approximately 21ºC even in the deepest parts, due to the semi-enclosed nature of the sea,
and the circulation patterns this creates (for comparison, the deep waters of the global ocean
have a temperature of approximately 4ºC). As a consequence, water temperature at 150m
depth in the Port Sudan area is in the region of 23ºC – 26ºC (Sheppard & Wells 1988). Similar
conditions can be expected in deeper areas of the MPA.
The unusual oceanography of the Red Sea means that the entire sea is unusually saline. In the
area of Sudan and the Park salinity in the open sea, at approximately 40ppt (parts per
thousand) is significantly higher than that of the global ocean (37ppt). Within Dungonab Bay
the salinity increases steadily from the south towards the northern end, where it can reach
levels of up to 43ppt. At the southern end of Khor Naitaib salinities of 45ppt have been
recorded (Farah 1982). In combination with the unusual temperature ranges found in the Bay
this further emphasises the highly unusual nature of the Bay, and probably explains the
unusual or even unique ecology found within it.
Tidal range throughout the central Red Sea is typically in the region of 55cm in non-enclosed
areas. By contrast, although the restricted water exchange between the bay and the open sea
means that the true tidal range inside the Bay is probably only a few centimetres, tides within
Dungonab Bay are highly variable, being dependant upon wind strength and direction and
associated local forcing of surface water movements. The overall result is irregular and
unpredictable tidal patterns within the bay (Crossland, 1911), where the tidal range never
exceeds 50cm.
Biodiversity.
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden contain some of the worlds most diverse and varied tropical
marine habitats and communities. The combination of high levels of diversity, great
biogeographic complexity, and high levels of endemism found in these bodies of water make
this a region of global importance for marine biodiversity conservation (Chiffings 1995,
PERSGA 2001).
Habitats.
The wide range and complex distributions of habitats within the Park are described in some
detail in Kemp, Klaus & Salem (2002), and that report should be referred to for detailed
accounts. A summary is provided here.
Corals and coral reefs.
These are the dominant shallow marine communities on hard substrates throughout the Park.
Sheppard & Wells (1988) provide a brief summary of previous biological survey work within
the proposed survey area. This was dominated by the work of Crossland (1907, 1911, 1913),
Vine & Vine (1980) and Moore (1985). Vine & Vine in particular described coral
communities at a number of sites inside and outside the bay.
16
Corals are widespread and healthy along all shores of the Bay, including those of the west,
east and north, and around the islands. The exception to this is those of the southern sill,
separating the Bay from the open sea. Corals on this sill were very heavily impacted by the
1998 bleaching, and in places were still over 90% dead in early 2002. Studies by Vine & Vine
(1982) recorded a number of unusual and interesting coral communities at several locations,
including highly unusual monospecific areas of Galaxea.
The Park outside Dungonab Bay is heavily dominated by well-developed coral reefs fringing
both mainland and islands, and by very extensive offshore patch reefs and barrier reefs
extending to approximately 30 km from shore. These coral communities are more typical of
the northern and central Red Sea than those inside the Bay.
The impact of the global coral bleaching mortality event of 1998 is evident throughout most
of the area, but levels of impact are highly variable. At the largest scale there is a significant
difference, already mentioned, between the corals inside and outside the Bay. Those within
the bay are almost entirely unaffected by the bleaching event, but many areas outside the bay
have been severely impacted. The main exceptions to this are the corals of some (but not all)
of the furthest offshore reefs, and those of Khor Shanaab. Corals at these locations are
generally in very good condition. There are scattered pockets of very healthy corals
throughout the rest of the survey area.
The distribution of healthy and impacted coral communities outside the Bay is very patchy,
with many areas remaining in good condition. Many impacted areas show good levels of
recruitment of new corals, but others show no recovery at all. Management measures can aid
the recovery of damaged reefs.
Coral bleaching.
Coral bleaching is of considerable concern in the PERSGA region where it has caused very
extensive coral mortality over the past several years. Most notable was the bleaching event of
1998, although very large areas of coral on the eastern shore of the southern Red Sea (both
Yemen and Saudi Arabia) were killed in a more localised event that probably occurred in
1995 or 1996. Climate change is probably a major factor behind the increasing frequency and
severity of coral bleaching events. Individual developing countries like Sudan can probably
do little to influence the western nations largely responsible for the increasing emissions of
greenhouse gases, climate change and sea level rise. However, national and local efforts can
help to combat the more local impacts of these effects of global climate change, for the
following reasons:



