Thinking styles and accessing
information on the world wide web
Jean Lumb
Department of Psychology
University College of North Wales, Bangor
Abstract
This article describes a project which investigates how thinking styles
affect student use of hypertext using concept mapping as an approach to
learning on the world wide web. The project is to be carried out at the
University College of North Wales, Bangor, in the Psychology Department.
Past research relevant to this project is described below.
Learning and hypertext
Current debate about the role of hypertext and hypermedia for learning
centres mainly around the use of hypertext as a cognitive tool for
purposeful learning of complex material. The ergonomic advantages of
hypertext for information retrieval seem to be widely accepted. Some of
the claims made about the advantages of learning from hypertext are more
controversial. Hutchings et al (1992) claim that advantages for users of
hypermedia include greater learner control; improved access to multimedia
learning materials; and a variety of new modalities of interaction for
use with learning material.
Jonassen (1993) states that some hypertext researchers and designers
believe that hypertext information structures should reflect the
structures of human memory as proposed by Bartlett's (1932) schema theory
model of human memory. Schema theory is a non linear model for
representation of knowledge within the human brain. If the structure in
the hypertext interface resembles the way in which the brain encodes
information, this will enable greater changes in knowledge structures of
the learner. By explicitly mapping the semantic network of an expert onto
the hypertext, learners may come to think like an expert more readily.
McKendree and Reader (1994) challenge the assumption that hypertext and
hypermedia resemble the knowledge structures in the brain in some way.
They maintain that knowledge of how the brain encodes information is
poorly understood. Simply having access to information or knowledge does
not presuppose that learning takes place. What is needed is knowledge of
the complex ways in which people learn. Learners need to actively process
information in a meaningful way, to reflect upon and use the information
in order for it to be truly learned. What is needed is knowledge of how
people learn complex material. Jonassen (1993) accepts that merely
illustrating content structures in the interface is not sufficient for
helping learners acquire those structures. He maintains that it is the
nature of the processing task and goals for learning while interacting
with a hypertext that determines the effects of its use on learners'
knowledge.
Barker (1993) states that if hypermedia material is to be educationally
effective, considerable thought should be given to firstly the learning
goals and activities that it must support; how the nature of the underlying
knowledge corpus relates to these requirements; and how learners differ
from each other. Eklund (1995) is positive about the potential of
hypermedia systems for incorporating these principles into hypertext
software. He recommends the incorporation of advanced navigational
devices such as concept maps into the software to inform users of their
place in the process of knowledge acquisition and past and possible new
trails to follow. A semantic (or concept) map is a graphical
representation of an individual's knowledge of a particular subject area
or subject domain. He also recommends the use of an adaptive interface
based on several stereotypical user classes to modify the environment to
suit the individual user with the user making informed decisions about
where next to proceed based on his/her interpretation of the meaning of
materials and at each learner 韘 own pace.
Peter Whalley (1993) questions the validity of the assumption made
sometimes about linear text - that, unlike hypertext, it is unstructured.
He also questions whether it is desirable to deliberately fragment
educational materials in order to make them more accessible. Whalley
states that Grimes (1975) and DeBeaugrade (1980) have shown how under a
superficially linear form, authors may create complex relational
structures. Whalley states that linear texts contain turn taking cues
which promote reflective critical reading. Fragmentation in hypertext
makes it more difficult to perceive the author's intended argument
structure. This makes it more difficult to organise hypertext materials
to support higher level learning. Kommers (1990) describes the failure
of hypertext as a medium to improve learning especially for less able
pupils as they cannot see the wood for the trees. Jonassen (1993) carried
out three studies of the use of concept mapping embedded in hypertext for
learning. One of these studies resulted in improvement in student learning.
The results of these are discussed below.
Jonassen (1990) accepts the premise that learning is the reorganisation
of knowledge structures and has used two tools for depicting those
representations, utilising these tools for learning. The first is Preece
韘 (1976) method of free association of word lists to create a semantic
map of knowledge and Buzan 韘 (1974) technique of notetaking in the form
of pattern mapping of knowledge structures. These techniques have been
incorporated into computer environments such as Learning Tool (Kozma,
1987), Semnet (Fisher et al, 1988) and Pathfinder Nets (McDonald, Paap
& McDonald, 1990) for production of semantic nets. In a set of three
studies, Jonassen (1990) wanted to investigate the extent to which a
semantically structured hypertext affects the acquisition of structural
knowledge, knowledge structures being the organisation of an individual's
ideas.
