Chromosomal Mutation –
- Deletion – lose a piece of a chromosome
- Inversion – piece of a chromosome is reversed
- Translocation – a piece joins onto a non-homologous chromosome
- Duplication – extra piece of a chromosome
- Non-Disjunction - the failure of chromosomes to separate in cell division
Gene Mutation –
- All happen in germ cell: reproductive cell, always stays in gene pool
- point mutation
o could be harmless
o only amino acid might change
o DNA: A-T-A-C-A-A-T-G
o RNA: U-A-U-G-U-U-A-C
- “Frame-shift” mutation
o Will be passed down
o DNA: THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
o RNA: TEF ATC ATA TET HER AT
Prenatal Diagnosis
- Karyotype:
o a display of all the chromosomes in a cell nucleus
o can only identify gene chromosomal mutations
- Amniocentesis
o a technique for diagnosing cells from the developing embryo
o extraction (of a small fluid) and analysis of fetal cells
Sickle Cell Anemia
- hemoglobin: protein that transports oxygen in red blood cells
- there is a point mutation
o causes hemoglobin to be less soluble in water
- glutamine  valine
- sometimes when theres reduced O2 availability, hemoglobin w/ mutation crystallizes
out of the cell
- due to the shape of a sickle cell (#2) it disrupts the blood flow
Codominant:
- A: normal (hemoglobin) alleles
- S:sickle cell
- AA: normal blood cells
- SS: sickle cell anemia
- AS: “heterozygous advantage”
o Resistant to malaria!!!
o Enough to kill parasites
o Carrier, few/no symptoms
Viruses:
- “Cellular fragments” made up of:
- 1. Nucleic acid
o DNA or RNA “retroviruses”
- 2. Proteins:
o Allow the virus to enter the specific host cell
- 3. Different shapes
o Rod, tadpole, flu: sphere
- Phi X: 1977 the first genome to be sequenced (6000 base pairs)
Virus Lifecycle:
- Lytic:
o nucleic acid injected into cell
o replicate the virus within cell
o Too many copies  cell explodes!
- Lysogenic:
o virus nucleic acid is incorporated into the host nucleic acid (prophage)
o something triggers the lytic cell (change in environment)
Domain: Prokaryote, kingdom: Monera (bacteria):
- now “archea” and “bacteria”
- All prokaryotes:
o No nucleus
o Single-celled
- Sorted by:
- Shape:
o sphere (“cocus”)
o rod (“bacillus” yogurt)
o spiral (“sprillum” degrades toxic stuff)
- Cell Wall:
o 1 layer (purple dye) (gram + )
o 2 layers (red dye) (gram - )
- Functions:
o transform small molecules, not in living things, (N2, hydrocarbons, toxic
chemicals)
o decomposers
o attacking human tissue
Monera: how get energy?
- autotroph: make their own food…from energy
o photoautotrph: photosynthesis
o chemoautotrophs: obtain their food from inorganic compounds through
degrading them
- Heterotroph: extracts energy from already made food
o Photoheterotrophs: get some energy from the sun, but need to get some other
Domain: Eukaryote, kingdom: Protists:
- most diverse set of creatures
- first colonies of cells, volvox
- all have nucleus
- all single-celled
- Motile: mobile …can move
o Animal-like protists: (ex. paramecium); parasites (like Plasmodium),
-
o Plant-like Protists – photosynthetic, motile (ex. euglena)
Fungi-like Protists – form spores, not motile (ex. slime mold)
other examples of symbiosis: protists in termites
Endosymbiant Hypothesis:
- How protists were formed
- organelles in eukaryotes that came from (were originally) prokaryotes
o living in these cells with a mutualistic relationship
o went through evolution, biological adaptations
- mitochondrion may have been an aerobic bacteria
- Chloroplasts may have come from cyanobacteria
Kingdom of Fungi:
- neither plan/animal
- 4 types:
o club ex. Mushroom
o sac ex. Yeast
o imperfection, b/c changes in life cycle
o molds = parasites
- mildew, mold, “athletes food”, single-celled
- Cell walls:
o Often made of chitin
- Heterotrophic: often get food from others
- Decomposers: recycling certain nutrients
o Lichens
 Mutualisitc relationship btwn. Fungus + algae
 Alga produces food
 Fungus produces home
Tay Sachs: authosomal recessive disease
- LL: not t.s
- Ll: no t.s = “heterozygous advantage”, carrier: resistant to tuberculosis
- Ll: yes t.s, resistant to tuberculosis
Algae:
- why land?
o More space
o More sunlight
o More nutrients
- What adaptations are necessary?
o Structures to get water
 roots, draw water in
o Structure to move water
 “conductive tissue” also to move nutrients, sugar etc.
o Structures to regulate water (loss)
 Stoma: guard cell, control
 Cuticle: clipped
o Structural support (cellulose)
o Development of pollen
o Development of the seed
 Protects embryo
o Development of the fruit
 Helps disperse seed, methods:
 Fruit eaten
 Through air (fluff on dandelion, propellen)
 Float (coconuts)
Domain, Eukaryote, Kingdom, Plantea:
- non-vascular
o roots only!
o Short!
o Moist environment ex. moss
- Vascular
o 1. Seedless ex. Ferns
o 2. With seeds
 Gynosperms (cones ex. Pine)
 Angosperms (flowers):
 Flowering: monokats (petals: mult. 2,3)
 Differences: dicots (petals: mult. 4,5)
Photosynthesis –
- photo = light
- photons = particles lights made up of
o a unit of light energy
o visible light: normal range of energy
 high energy – blue, violet
 low energy – red
- pigments: absorbs and reflects visible light
o absorb all  black
o in between colors
o reflect all  white
- light reaction
o green pigment (chlorophyll) absorbs light
o Thylakoid: outer part where reaction happens
o converts sun energy  cell energy (ATP, NADPH)
o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oi2_n2wbB9o&feature=related
o
-
-
o Light shines on the chlorophyll inside the chloroplast inside thylakoid inside
PSll
o Light is absorbed, give energy for electrons to jump along proteins (like ETC),
looses energy
o Gives enough energy for H+ to be pushed across the membrane (stroma 
thylakoid)
o Electron goes to PSl makes NADPH
o water split into 2H+ and O2, electron from this splitting goes  PS II
dark reactions
o storma
o powered by NADPH and ATP made in light reactions
o ultimately makes glucose
6H20 + 6CO2 → 6O2 + C6H12O6
Water + carbon dioxide  oxygen + glucose
Light reaction
Dark reaction
Inputs
-sun energy
-water H20
-NADP+
-ADP
-ATP
-NADPH
- CO2
Outputs
-NADPH
-ATP
-oxygen O2
-GlucoseC6H12O6
End!!
Ps. THE PHOTOSYNTHESIS SONG: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C1_uez5WX1o