The Mexican Revolution
Causes of the Revolution
Recall: During the final decade of the Porfiriato (1900-1910), the Mexican population
(middle, working, and lower classes) increasingly demanded liberal reforms
Universal suffrage
Political and social rights
Fair and just wage
Public welfare
Land rights (protection of property)
Municipio autonomy
Also during the final years of the Porfiriato (1890-1910), the federal government
became increasingly authoritarian, corrupt, and neglected the society at large
Causes of the Revolution
The demands of the Mexican people found a home in many of the liberal movements
that developed towards the end of the Porfiriato
The sixth re-election of Porfirio Díaz in 1910 was the “straw that broke the camel’s
back” for liberal Mexicans, especially those who opposed re-election
Francisco I. Madero
Madero was a well-educated upper class Mexican liberal who supported the demands of
middle, working, and lower class Mexicans
In 1909, Madero intended to ruan against Díaz for the presidency in 1910
Díaz, fearing the strenght of anti-reelectionist liberals, arrested Madero and imprisoned
him in San Luis Potosí
Plan De San Luis
After Madero’s arrest, Díaz won the 1910 election
While imprisoned, Madero created the Plan de San Luis
The plan was a call by Madero to the Mexican people to take up arms against the
Porfirian government
Nov. 20, 1910: the commencement of the Mexican Revolution
The insurrection took hold in various Mexican states  the insurgents consisted of
small rebel bands
These small insurgent groups proved to be extremely effective against the Porfirian
government and the federal army, so much so that the government was unable to
successfully manage social, political, and military problems of the country  Díaz
resigned as president in March 1911
Treaty of Ciudad Juárez
In May 1911, Díaz and the insurgents (called the Maderistas) signed the treaty of
Ciudad Juárez
The treaty made Díaz’s resignation official
The treaty also stipulated for an immediate presidential election
Madero was overwhelmingly elected president in October 1911
After Madero was elected president, constitutional reforms were instituted that allowed
for universal male suffrage (May 1912)  the congress, with a liberal majority, was also
elected by the Mexican populace
Conservative Revolt
The conservative members of the Mexican congress voiced their opposition to liberal
demands (especially land distribution)  division between liberals and conservatives
The division was so profound that the conservatives organized a coup against the
Mexican government in early 1913  the conservatives appealed to the federal army and
a Mexican general, Victoriano Huerta
Led by Huerta, the conservatives assassinated Madero and the vice-president
A new government was established that was both Catholic and conservative, and was
led by Huerta
Response to the Conservative Revolt
Many Mexican states were opposed to the conservative revolt and government,
especially the northern states
Opposition groups developed in these northern states
In the state of Sonora, Álvaro Obregón took command of the state militia
In the state of Coahuila, governor Venustiano Carranza led the resistance
In the state of Chihuahua, Francisco “Pancho” Villa headed a resistance movement
In the central state of Morelos, Emiliano Zapata spearheaded the resistance movement
Response to the Conservative Revolt
The 1913-1914 insurgency against the Huerta dictatorship (conservative government)
had a much more military overtone than the insurgency against Díaz (Plan de San Luis)
from 1910-1911  the Mexican nation became increasingly militarized
A much larger number of Mexican civilians took up arms
Evidenced by Mexican women taking up arms  known as soldaderas
Conflict with the United States
In the first quarter of 1914, the U.S. navy intercepted a transmission that a German ship
was transporting weapons to General Huerta in Mexico
President Woodrow Wilson acted immediately and occupied Veracruz  U.S.
occupation of Veracruz resulted in many Mexican casualties, including civilians

Conflict with the United States
U.S. occupation, therefore, sparked tremendous opposition throughout Mexico
The U.S. was denounced throughout Mexico  American flags burned and destroyed in
Mexico
The actions by president Wilson were strongly disapproved by insurgent leaders,
especially Carranza  the actions of the U.S. were considered as the worst transgression
against Mexico since the Mexican-American War in 1846-1848
Huerta’s forces fought directly against the Americans  Huerta, therefore, was spread
thin as he was simultaneously fighting against the Americans, Obregón, Carranza, Villa,
and Zapata
The Defeat of Huerta
In July 1914, the insurgent groups defeated Huerta and the federal army
After the defeat of Huerta, the Mexican populace demanded peace  only through
peace could the demands of the people be met, and only through peace could a stable
government be created that would meet the public’s demands
Political and social consensus between the various insurrectionist forces, therefore, was
essential
Differing Constitutionalists
Each
of the constitutionalist groups (the insurrectionists) represented disparate sectors
of society and interests
“Obregón was disposed to advance worker-peasant social organization and to develop
the growing call of the middle classes for greater political and social rights.” (Mexico: A
Brief History, pg. 221)
“The Villistas and Zapatistas [were] inclined to advance the social movement by
producing tangible gains in the areas of social rights and land reform” (Mexico, pg. 221)
Carranza “was convinced that the key to peace would be reforms to the 1857
Constitution in order to reliably and unambiguously codify newly won social and
political rights.” (Mexico, pg. 221)  Carranza sought to re-establish order
Differing Constitutionalists
Because the different constitutionalists represented the disparate sectors of the populace
and interests, the different factions were unable to reach a consensus  lack of consensus
meant no unanimous peace
The divisions between the constitutionalists resulted in internal conflict
In 1914-1915, Pancho Villa and Zapata fought against Carranza and occupied the capital
In late 1915, Carranza’s forces rebounded and forced Villa north and Zapata back to
Morelos  Carranza secured the capital
Venustiano Carranza
By securing the capital, Carranza held effective political control in Mexico and sought
to bring stability to the nation  Carranza elected president in 1915
Under Carranza, full and direct political participation in municipio elections returned to
Mexico  the return of civilians to the electoral process in Mexico
Carranza carried out land re-distribution (the return of confiscated land to their rightful
owners)
Although Carranza did not satisfy all of the populace’s demands, such efforts were
successful in bringing a level of peace and stability to Mexico
The Constitution of 1917
Carranza made it clear that revolutionary reforms needed to be structured into
constitutional principles
To that effect, Carranza commissioned a constitutional assembly to carry out that task
 in 1917, the assembly developed a new constitution
The 1917 Constitution contained many elements or principles of the 1857 document
A federalist government in which each state was responsible for applying federal laws
A secular state
Constitutional guarantees (equality for all before the law, universal male suffrage, etc.)