Healthy coral reefs have the capacity for vertical growth to keep pace with sea level
changes. The same is to some extent true of other key habitats including mangroves
and seagrasses. Healthy communities tend to be more resilient than damaged ones.
Healthy coral reefs and other communities / habitats have a greater capacity to
respond to sea level rise, other impacts than degraded communities (although this will
not provide immunity against instances of heavy bleaching).
Maintenance of coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses and other biological communities
may help to mitigate the consequences of climate change locally by protecting
shorelines and reducing erosion.
Seagrasses.
The total area of seagrass estimated from Landsat images is almost 12 km2: a very substantial
area. The extensive seagrass beds are a nationally and regionally important feature of the
Park. This is especially true given the population of globally endangered dugong (Dugong
17
dugon) found here. Most of these seagrass areas are known to be important feeding areas for
dugong.
The main concentrations of seagrasses so far identified are:





Shallow areas of the mainland coast to the south of Mohammed Qol. There are very
extensive seagrass beds towards Sheikh Okod.
The western and southern shores of Mukkawar Island, particularly in and around the
southern lagoons.
The northern and western parts of Dungonab Bay.
The western one third of Khor Shanaab.
Around mangroves at the southern end of the Dungonab Peninsula.
Mangroves.
Mangroves (Avicennia marina) occur at a number of sites throughout the Park. Three or four
sites are particularly important (southern Mukkawar; southern Dungonab peninsula and
Mersa Inkefal). A significant mangrove stand is also reported inside Dungonab Bay, at the
northwestern part of the peninsula.
The mangroves of the proposed MPA are generally in good condition, with little or no clear
evidence (except at one site) of very recent human impact, although camel grazing is a factor
at all the mainland mangrove sites, and may be limiting the further expansion of many of
these mangrove areas.
Mangroves stands near Mersa Inkefal to the south of Mohammed Qol appear to have suffered
very heavy cutting in the past, but may now be regenerating. The mangrove at the southern
end of the Dungonab peninsula is subject to cutting, probably for animal fodder and / or
firewood for the saltworks on the peninsula. This activity is moderately severe in some parts
of the mangrove and should be addressed by management.
Intertidal sand and mudflats.
Very extensive areas of intertidal sand and mud are found in some parts of the Park, including
inside the Bay, and at the western end of Khor Shanaab. These areas are highly productive,
probably contribute very significantly to the total biological productivity and biodiversity of
the Park, and are of national or regional significance as feeding sites for resident and
migratory birds. These frequently neglected habitats, which are often the first to fall victim to
destruction through landfill schemes, pollution, and development, merit strong protection
within the Park.
Other habitats.
Subtidal sediments and deep water areas are also important components of the Park, each
having distinctive species assemblages, and each contributing significantly to biodiversity,
ecosystem function, and productivity of the area. Deeper areas in particular are important to
the whale sharks (Rhincodon typus), manta rays (Manta birostris), cetaceans and other
charismatic megafauna.
Fauna and flora.
Relatively limited studies of the fauna of the Park have to date been carried out, and no
comprehensive species lists have been developed for any group within the Park. Those studies
18
carried out to date have however revealed pronounced patterns in the distribution of indicator
groups within the area.
Invertebrates.
Hard corals are extremely important within the Park, providing the most important cover for
subtidal hard substrates, and creating the majority of reef structures within the Park
boundaries. Although no detailed studies of coral communities in the Park as a whole have
been carried out, the limited studies carried out do show distinct distribution patterns of coral
community types, probably due to the differing environmental conditions found throughout
the area. These patterns fall into two categories:
1. Differences in coral community types inside and outside Dungonab Bay. Extensive coral
communities occur inside the bay, particularly around islands to the west, that may be termed
‘non-reefal’, being on level rocky or gravely substrates, and apparently giving rise to no
biogenic accumulations of rock. In this respect these communities resemble those of Oman
and the Gulf of Aden. The exception to this is Khor Naitaib, where well developed fringing
reefs occur along most of the eastern shore. Coral communities within Dungonab Bay appear
to be very unusual, and possibly of lower diversity than those outside the Bay. Very low
diversity communities such as monospecific Galaxea, and other communities dominated by
just two or three species, in particular Stylophora pistillata are found in several areas,
particularly at the northern end of the Bay and in Khor Naitaib.
Outside Dungonab Bay coral communities appear to be more diverse, and to conform much
more to the ‘normal’ central Red Sea morphology of fringing, patch or barrier reefs with
‘classic’ profiles including reef slope, crest, backreef, lagoon, etc.
2. Differences in coral health. (See also ‘Habitats’, section 3.4.1 above). Coral communities
inside Dungonab Bay are in very good condition with minimal recent mortality. The coral
bleaching event of 1998 does not appear to have impacted inside the Bay. This may be for
one or both of two reasons:
Firstly, corals within the Bay are likely to be pre-adapted to periodically higher water
temperatures than those corals outside the bay. This pre-adaptation is a well-known feature of
corals in other, similarly stressed environments such as the Arabian Gulf (Sheppard et al.
1992), and may have enabled the corals of the Bay to remain unaffected by the bleaching
event.
Secondly, water within the bay itself may have escaped the high temperature anomaly due to
