Description of the Individual Households Modelled
Below is the description of the households where baseline data was collected, and on which
the typical system models were built. The names given are the names of the household heads.
You may notice that about half of the household heads are retired civil servants. There was
no bias in the selection, so this outcome must be considered to have occurred by coincidence.
Liumba’s Household (Cluster 1, sub-cluster 1)
Liumba’s household is located in Kakamega district, Shimanyiro sub-location. The farm size
is 3.23 ha with some of the land being rented in. The household consists of 13 members: the
household head, his wife, 2 daughters, 1 son, 4 grandsons, 3 granddaughters and a labourer
who lives with the family. The grandchildren live here after their parents passed away. The
other sons and daughters of the family have migrated to Nairobi for work. Casual labour is
hired to meet the requirement of the farm during planting, weeding and harvesting. The
household head is a retired civil servant and now works at the farm. At the same time he is a
church pastor, providing the family with off-farm income.
The household operates at subsistence level using manure for crops from their own cattle.
Major crops grown are maize, beans, cowpeas and sweet potatoes. All these crops are grown
for home consumption and only the surplus is sold. Some of the land is rented to grow more
crops to meet the family consumption needs.
They keep one heifer, two cows and two bulls of indigenous breed. The major purpose is
traction. They get little milk for their own consumption. The animals grazed at a communal
land and are also fed with Napier grass and crop residues.
The major source of income is the household head’s salary from the off-farm activities,
proceedings from a posho mill owned by the household and sale of live animals. Major
constraints to this household are high input prices, crop theft and poor roads that make
marketing of the farm products difficult.
Mutobachi’s Household (Cluster 1, sub-cluster 2)
This household is located in Kakamega district, Igulu sub-location. A total of eight members
constitute this household whose structure is as follows: the household head, his wife, 4 sons
and 2 daughters. The eldest child is 10 years and the youngest is 2 years and they are all in
school. Casual labour is hired during peak season to meet the labour demand of the farm for
planting, weeding and harvesting. The farm size is 1.30 ha.
Crops are grown for home consumption and only the surplus is sold. Very little or no
fertilizer is applied, but manure from the farm is used for all crops. Crops grown are maize,
beans, cowpeas, cassava, potatoes and bananas.
This household owns one cow and two bulls (cross-breed), whose purpose is both milk and
traction. They mainly graze at the neighbour’s land (brother to household head) and are
occasionally stall fed with Napier grass and crop residues. Every time after crop harvest, the
cattle is released to graze on the field to feed on crop residues and weeds.
The major source of income for the household is the sale of maize and beans, the sale of milk
and the wife’s off-farm activities (work at other farms). Major constrains to this household
are high input prices and lack of credit facilities.
Ikongo’s Household (Cluster 1, sub-cluster 3)
The household is located in Kakamega district, Eshishiru sub-location. It farms on a 2.43
hectare land. It holds 7 members constituting of husband, wife, 1 daughter, 2 nieces and 2
grandsons. The household takes care of the nieces, while the grandchildren live on this farm
to have access to a better school. A labourer is employed to supplement the family labour for
planting, weeding and harvesting. The other children have left the household to either get
married or in search of jobs in town. Both the husband and wife are retired civil servants and
now work at the farm.
Sugarcane is grown solely for selling to a company in the locality. Maize and beans are also
sold for selling and home consumption. Inputs bought for use in crop farming are fertilizer,
hybrid seeds and pesticides. Manure from the farm is also used. Crops grown include
sugarcane, maize, beans, groundnuts and assorted vegetables.
The breed of cattle kept is cross-breed and their main purpose is milk. There are 2 female
calves, 2 male calves and 3 cows. The farm has paddocks where the cattle graze. Napier grass
is grown to supplement the pasture in the paddocks.
Major source of income for the household is proceeds from crops, milk sale, pension and
remittances from family members. Major constraints to this household are lack of market for
the produce, poor prices and delayed payment for the cash crop.