The Constitution of 1917
Articles 27, 82, 83, 115, and 123 of the constitution are examples of revolutionary
reforms that were structured into constitutional principles
Article 27 maintains that the state has the right to expropriate private property for the
public good  the article also maintains that subsoil mineral resources belong to the
Mexican nation
Article 82 stated that no political leaders who attained their positions by armed force
would be recognized as legitimate
Article
83 held for no re-election of government officials
The Constitution of 1917
“Article 115 guaranteed the political and economic autonomy of municipalities for the
first time, thus affirming citizen rights.” (Mexico: A Brief History, pg. 232)
Article 123 regulated such things as “labor contracts, working conditions, and women’s
and children’s labor; and established a minimum wage, an eight-hour workday, and the
right to strike and to arbitration in disputes between labor and capital.” (Mexico, pg. 232)
The Constitution of 1917
The 1917 Constitution consolidated and codified the revolution in Mexico  the
constitution articulated, systematized, and guaranteed the demands of the Mexican people
(the same demands upon which the Mexican Revolution was predicated)
To the present-time, the Constitution of 1917 remains the basis of the Republic of the
Mexican United States
Mexican Culture and Society During and After the Revolution
Revolution as Devastation
At the outbreak of Revolution in 1910, the Mexican population was about 15 million
The civil war that engulfed Mexico between 1910-1917 resulted in nearly 2 million
deaths  nearly one in every eight Mexicans were killed
Recall that the revolution, especially from 1913-1917, mobilized large numbers of
Mexicans  armed Mexican civilians committed a number of atrocities throughout
Mexico
The chaotic nature of the revolution resulted in the deaths of both combatants and noncombatants
Revolution as Devastation
The revolution had a detrimental effect on education in Mexico
Schools were abandoned and destroyed  about 16K primary schools in 1910, 11K in
1920
Attendance in Mexican schools also declined  about 900K children attended primary
schools in 1910, just over 700K in 1920
Inroads for Mexican Women
In spite of the destruction it had caused, the revolution made some significant inroads
for women:
Women actively participated in the revolution as soldaderas
Women also assumed the vacant positions in the labor market left by civilian men
participating in the revolution
Women began to petition for women’s suffrage
Revolutionary Intellectuals
In the early 20th century, a group of young thinkers created an intellectual group called
the Ateneo de la Juventud
The Ateneo de la Juventud sought to reform Mexican ideological thought and education
 these young intellectuals stressed social progress and denounced materialism (material
progress)
For these young intellectuals, particularly José Vasconcelos, social progress (improving
social relations among Mexicans) entailed a re-conceptualization of who the “Mexican”
was
Vasconcelos, La Raza Cósmica, and the Mexican
In
1925, Vasconcelos published his essay La Raza Cósmica
In the essay, Vasconcelos argued that the mestizo was the new universal race
The works of intellectuals such as Vasconcelos created a new understanding of the
Mexican person  the mestizo was equated with the Mexican, thus the Mexican (all
Mexicans) was made up of indigenous and Spanish blood/roots/heritage/culture  the
Mexican was dark skinned (moreno), Spanish-speaking, and working-class
Celebration of Mexican Culture
Intellectuals also believed that social progress could be achieved by celebrating
Mexican culture  extolling Mexican culture would create social unity and thus social
progress in Mexico
In the 1910s, 1920s, and 1930s, Mexican culture was expressed and celebrated in a
number of ways: through festival, dance, song, music, and art
Mexican Art and Artists
During this period (1910s-1930s), a number of Mexican artists became prominent and
world renowned  the art of these individuals not only celebrated the Mexican
past/history, but also depicted the realities of Mexican society
José Clemente Orozco:
The Sleeping Man
The Departure of Quetzalcóatl
Mexican Art and Artists
David Alfaro Siqueiros:
Monumento a Cuauhtemoc
La Nueva Democracia
Mexican Art and Artists
Diego Rivera:
Noche de los Pobres
La Gran Tenochtitlán
Mexican Art and Artists
Diego Rivera:
Dos Niños
The flower vendor with children
Mural Depicting the History of Mexico in the National Palace
Sueño de una tarde dominical en la Alameda Central
New Nationalism
The efforts of revolutionary and post-revolutionary Mexican intellectuals (like
Vasconcelos) and Mexican artists created a new sense of nationalism among Mexicans,
one that persists to this day