its relative isolation from the main body of Red Sea water. The particularly severe impact
suffered by the very exposed seaward reefs of Mayteb and other areas including the shallow
corals of seaward fringing reefs on and to the north of the Dungonab Peninsula, suggests that
degree of exposure to the open sea was a factor. In fact, both of these factors (pre-adaptation
and degree of exposure) may have played an important role in creating the observed
distributions of coral health in the park.
Outside the Bay coral health is very variable. Some areas (such as the seaward reefs of
Mayteb Kebir, of Mukkawar, and of much of the mainland coast to the south of Mohammed
Qol) have suffered very extensive and high levels of mortality to depths of 10 – 15 m or more.
Others, including Khor Shanaab, the deep water offshore reefs such as Merlot Reef and
Abington, and some coral areas at the southern end of the Dungonab Peninsula, appear to
have escaped completely.
19
Other invertebrates.
Other groups of invertebrates are conspicuous throughout the Park, although to very varying
degrees, and with some groups clearly subjected to very high levels of fishing pressure (see
section 4.3.2 below).
Outbreaks of Crown of Thorns starfish (CoT, Acanthaster plancii) were reported to have
caused extensive damage to corals of the area in the 1970s, particularly inside Dungonab Bay.
CoT and other significant threats such as coral diseases were not present in large
concentrations in the DBNP area in early 2002.
Fishes.
The fish communities of the Park are diverse and varied. Detailed surveys of the fishes of the
area have not been carried out and so species lists are not currently available. However, the
relatively rapid surveys, both of the 2002 study and previously, provide an indication of the
nature of the fish communities of the area.
A striking large-scale pattern in the distribution of fish communities inside and outside the
bay is apparent, similar to the geographical pattern displayed by differences in coral
communities. This pattern in fish species assemblages resembles biogeographic differences
more usually associated with distances of several hundred kilometres. Fish communities
inside the Bay resemble those of the southern Red Sea (Eritrea/Yemen), while those outside
the bay are characteristically northern-central Red Sea.
An implication of this is that studies and monitoring of fish communities should be designed
to provide sufficient replication for communities inside and outside the Bay separately.
Separate species lists for different sites and areas within the Park should be developed for
monitoring purposes, in addition to an overall list.
This characteristic of the proposed MPA emphasises the importance of the area for marine
biodiversity conservation: the Dungonab Bay – Mukkawar area encompasses a variety of fish
communities and coral communities more usually separated by several hundred kilometres.
Turtles.
Both Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas) and Hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) are
common throughout the survey area. Green turtles are particularly widespread, and the very
extensive shallow areas of reef flat and sand at the northern end of Mukkawar Island may be
an area where green turtles gather during the day, waiting for nightfall when nesting takes
place on the nesting beaches of the island immediately to the south.
Hawksbill turtles are common at the extreme northern end of Dungonab Bay, where the areas
of shallow Stylophora corals may form an important feeding area.
Beaches throughout the entire Park, but particularly the islands and the Dungonab Peninsula,
constitute a nationally and regionally significant turtle nesting area. The range of different egg
sizes (assessed on the basis of old, empty, shells) indicates that at least three species of turtle
nest within the survey area.
The extensive sandy beaches on the eastern side of Mukkawar are a mass turtle nesting site of
regional or global significance. This importance had not previously been recognised. At site
SUD/04/11 a total of 409 nest pits were counted along 800m of beach (distance measured
20
using a hand-held GPS). This was less than half the total length of that single beach, and that
beach is only one of several along that shore of the island. A cursory examination indicated
that all or most beaches on this side of the island are likely to be similarly important for turtle
nesting, with a total of perhaps several thousands of nest pits along this 8 – 10km stretch of
shore. This is a key management feature of the proposed MPA, and stringent protection of this
extremely important site is essential.
Birds.
The entire area is significant for birds, and is internationally recognised as an Important Bird
Area, or IBA (Fishpool & Evans, 2001). Every island visited during the 2002 survey, from the
largest to the smallest, is a nesting site for one, two, or more species of birds. Dozens of
occupied osprey nests were recorded during the survey, with up to ten osprey nests (about 2530% occupied) counted on even some of the smaller islands. The occurrence of occupied
osprey nests on flat and easily accessible areas of the mainland shore within 500m of the
larger villages provides an indication of the positive attitude of the local communities towards
the environment. The density of osprey nests in the Park is exceptional, and may be an
indicator of the health of shallow reef fish populations. The use of ospreys as an
indicator has been suggested by Fisher et al. (2001).
A previously unrecorded nesting site for the Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola) is found on one of
the islands (Brasit Island) within the northern Bay.
Apart from pigeons and crows in the vicinity of the major villages, and a single observation of
a number of vultures at a camel carcass, birds other than seabirds (principally terns, gulls,
plovers, egrets and herons) and osprey were rarely observed during the survey.
Dugong.
The dugong (Dugon dugon) is a globally threatened species, with the Red Sea and Arabian
Gulf being home to the last remaining healthy populations in the western Indian Ocean
region. Three dugong sightings were made during the field survey, in northern Dungonab