In the first two studies, individuals took part in a learning task where
material was presented either with or without the expert 韘 semantic map
of the material. In these studies, there was no difference in knowledge
acquisition and structural knowledge gained between subjects presented
with semantic maps compared with subjects who were not presented with
these maps. However, in the third study, experimental subjects were
required to create their own semantic maps of the subject field. There
were still no differences in recall scores. However, in this study,
subjects performed significantly better on the relationship task than the
two groups instructed only to study the materials. These results support
findings of Bower et al (1969) that imposing your own organisation on
material as well as active involvement in processing the material
meaningfully enhances learning. Craik and Lockhart 韘 (1972) studies on
levels of processing also support these results. The more deeply a learner
processes information, the more likely it is that the person will remember
material to be learned.
Thinking styles
One possible way in which to determine the complex ways in which people
learn is to study the way in which they think. Robert Sternberg (1995)
proposes that thinking involves the representation and processing of
information in the mind. One way to view thought is to consider critical
thinking, in which individuals consciously direct mental processes to
find a thoughtful solution to a problem as opposed to noncritical thinking,
in which individuals routinely follow customary thought patterns, without
consciously directing how they think. These two different types of
thinking will be appropriate for different tasks. Sternberg in 1988,
proposed the theory of mental self government. In a further article
discussing this theory, he examines the nature of thinking styles and
impact of current forms of educational assessment on individual students
with differing thinking style profiles (Sternberg, 1992). Mental self
government relates to the task of managing or governing everyday
activities. The flexible use of the mind for mental self government
accounts for a variety of thinking styles.
Sternberg (1992) defines a thinking style as a preferred way of thinking.
It is not an ability, but a preferred way of expressing or using one or
more abilities. Two or more people at the same level of ability may
nevertheless have very different styles. Sternberg maintains that styles,
like abilities are in large part of a function of the environment and they
can be developed. They are also fluid in the sense that different styles
may be used in different situations as styles seem to be partly a function
of tasks and situations. Preferred styles may also change over the
lifespan. However, the fact that some people retain less rewarded styles
despite environmental pressure suggests that socialisation does not
account fully for the origins of styles, and that there may be
pre-programmed dispositions that are difficult to change.
Sternberg & Lubart (1991a) proposes that there is a link between
intellectual (or thinking style) and creativity. Truly striking levels
of creativity are associated with global and legislative thinking styles
compared with local executive thinking styles. Individuals with a global
legislative thinking style prefer relatively large abstract issues,
ignoring details. They prefer the task of creating, formulating ,
imagining and planning. Individuals with local styles prefer concrete
problems requiring detailed work and tend to be pragmatically oriented.
They prefer implementing and applying ideas or plans of others.
Sternberg (1992) maintains that there are consistent biases in
measurements of ability which benefit some thinking styles at the expense
of others. He uses the multiple choice/short answer format as an example
of a type of conventional test commonly used which favours test takers
with an executive, local style and somewhat those with internal
conservative styles as well. He also suggests that the type of student
who gets good grades as assessed by conventional tests 靉 re unlikely to
be the students who are most creative when it comes to generating new ideas
in their research regardless of discipline (see Sternberg & Lubart, 1991a;
1991b, p. 179.) Creative students are more likely to show profiles of
styles that are legislative and global. More recent tests emphasise
critical thinking and analysis, indicating there may be a shift away from
benefiting executive styles.
The aim of this project is to test whether there is an interaction between
thinking styles and learning utilising concept mapping as a learning tool
for managing material presented in either hypertext format or linear
format. It is predicted that one type of learning style will be more
effective with one type of presentation of material. It is predicted that
there will be a significant interaction between preferred thinking styles
and presentation of material in either linear or hypertext formats.
Subjects with an executive, local profile will master factual knowledge
more effectively through a linear approach but not see links between areas
of knowledge as clearly as subjects who have a legislative, global style
profile. Subjects with this second type of profile will perform well on
understanding links between knowledge but will have lower scores on
factual knowledge.