Mukara’s Household (Cluster 2, sub-cluster 1)
This household is in Vihiga district, Ebukhaya sub-location. The household consists of eight
members, including a husband, wife, three sons, one daughter, one niece and one nephew.
The niece and nephew live here because their parents are not able to support them. Labour is
hired to meet additional requirement for feeding cattle, planting, weeding and harvesting. The
household head is a retired civil worker and now works at the farm.
Major crops grown by the household include maize and beans. Fertilizer and hybrid seeds are
used but in low amounts. Manure from the farm is applied heavily to crops and pasture.
Surplus harvest is sold to supplement the family’s income. Land has been rented in for crops
and pasture.
The breed of cattle kept is Friesian and the major purpose is milk production. An exotic bull
is also kept solely for serving farmers’ cows in the area, bringing some income to the farm.
The herd structure consists of 3 female calves, 4 cows, 1 young bull and 1 reproductive male.
The cattle are zero-grazed all year round and are fed on Napier grass, maize stover and
concentrates. There are also local goats which are kept for selling. They are tethered in the
compound and fed with Napier grass and crop residue.
The main source of income for the family is the sale of milk. The household gets some off –
farm income by doing wage work in other farms. Major constraints to this household are high
input prices, and lack of credit facilities.
Migide’s Household (Cluster 2, sub-cluster 2)
The farm size to this household is 0.72 ha and is located in Vihiga, Vokoli sub-location. The
household consists of a husband, wife, three daughters, two sons and one granddaughter. The
granddaughter belongs to an unmarried daughter. Permanent labour is hired for feeding the
cow, milking and cleaning the zero-grazing unit. Other seasonal casual labour is hired to
assist in planting, weeding and harvesting. The household head is a retired civil servant who
now works at the farm.
Crops grown by the household include maize, beans, bananas and assorted vegetables.
Fodders grown include Calliandra and Napier grass. Fertilizer and hybrid seeds are used, but
in small proportions. Production is for home consumption, the surplus is sold.
The breed of cattle kept by this household is Friesian and is mainly for milk production. Only
one cow is present in this farm. The feeding system is zero-grazing. The cow is fed on Napier
grass, Calliandra, crop residues and concentrates.
Sources of income for the household are: pension received, off-farm activity performed by
the wife, rent received from a commercial building belonging to this household, milk sales
and crop sales. Major constraints to this household are high input prices.
Pwosi’s Household (Cluster 2, sub-cluster 3)
Located in Vihiga district, Ikunga sub-location, this household is established on a 1.99 ha
land. The structure of the household is made up of husband, wife, two daughters, one son,
two granddaughters and two grandsons, adding up to nine members. The grandchildren live
here because their parents went to work in different districts. Older sons and daughters have
migrated to Nairobi for work, while others now live in their matrimonial homes. The
household head is a retired teacher and a former councillor, now working at the farm.
Crops grown by the household are maize, beans, assorted vegetables, sweet potatoes and
bananas. Fertilizer and hybrid seeds are used. Relatively more fertilizer is used on Napier
grass than on crops. Manure from the farm is also used on crops and fodder. Crops are grown
for home consumption, the surplus is sold.
The cattle are exotic of Aryshire breed kept mainly for dairy purposes. The herd structure is
composed of 2 female calves, 1 male calf and 1 cow. They are stall fed with Napier grass,
crop residue and concentrates. A long term labourer has been hired specifically to take care of
the livestock.
Sources of income for the household include remittances from former members, pension,
milk sales and crop sales. A lot of money is spent on managing the health of the household
head. Major constraints to this household are high medical expenses and poor product prices
for crop or livestock products?
Njoroge’s household (Cluster 3, sub-cluster 1)
This household is located in Nakuru district, Kirima sub-location. The land size of the farm is
1.54 ha. The household consists of husband, wife, one son and a 20-year-old male dependant.
The dependant came to live with the family to look for a job, because the farm is located
closer to town than his homestead. Labour is hired to meet the labour requirement for land
preparation, planting, weeding and harvesting. The household head is a retired civil worker
and now works at the farm. The wife is an opinion leader and heads a farmer self-help group.