Bay, on the mainland coast to the north of Sheikh Okod, and in the lagoons of southern
Mukkawar Island.
Given the extremely shy nature of dugongs this is a very large number of sightings for the
survey duration. The common occurrence of dugong throughout the Park, including Khor
Shanaab, as well as outside the Park to both the north and south, is confirmed by local fishers.
The DBNP appears to be home to a globally significant dugong population. The very
extensive areas of seagrass present will be a crucial factor in this, dugong being herbivores
dependent upon seagrasses for their food.
Regular sightings by fishers occur throughout Dungonab Bay, along the mainland shore to the
north and south of the Bay (but more frequently to the south), at Mukkawar, and in extensive
shallow areas around the offshore reefs. Concentrations of dugong occur in the northern Bay,
in the area to the north and south of Sheikh Okod, and around Mukkawar.
The fishing communities of both Mohammed Qol and Dungonab have confirmed that
numbers of dugong are falling rapidly. The fishers blame this on the regular but accidental
capture and consequent drowning of dugong in fixed fishing nets, although dugong have also
on occasion been deliberately shot by soldiers based in the area.
21
Cetaceans.
There is very little information on cetaceans in the Sudanese Red Sea. However, the survey
area is home to at least two species of dolphin: bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and
common dolphins (Delphinus delphis). Both species are seen most frequently outside the bay
(a large group of common dolphins is apparently resident at Shambaya reef). Dolphins are
only rarely seen inside Dungonab Bay. There is apparently no deliberate fishing of dolphins,
although they are occasionally caught accidentally.
Terrestrial fauna.
The terrestrial fauna of the Park is most notable for the presence of a significant local
population of Soemmering gazelle. This species was considered by Nimir (1983) to be
threatened. The population within the Park appears to be principally confined to the
Dungonab peninsula, although it occasionally is more wide ranging.
Non-indigenous and genetically modified species
Introduced species. Introduced species are not currently known to pose a problem within the
boundaries of the National Park. However, introduced Mesquite (Propsopis spp) poses a
local, national and regional environmental threat. Prosopis is known to be present at the
southern edge of the National Park, particularly in the area of Sheikh Okod.
Genetically modified organisms. No genetically modified species are known to have been
introduced into the National Park, or into the surrounding areas.
Settlement.
Dungonab Bay National Park is home to a resident human population of approximately 2000
individuals. There are two main centres of population within the Park, at Dungonab Village
on the western shore of Dungonab Bay, and at Mohammed Qol on the mainland shore
approximately 10km south of Dungonab Bay. A number of other small settlements are
scattered throughout the survey area, and with only one exception these communities are
based largely upon subsistence level artisanal fishing. The exception is the workers at the
Dungonab salt works, on the southern Dungonab Peninsula.
The distribution and relative size of the fishing communities, including the two main villages
and the widely spread much smaller communities, is reflected in the distribution of fishing
boats illustrated in fig. 6. Fisheries are the principal economic activity at all settlements. The
development of fisheries as a coastal activity here is however only a few decades old, the
older tradition of seasonal and semi-nomadic agriculture and pastoralism having been
replaced, largely in the past twenty to thirty years.
Mohammed Qol is the location of the local headquarters of the principality. Population is
approximately 750, in about 115 families. Approximately 40 people here are full time fishers,
although others take part in the fisheries on a part time, seasonal, or casual basis. There were
in 2002 a total of 14 shops and restaurants, many of which gain a significant proportion of
their income from the traffic passing along the coast road, which passes through the village.
Two carpenters are involved in making and repairing wooden boats.
Dungonab village has a population of approximately 430, in about 70 families. About 30
people are full time fishers, although only 16 of these were engaged in fishing at the time of
the 2002 survey. A total of 14 small shops, including 4 tea shops, operate in the village. Four
22
villagers worked for the private Oyster Farm at the time of the survey, and one for the Marine
Fisheries Dept.
Community Services and Infrastructure.
Low population density, budgetary limitations and poor transportation to and from the area
have limited the level of public service provision in the DBNP area. Although some
significant efforts have been made both by government and by NGOs, basic services in the
Park are generally inadequate. The administrative centre of the area is Mohammed Qol, where
the local headquarters of the Principality are located. There is no administrative centre in
Dungonab.
Health services are limited to two inadequately stocked and staffed dispensaries, one in each
of Mohammed Qol and Dungonab. No doctor is resident within the area, these dispensaries
being staffed by health assistants, and the facilities lack most basic equipment.
There are two schools within the Park area, one at each of Mohammed Qol and Dungonab. At
the time of the survey the school in Mohammed Qol had 8 classes and about 130 pupils. The
school in Dungonab also had 8 co-educational classes, and a total of about 65 students. The
Mohammed Qol school services smaller outlying settlements, and a student residence is
provided free to pupils from outside Mohammed Qol. Very few of the students at Dungonab
school are from outside Dungonab village, and there is no student residence provided.
Water is supplied to Mohammed Qol and Dungonab by tanker truck. Electricity is supplied to
the mosque, school, market area and a few of the houses in Mohammed Qol by a generator.
The principal concerns expressed by the villagers of both Mohammed Qol and Dungonab
about services and infrastructure were:

Low quality of drinking water.

Poor health services.

A lack of employment opportunities provided by the outside investors involved in the
area, including the privately owned pearl farm, the sea cucumber fishery, and the salt
works on Dungonab peninsula. All of these businesses were perceived as employing
people from outside the area, and as being users of local resources, without any
concern for the local people, and without contributing adequately to the welfare of
those people.
NOTE: There is considerable potential in the National Park for inappropriate coastal
development and coastal use. This has not yet happened to any appreciable extent, but
unsustainable practices need to prevented before they occur, rather than cured after they do.
This is done through resource-use guidelines, zoning, and related measures.
Transport within the Park.
There are currently no paved roads within the Park, or between the Park and Port Sudan. This
factor, in combination with the distance from Port Sudan, is probably a major reason for the
presently relatively good condition of much of the area, and for the lack of unsustainable
development. However, it is also without doubt a contributory factor in the poor facilities and
infrastructure available for the local people.
There are already apparently plans for development and improvement of the coast road from
Port Sudan to Egypt. A significantly improved, coast road, particularly if it is paved, will
result in access to the Park from major population centres being made easier by at least an
23
order of magnitude. Currently it takes between 5 and 10 hours to reach the Park by road from
Port Sudan. A paved road would potentially reduce this journey time to little more than an
hour, vastly increasing the potential for unsustainable use and destruction of natural resources
of the area.
As mentioned elsewhere, the route of the coast road currently runs close to the shore
throughout much of the Park, and in a number of places within just metres of beaches,
mangroves and coral reefs.
The road to the salt works on Dungonab peninsula is the only access route to the whole area
of the peninsula, eastern Dungonab Bay and Khor Naitaib, and is also currently unpaved.
3.5.3. Land ownership.
There are two main tribal groups in the survey area: the Korbeb, which is more numerous in
Mohammed Qol and the south of the area, and the Beshareen, which is more numerous in
Dungonab Village and the north of the area. Relations between these groups are generally
good, although rivalry can sometimes be intense. Intertribal relations, including the
distribution of land rights between tribes, are governed by agreements between the tribal
leaders.
Fishing.
Key Points:

There is a pronounced lack of effective fisheries management in the area at present.

Some high value species, particularly nagil (Plectropomus spp) appear to be heavily
over fished.

There are signs of overfishing in a number of the invertebrate fisheries, particularly
for Trochus (kokian) and for sea cucumber.

Commercial trawling appears to have already resulted in the loss (long term or
possibly permanent) of some populations, probably through removal of spawning
aggregations. The species involved are uncertain, but anecdotal accounts indicate that
they are most likely to have been snappers (Lutjanus spp.)

The impacts of the local artisanal fishery on dugong are a major cause for concern.
Methods causing the steep decline in dugong populations (fixed nets) should be
phased out (see section 3.4.2. above).