It could be the case that the major role of hypertext and concept mapping
is firstly in the management of learning. Whalley (1993) expresses concern
of writers distance learning materials about the `over organised text
which promotes passive learning which could be a problem for
educationalists designing learning packages using hypertext. Eklund
(1995) has outlined the usefulness of concept mapping embedded in
hypertext for the management of learning, assisting the user in
establishing current knowledge states and planning where to go next. The
use of concept mapping may also have a major role to play in developing
creativity, particularly the truly distinctive creativity described by
Sternberg.
References
Barker, P. (1993) Exploring hypermedia . London: Kogan Page.
Bartlett, F.C. (1932) Remembering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bower, G.H., Clark, M.C., Lesgold, A.M. & Winzenz, D. (1969) Hierarchical
retrieval schemes in recall of categorized word lists. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior , 8, 323-343.
Buzan, T. (1974) Use both sides of your brain . NY: Dutton.
Craik, F.I.M. & Lockhart, R.S. (1972) Levels of processing: a framework
for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Berbal Behavior, 11,
671-684.
DeBeaugrade, R.A. (1980) Text, discourse and process . Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Eklund, J (1995) Cognitive models for structuring hypermedia and
implications for learning from the world wide web. Paper presented at
AusWeb 95 Conference. Sydney, Australia :
URL:
http://www.scu.edu.au:80/ausweb95/papers/hypertext/eklund/index.html
Fisher, K.M., Faletti, J., Thronton, R. P., Patterson, H., Lipson, J. &
Spring, C. (1988) Computer based knowledge representation as a tool for
students and teachers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, New Orleans , LA, April.
Grimes, J.E. (1975) The thread of discourse . The Hague: Mouton.
Hutchings, G.A., Hall, W. , Hammond, N.V., Kibby, M.R., McKnight,C. &
Riley, D. (1992) Authoring and evaluation of hypermedia for education.
Computers and Education , 18, 171-7.
Jonassen, D. (1990) Semantic network elicitation: tools for structuring
hypertext. In C. Green and R. McAleese (eds.) Hypertext: state of the art .
Oxford: Intellect
Jonassen, D. (1993) Effects of semantically structured hypertext
knowledge bases on users' knowledge structures. In McKnight, C., Dillon,
A. & Richardson, J. Des (1993) Hypertext: a psychological perspective .
NY: Ellis Horwood.
Kommers, P.A.M. (1990) Hypertext and the acquisition of knowledge .
Unpublished PhD thesis, Universiteit Twente, The Netherlands.
Kozma, R. B. (1987) The implications of cognitive psychology for computer
based learning tools. Educational Technology ,28(11), 20-25.
McDonald, J.E., Paap, K.R. & McDonald, D.R. (1990) Hypertext perspectives:
using Pathfinder to build hypertext systems. In R.W. Schvanenveldt (ed.)
Pathfinder associative networks: studies in knowledge organisation .
Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
McKendree, J. & Reader, W. (1994) The "homeopathic fallacy" in hypertext:
misconceptions of psychology in design of computer courseware. Applied
Learning Technology in Europe Newsletter , April 1994.
Preece, F.F.W. (1976) Mapping cognitive structure: a comparison of
methods. Journal of Educational Psychology , 68, 1-8.
Sternberg, R.J. (1988) Mental self government: a theory of intellectual
styles and their development. Human Development , 31, 197-224.
Sternberg, R.J. (1992) Thinking styles: theory and assessment at the
interface between intelligence and personality .
Sternberg, R.J. (1995) In search of the human mind . Orlando, US: Harcourt
Brace.
Sternberg, R.J. & Lubart, T.I. (1991a) An investment theory of creativity
and its development. Human Development , 34, 1-31.
Sternberg, R.J. & Lubart, T.I. (1991b) Creating creative minds. Phi. Delta
Kappan , 608-614.
Whalley, P. (1993) An alternative rhetoric for hypertext. In McKnight,
C,
Dillon, A, Richardson, J. Des (1993) Hypertext: a psychological
perspective . NY: Ellis Horwood
http://pandora.nla.gov.au/nph-arch/2000/Z2000-Jun-5/http://computed.coe.wayne.edu/Vol2/lumb.h
tml