The household operates as an intensive farm specialized in crop/ horticulture production.
They specialize in tomatoes which are for sale in the local market. Maize and beans are also
grown both for sale and home consumption. An appreciable proportion of fertilizer and
pesticides are applied. Hybrid seeds are used for higher yields. Other crops grown are
bananas, potatoes and assorted vegetables.
A cross-breed female calf is kept. The household is cautious to keep livestock because of the
level of insecurity in the area (cattle theft). They may decide to establish a dairy enterprise
from this calf or sell it, depending on how the situation evolves.
Sources of income for the family include sale of crops and pension. Major constraints to this
household are cattle theft, unpredictable crop market, distance to market and low availability
of public transport.
Wairimu’s Household (Cluster 3, sub-cluster 2)
This household is located in Nakuru district, Karima location on a farm of 1.25 hectare. The
household structure consists of a husband, wife, three sons, two daughters and a grandson.
The grandson belongs to an unmarried daughter. The husband is the household head and
although he stays at the farm, he doesn’t work at the farm, but repairs bicycles.
Maize and beans are grown for the purpose of selling. Fertilizer is used in significant
amounts. The household has rented in some land to plant more crops for selling.
They keep a Jersey/zebu cross-breed cow, which occasionally graze by the roadside but most
of the time is stall-fed. They feed the cow Napier grass and crop residues.
Main sources of income for the household are the husband’s off-farm activities and crop
sales. Major constraints to this household are low availability of public transport, high input
costs and poor market prices for the farm produce.
Njeri’s Household (Cluster 3, sub-cluster 3)
The household farms in a 2.98 ha size of land and is located in Nyandarua district, Karaguini
sub-location. The household consists of a husband, wife, three sons, one daughter and her son
and a 2-year-old dependant. The dependant is an orphan and niece to the household head.
Labour is hired to meet the requirements of the farm. The household head is a business man
who works part time at the farm. The wife manages the farm.
The main crops farmed by this household are maize and beans for sale. Fertilizer and
pesticides are used in good amounts. Hybrid seeds are planted in every season. Other crops
grown are potatoes, sugarcane, peas, sweet potatoes, oranges and assorted vegetables, but for
home consumption. They also grow Napier grass for sale or in exchange for milk
They do not keep cattle anymore as died of diseases, but they have local goats for sale as live
animals. These goats are stall fed with Napier grass and crop residues.
Sources of income for the family are proceedings from the husband’s business and sale of
crops and fodders. Major constraints to this household are cattle diseases, poor product prices
and high input costs.
Too’s Household (Cluster 4, sub-cluster 1)
Too’s household is located in Nandi District, Amptin sub-location. The farm is in a 1.40
hectare land. This household consists of a husband, wife, two sons and three daughters. The
household head and the wife work at farm, while some off-farm income is obtained through
wages received from work at other farms by the household head and the wife.
Maize is the main crop produced by the household and is mainly for sale. Beans are also
grown for sale. Other crops grown include kales and bananas. Fertilizer is used on maize.
Manure is also used on all crops.
One Aryshire cow and its calf are kept for milk production. They graze on communal land.
They are also stall-fed with Napier grass, crop residues and concentrates.
Sources of income for the family include crop sales, milk sales and wages received. Major
constraints to this household are high input prices, poor product prices and low availability of
family labour.
Kurunoi’s household (Cluster 4, sub-cluster 2)
The farm of this household is 3.66 hectare and is located in Nandi district, Baraton sublocation. The household is composed of a husband, wife and one son. A long-term labourer is
hired to take care of the cows, and seasonal casual labourers are hired to meet the labour
requirements for land preparation, planting, weeding and harvesting. The husband spends
50% of his time in a business outside the farm and 50% working at the farm. The wife works
full-time at the farm.
Maize is the major crop produced by the household and is mainly for cash. Appreciable
proportion of fertilizer applied to this crop. Other food crops grown include beans and
assorted vegetables.