The introduction of ecosystem-based fishery management (including the development
of a network of permanent and seasonal fishery reserves) is required within the Park
to provide refuges from direct and indirect fishing impacts on habitats and non-target
species, and to safeguard the reproductive potential of target species.
All or most fishing activity in the proposed MPA is artisanal and shore – based, or uses small
wooden or fibreglass boats. Industrial trawling and experimental trawling has occurred in the
area in the past, but is now rare or non-existent.
Fishing was not traditionally an important activity for the communities of the area until the
past 30 – 40 years. The main activity of the people was previously pastoralism, the change
from pastoralism to fisheries happening in the 1960s and 1970s due to the development of
fishing cooperatives, encouraged by government policy.
24
Prior to this development alternatives to fishing were available for the local communities. In
addition to pastoralism there was seasonal agriculture, and work for oil and other companies
active in the area. The emphasis on fishing in recent decades has removed these alternatives.
This lack of alternatives, and the resultant dependence on a single area of activity, is
repeatedly cited as a profound concern by the local communities. Observed declines in local
catches of some important groups, probably due to overfishing, add urgency to this concern.
Fin fisheries.
Fin fisheries of the area are typical of tropical reef fisheries in that they are multi-species in
the extreme, although there are favoured or more highly valued species which are
preferentially targeted. The Fisheries Report provides a partial species list which identifies
the more than 25 species or species groups most important for the local fishery, from over 20
families. Highly multi-species fisheries such as this are notoriously difficult to manage for
long term sustainability and maintenance of biodiversity, unless ecosystem approaches are
adopted.
In addition to issues related to the highly multi-species nature of the fishery are those related
to unsustainable practices targeted at single species or species groups.
One of the most valued species in the area is nagil (Plectropomus sp.). This has historically
been a favoured fishery species in the area of the Park, as it is throughout much of the Red
Sea. The deliberate fishing of spawning aggregations of this species began in the Park in
about 1996, with the chance discovery of the main aggregation area at the southern end of
Mukkawar. This fishing of spawning aggregations has since developed into a major fishing
activity for the local communities, even though there are economic and ecological
disincentives for this. These disincentives include:

The price of the fish falls briefly but dramatically during the spawning fishery, due to
the temporarily increased supply. These fish are thus removed from the water in a
concentrated but relatively low-value ‘burst’, rather than over a longer period at a
higher value.