Aryshire and Friesian breeds of cattle are kept for milk production. The herd is made up of
two female calves and 4 cows. The cattle graze in the farm’s paddocks all year round. They
are also fed with Napier grass, crop residues and concentrates.
Sources of income for the household include proceeds from the husband’s cattle broking
business, crop and milk sales. Major constraints to this household are poor milk prices, poor
maize prices and low public transport availability.
Murgor’s household (Cluster 4, sub-cluster 3)
This household is located in Nandi district, Kipsotoi sub-location. The farm is 1.45 hectare.
The household consists of a husband, wife, one daughter, two sons and a grandson. The
grandson belongs to an unmarried daughter. Communal work is common for this household,
where they ask neighbours to perform a particular task like land preparation, planting,
weeding and harvesting. They in turn perform by neighbours similar tasks. The husband
works as a night guard in a nearby school, working during the day at the farm. The wife
works full-time on the farm.
Maize and beans are grown as cash crops. Fertilizer and hybrid seeds are used. Other food
crops grown include assorted vegetables and potatoes. Cultivation of land is done by animal
traction. The animals used for this task are two of their bulls, and two borrowed bulls from
the neighbour. The neighbour in turn borrows their two bulls. The farmer owns an ox-plough
that he hires out.
Friesian and Aryshire are the breeds of cattle kept. There are two female cows kept for milk
production and three bulls for traction and one young bull. They graze in the farm’s paddocks
and are also fed Napier grass, crop residues and concentrates.
Sources of income for the family include salary from the husband’s off farm activity, milk
and crop sales. Major constraints to this household are high input costs, poor roads, low
public transport, lack of market opportunities for the crop products and very low milk prices.
Nyambura’s Household (Cluster 5, sub-cluster 1)
This household is located in Murang’a district, Nyakianga sub-location. The farm is on a 1.26
ha of land. The members of this household are the farmer (widow), two grandsons and two
granddaughters. The grandchildren’s parents, who are single, work in Nairobi and could not
afford to live with them. The household head is a widow and works on the farm.
This is an export-oriented farm with coffee as major cash crop. Arabicum flowers are also
planted for export. When coffee prices were high, fertilizers and pesticides were applied.
Currently however, the prices are so low that the farmer cannot afford the required amount of
fertilizer and pesticides. Food crops grown include maize, beans and bananas.
A two-year-old bull is kept to be sold later. It is stall fed with crop residue and Napier grass.
Sources of income for the family are remittances from relatives, coffee and arabicum flower
sales Major constraint to this household are non-payment in coffee, very low coffee prices,
poor health of the household head, high input prices and many depedants.
Ireri’s household (Cluster 5, sub-cluster 2)
This household is located in Embu district, Kiringa sub-location. The farm size is 2.3 ha. The
household consists of a husband, wife, two sons, four daughters, one grandson and
grandmother. The grandson belongs to an unmarried daughter. The grandmother is elderly
and supported by the family. The household head is a retired factory worker from Nairobi,
now working at the farm. The wife has always been at the farm.
Coffee and cotton are major cash crops for export at the farm. Cotton is a distinct crop in this
farm and is grown on a 0.4 ha plot. The household also grows cash crops for the local
markets: tomatoes, watermelon, potatoes and maize. More farming inputs like pesticides and
fertilizer are used on the cash crops for the local market than for the coffee because they give
better returns.
A Zebu cow and a Friesian/zebu cross-breed heifer are kept at the farm in a zero grazing unit.
They are stall-fed with Napier grass and crop residues. They also have local goats, which are
also stall-fed.
Sources of income for this household are coffee sales, cotton sales and other crops sale.
Major constraints to this household are many dependants, non-payment in coffee and very
low coffee prices.
Gachungu’s Household (Cluster 5, sub-cluster 3)
This household is located in Embu district, Kigumo sub-location in 1.92 ha of land. The
household consists of a husband, wife, one son, one daughter, two grandsons and one
granddaughter. The grandchildren’s parents work in the city and could not afford to live with
the children in the city. Some children have moved to the town in search of jobs, while others
have gone to their matrimonial homes. The household head is a retired agriculture extension
officer. The wife has been at the farm all through.