The continued fishing of these spawning aggregations is likely to lead to the collapse
of the resource not only at spawning time, but throughout the year and over a very
considerable area, due to the destruction of reproductive capacity with resultant loss
of recruitment and replenishment. Local fishers have already observed a general
reduction in the abundance of nagil throughout the area. This suggests that collapse of
the local stock may be imminent. The extremely low abundance of nagil seen during
the ecological survey (only a tiny percentage of the numbers that would normally be
expected), and the small size of those that were seen, also indicates that this is likely
to be the case.
Industrial trawling in the area is known to have caused damage to habitats and to some fish
stocks, and is a source of great resentment and concern for the local fishing communities. At
least one spawning aggregation (probably of snappers, Lutjanus sp.) is reported by local
fishing communities to have been trawled several years ago. Typically of such events, that
aggregation has shown not returned. As mentioned above, the often permanent nature of such
depletions is an increasingly well known phenomenon in tropical coastal fisheries worldwide.
Invertebrate fisheries.
Invertebrate fisheries are an important source of secondary and / or seasonal income for the
coastal communities of the area. The most important fisheries are those for sea cucumbers
25
(also termed beche-de-mer, particularly in their processed state); the gastropods Trochus and
Strombus and, to a much lesser extent Lambis, Murex and Tridacna. A fishery for wild
Pinctada is also reported to still exist, although this appears to presently be at a very low level
of intensity.
These invertebrate fisheries are largely seasonal, taking place mostly over the summer
months, and are entirely or almost entirely cash fisheries for export from the area. Buyers for
the products of these fisheries are either from Port Sudan or from outside Sudan altogether,
and almost all of the products, with the possible exception of meat from some of the
gastropods, are exported from Sudan. The sea cucumber fishery in particular is carried out by
non-local fishers for a non-local company, and little or no benefit from this fishery accrues to
the people of the Park.
The huge numbers of Strombus, Lambis and Murex shells found on the shore at every survey
site throughout the entire area testify to both the widespread nature and the importance of
these fisheries. However, there are indications of overfishing in these and the Trochus and sea
cucumber fisheries. Small size of individuals seen, and in-water scarcity of all of these groups
suggests that the area is likely to be a sink for larvae, and as a result of over-collection is
probably not capable of restocking itself.
The only one of these groups that clearly has healthy local populations is Tridacna.
Development of any commercial exploitation of these will result in rapid loss of these
conspicuous and vulnerable animals.
The sea cucumber fishers based in Dungonab village are supplied with SCUBA equipment by
a fisheries company based in Port Sudan (no SCUBA equipment is supplied to the fishers at
Mohammed Qol). Without prompting, the local fishers volunteered the information that many
shallow areas are now fished out, and they have to move further from the village, and into
deeper waters in order to find economically useful numbers of sea cucumbers. This is a
strikingly close parallel to the pattern of extreme over-fishing of sea cucumbers that has
occurred throughout many areas of the Indian Ocean coast of East Africa. It is an indication
that there is an urgent need for effective management of this resource, including the
designation of fisheries reserves in order to protect reproductive potential.
The health and safety of the SCUBA diving sea cucumber fishers is of real concern.
Questioning of the fishers during the reconnaissance phase of the Survey revealed that they
are inadequately trained, and are ignorant of the nature and causes of decompression sickness.
They reported a number of symptoms of decompression sickness, and in some cases these
symptoms have proved debilitating.
The use of SCUBA equipment should be very rapidly phased out for sea cucumber fisheries,
and management for sustainability of the fishery put in place. It may prove necessary in the
medium to long term to close this fishery entirely within the Park.
The provision of alternative livelihoods, including the possibility of alternative (sustainable)
fisheries methods, or alternatively of interim compensation, may be necessary for any
inhabitants of the Park whose livelihood suffers as a result of regulation of the sea cucumber
fishery.
Aquarium fish collecting.
Aquarium fish collecting does not appear to take place within the area of the Park at present,
although there are aquarium fish collecting operations based in Port Sudan. Little information
is available about their activities.
26
Cultural uses.
Sheikh Okod is a locally very significant site for cultural heritage, being the location of a
religious festival that attracts thousands of visitors from Port Sudan, and further, every year.
The character and use of this site should be fully respected and preserved under the Park.
Although it is placed within a Protected Coastline area this is to allow the continued use of the
site for its cultural purposes. It is not to allow any other uses that may interfere with or
otherwise affect the cultural integrity of the site.
Tourism.
Tourism within the DBNP is currently almost non-existent. A very few tourists have briefly
visited the area by land over the past several years, but numbers are not known. Those who
have visited have generally only passed through either without staying at all, or only staying
for one or two days.
In terms of value, the only significant tourism in the area of the Park is probably dive tourism,
although again no figures are available for diving tourism within the Park. With the exception
of a few groups that used a boat based at the commercial pearl farm in the period 2000 –
2001, this activity is entirely based upon boats out of Port Sudan. The boat from the pearl
farm is no longer operating in the area.
Figures for boat-based visitors to the Park area were not available at the time of the 2002
survey, but are believed to be very low (at most a few dozen each year), with most liveaboard dive boats tending to visit areas closer to Port Sudan. Those dive boats that have
visited the Park have tended only to visit outer reefs, where the most spectacular diving is to
be found. No economic or other benefits accrue to the inhabitants of the Park from such visits.
The Dungonab salt works.
The salt works on the southern part of the Dungonab Peninsula has been active for at least
several decades, since the early years of the 20th century or earlier. The salt pans cover a large
area, but with a very low density of human population to work them. The total number of
workers at the plant never exceeds a hundred, and is usually considerably smaller than this.
The salt is exported from the area by truck to port Sudan, these trucks constituting a large part
of the road traffic in the area.
Overall the environmental impact of the salt works beyond its own boundaries appears to be
minimal, and given that the activity has been carried on for almost a century it is clearly
environmentally sustainable in its present form. Any changes in methods or expansion of its
size will however have to be closely monitored, and will need approval from and integration
with the MPA management before implementation.
Improvement of transport links between the salt works and Port Sudan (there are currently no
paved roads within the Park, or between the Park and Port Sudan) will need very carefully
management and control within a Protected Area system. Such improvements to the road
within the Park will open up the entire area of the proposed MPA, including the extremely
important and sensitive habitats of both north and south Dungonab Bay, the Dungonab
Peninsula, and Khor Naitaib, to easy and possibly very damaging access. These areas will be
particularly sensitive to increased or inappropriate use, and will be one of the key areas of
concern for sustainable management and protection within the MPA system.
27
Aquaculture.
There is a long history of aquaculture within the Park. This has historically been for oysters,
originating in the early years of the 20th century. Recently there have been two aquaculture
initiatives within the Park:


A government – sponsored oyster farm to provide employment and income to the
inhabitants of Dungonab village,
A privately sponsored farm, with headquarters based to the south of Dungonab, and
operations spread across large areas of the bay.
The government sponsored farm. This had recently ceased working at the time of the 2002
survey due to outbreaks of disease that repeatedly destroyed the oyster stocks. These
outbreaks have been a recurring feature of oyster culture attempts in the Bay since the early
20th century.
The private pearl oyster farm. At the time of the survey the private oyster farm was
experiencing severe problems with the same mass die-off of oysters which resulted in the
closure of the government sponsored project. As a result in early 2002 it was uncertain
whether the farm would continue to operate inside the bay, move out of the bay into waters
near Mukkawar, or cease operations altogether.
The activities of the oyster farms need not conflict with the design, implementation or
management of an MPA, and it should be possible for this activity to successfully coexist
with an MPA in the long term, provided that it remains the environmentally benign activity
that it presently appears to be.
The exception to this is the large amount of plastic litter throughout the Park that originates
from the oyster farm (this plastic, used as part of the spat-collecting activities of the farm, is
conspicuous along the shoreline almost everywhere in the Park, even at the southern end of
Mukkawar Island and as far south as Sheikh Okod). This issue must be addressed by the
oyster farm, either by preventing the loss of this material in the first place, or by organising
and funding regular Park-wide clean-up operations to remove it, and dispose of it properly.
Egg collecting: sea birds and turtles.
Both sea bird and turtle eggs are collected for local consumption (see Section 3.4.2). In both
cases this activity currently occurs at a low subsistence or opportunistic level, and little or no
trade or exchange in eggs takes place. All egg collecting should be strongly discouraged, and
awareness of the conservation issues related to this activity should be included in local public
awareness programmes.
Hunting.
Parties of non-Sudanese hunters from Arabia frequently pass through the Park. These parties
are occasionally quite large, and tend to be well equipped for extended hunting expeditions.
Hunting by these parties, particularly of gazelles, within the boundaries of the Park is known
to have occurred in the past.
All hunting activities by these and any other parties within the boundaries of the Park must be
prohibited. Entry of these parties to any part of the Park should only be permitted if they leave
all hunting equipment, including rifles, dogs and falcons, outside the boundaries of the Park.
28
Penalties for illegal hunting within the boundaries of the Park should be regularised with
penalties for hunting within other Parks in Sudan.
Present Status of Sanganeb and Dungonab National Parks.
Through PERSGA comprehensive Master Plans including dynamic management
plans were prepared for both Sanganeb and Dungonab since 2003. Several project
proposals were formulated and submitted to donors who were reluctant to fund
projects in Sudan. With the advent of the Comprehensive Peace era the Wildlife
Conservation General Administration signed an agreement with the African parks
Foundation (www.africanparks-conservation.Com) to implement the management
plans for Dungonab and Sanganeb NPs. APF has a successful history in many African
Parks including South Africa, Malawi, and Ethiopia. Zambia and Congo. To date the
Dungonab project is in full swing, Staff is in place, rangers being trained and vehicles
procured. Other equipment and boats were requested and infrastructure (offices and
guest houses) are in the process of site selection. Money has been allocated to station
a boat at Shaab Rumi to combat shark poachers there and at the adjacent Sanganeb
Toll. Further plans, Plans to patrol
Sanganeb NP is underway.
Dungonab and Sanganab Marine National Parks Survey Expedition
June 2006
African Parks Foundation organized and funded an expedition for the documentation
and research of Dungonab and Sanganeb MPAS during 17th – 30th June 2006. In
addition to African Parks Foundation the Wildlife Conservation General
Administration, IUCN/EARO, Cousteau Society and the Red Sea University
participated in the survey during. Reputed photographers using video and still
cameras also participated in the expedition.
Objectives of the Survey Expedition




Carrying out final details of ground-truthing surveys (verification)
Obtaining updated information on some key issues (e.g. coral recovery post1998)
Putting in place permanent transects, to form the basis for a long term coral
reef monitoring programme.
Documenting marine and land species and habitat as well as terrestrial
features
Outcomes and recommendations of the Survey Expedition




Detailed groundtruthing data was collected to complement verification of
surveys and image analysis of 2002
Permanent transects were layed down and data on coral, fish ..etc was
collected for future comparative research
More than 30 gigabytes of raw under water video footage was shot to produce
state-of-the-art films. Still photography was also employed to record species
(specially birds), habitat and sea/landscapes
Updated information on some key issues (e.g. coral recovery post-1998)
29




Was obtained
Presentations in Port Sudan the Wildlife Conservation General Administration
and at the African Parks Head Office in Holland elucidated objectives and
outcomes of the expedition
A 30 minutes broadcast about the expedition was shown at prime time in the
Dutch Television
Recommendations to declare Shaab Rumi a separate NP or annex it to the
already declared Sanganeb NP were put forward
Intention to study the Southern reefs and Sawakin Archipelago was expressed
by the survey team
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31