The major crop in the farm is coffee. Mangoes are also grown for export. Macadamia are
present and are sold at the national market. Passion fruits are also present, but are for home
consumption. Other crops grown are beans, maize, potatoes and bananas. Fertilizers and
pesticides are appreciably used. Manure from cattle is also applied on all annual crops.
A Friesian cow is kept for milk production, for both home consumption and sale. The feeding
system is zero-grazing with Napier grass and crop residues.
Sources of income include pension, rent received from a commercial building belonging to
the household, macadamia sale, coffee sales, milk sales and other crop sales. Major
constraints to this household are very low coffee prices, poor roads, and high distance to the
main road.
Ndung’u’s Household (Cluster 6, sub-cluster 1)
This household is located in Kiambu district, Kimathi sub-location. It consists of a husband,
wife and three sons. Casual labour is hired to meet the labour requirements in harvesting
coffee. The household head works at the farm and supplements the farm income with timber
selling business.
Coffee is the major crop. Other crops grown as cash crops or food crops include maize,
beans, assorted vegetables, arrow roots, potatoes, tomatoes and bananas. Fertilizer and
pesticides are applied in appreciable proportions. Manure from cattle is also applied to all
crops except beans and coffee.
Exotic breed of cattle are kept for milk production. The herd consists of one cow, one female
calf and one male calf. They are stall-fed with Napier grass, crop residues and concentrates.
Sources of income to the family are proceedings from the business of the husband’s off-farm
activity, coffee sales, milk sales, other crop sales. Major constraints to this household are
poor market prices for the farm’s products, insufficient fodder and poor coffee prices.
Muruwa’s Household (Cluster 6, sub-cluster 2)
The farm size of this household is 0.98 ha and is located in Kiambu district, Githunguri sublocation. The household consists of a husband, wife, two sons, one granddaughter and a sister
to household head. The sister is an elderly lady and lives with the family to be taken care of.
The household head is a retired teacher, now working at the farm. The wife has always been
working at the farm.
Coffee, Arabicum flowers and avocados are grown for export. Crops like assorted vegetables
also provide cash income to the family. Other crops grown are maize and potatoes.
Fertilizers, pesticides and hybrid seeds are substantially used in maize and assorted
vegetables
An Aryshire cow kept is for milk consumption and sale. In the morning milk is sold to
middlemen who take it to Nairobi and in the evening it is sold to the neighbours. The cow is
stall-fed with Napier grass, crop residues and concentrates.
Sources of income for the family include; Arabicum flower sales, avocado sales, other crop
sales and milk sales. Major constraints to this household are delayed coffee payments, very
low coffee prices, high input costs, lack of market for the farms products and low milk prices.
Moko’s Household (Cluster 6, sub-cluster 3)
This household is located in Kiambu district, Githunguri sub-location and is in a 4.8 ha land.
The structure of the household is made up of a husband, wife, two sons and two daughters.
Casual labour is hired to meet the requirements in land preparation, planting, weeding and
harvesting. The household head has twelve years of education. He works at the farm with the
rest of the members.
Crops for export in this farm are coffee, tea and passion fruits. Proceedings from banana sales
are also an important source of income. Food crops are also grown and include maize, beans,
potatoes and assorted vegetables. Fertilizer, pesticides and hybrid seeds are used in
substantial proportions. Manure from cattle is also heavily applied to all food crops.
This household keeps highly improved Friesian cattle. The herd structure is composed of two
calves, two heifers, one young bull and four cows. A long-term labourer has been hire to take
care of the cattle. The system of feeding is zero-grazing. Besides Napier and crop residues,
other feeds used are concentrates and brewers waste.
Sources of income include sales from the export crops and milk. Major constraints to this
household are poor coffee and passion fruits prices and crop diseases.