Part 3: Cultural Processes
139 What is Culture?
Derives from the Latin cultus, meaning “to care about”
Dates back to Enlightenment, when culture referred to a
variety of human endeavors, such as agriculture
Currently defined as all the ideas, practices, and material
objects associated with a particular group of people
Cultural geographers study how cultures vary over space
140 Cultural Traits
Specific customs that are part of everyday life, including
language, religion, ethnicity, social institutions, and aspects of
popular culture
All have hearths, or places of origin
May expand broadly through processes of diffusion, adoption,
and assimilation; referred to collectively as transculturation
A cultural complex is the group of traits that define a
particular culture
#141 Artifacts, Mentifacts, and Sociofacts
- Mentifacts comprise the ideological subsystem of
culture; including ideas, beliefs, and knowledge, and
how these things are communicated
 Artifacts comprise the technological subsystem of
culture; consisting of material objects necessary for
meeting basic needs such as tools
 Sociofacts comprise the sociological subsystem of
culture; including the expected and accepted patterns
of interpersonal relations within a people group
#142 Environmental determinism vs. Possibilism
- Environmental determinists claim that cultural traits
are formed and controlled by environmental
conditions
- Certain types of people, who come from cultures that
arose in certain physical environments, may be
smarter, more attractive, or more able to govern
themselves as a result
- In possibilism, different environmental conditions
offer both restraints and opportunities to people
living in various regions
- People control their own destinies and deal with
various environmental factors in ways that are
dynamic and contingent and that unfold
unpredictably over history
#143 Diffusion
- Process which an idea or innovation is transmitted
from one individual or group across space
- Relocation diffusion involves spread as a result of
physical movement to a new place expansion
diffusion typically involves spread of an innovation
through communication
# 144 Acculturation
- Refers to adoption of cultural traits by one group
under the influence of another
- May occur as a result of immigration, when
immigrant populations take on the values, customs,
and other cultural traits of receiving society
- Also occurs as a result of colonization; many
colonized cultures, either under force or voluntarily,
adopted cultural traits of the colonizing group
# 145 Cultural Assimilation
- When integration of new arrivals into economic and
cultural mainstream of a host society is complete
- Behavioral assimilation is essentially acculturation;
meaning integration into a common cultural life
through language, intermarriage, and shared
experiences
- Structural assimilation involves two way full
acceptance of cultural values and practices
- Once people of an “outside” culture rise to positions
of political leadership, structural assimilation has
taken place
#146 Syncretism
- The development of a new cultural trait as a result of
the fusion of two distinct but interacting cultures
- Huge factor in cultural change as authentic cultural
traits are modified to make them more appealing to
receiving societies
- For example, in America, many ethnic cuisines are
not eaten in their authentic form; they have been
modified to be more pleasing to the typical
American’s palate.
147- Language
-
-
One of the oldest, most geographically diverse, and
most complex cultural traits on Earth
In the prehistoric past, at least ten thousand spoken
throughout the world
Currently, linguists estimate about five thousand
remaining languages, with Africa and Asia being
most linguistically diverse
In New Guinea, the country of greatest linguistic
diversity, rugged terrain and social mores allow
approx. nine hundred languages to persist into
present day
148- Language Families
A collection of many languages, all of which came
from the same original tongue, but have different
characteristics
About 50 percent of global population speak
languages belonging to Indo-European family
Twenty percent speak languages from Sino-Tibetan
family
Thirty percent speak languages from Afro-Asiatic,
Altaic, Austronesian, or Niger-Congo language
families
149- Indo-European Language Family
The language family tree is broken down into major
languages including Albanian, Celtic, Germanic, and
Italic, among others
Each of these languages is an ancestor to other languages,
such as Latin, in the case of the Italic language branch
Latin has several offspring, including French, Italian,
Portuguese, and Spanish, among others
English descends from the Low German branch of
Germanic offspring
Each language family has a similarly complex tree
encompassing a wide variety of both current and extinct
languages
150- Language Groups
A set of languages with a relatively recent common origin
and many similar characteristics
For example, Spanish and Italian are both part of the
Romance language group; they are both derived from
Latin, they have many related words, and they contain
similar grammatical structures
151. Dialects – Geographically distinct versions of a single
language that vary somewhat from parent form. For example,
English contains numerous dialects, reflecting historical,
social, and geographic differences between many diverse
peoples. While the primary language in Houston, London,
New York, Sydney, and Toronto is English, speakers in each
place have different words for the same thing and different
ways of saying the same word (as reflected in their accent).
152. Pidgins and Creoles – When two groups of people with
different languages meet, a new language with some
characteristics of each may result. If a pidgin evolves to the
point of being the primary language of the people who speak it,
it becomes a Creole. Creole languages frequently developed in
colonial settings where linguistic traditions of indigenous
peoples and colonizers blended.
153. Language Dominance – Many linguists believe that
development of alphabets and resulting literary traditions
contributed to dominance of particular languages and cultures
across the globe. When European nations had colonial power
over certain African and South American countries, they
easily imposed their languages on native populations because
of well-established European alphabets, whereas most native
tongues were passed along verbally. After decolonization,
most European languages remained dominant in former
colonies.
154. Lingua Franca – An extremely simple language that
combines aspects of two or more complex languages, usually
for purpose of trade. Typically lacks fundamental features
common to most full-fledged languages, like verb tense.
Provides an efficient and easy-to-learn means to communicate
economic transactions.
approximately four-hundred million people who speak it as a
second language, and another seven-hundred-fifty million
people who speak it with reasonable competence. Official
language in sixty countries. Generally considered to be the
languages of the Internet and science, and increasingly, the
language of advertising.
157. Language Extinction – Occurs when a language is no
longer in use by any living people. Thousands of languages
have become extinct since language first developed, but the
process has accelerated greatly during the past three hundred
years. Colonialism in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
and economic globalization in the twentieth century have
driven many languages to premature extinction. Causes the
loss of a tremendous amount of history and knowledge.
158. Countering Language Extinction – In the last couple of
decades, movements have arisen to revive native languages. In
parts of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, native languages are
being brought back from near extinction. In Israel, Hebrew
was revived after World War II, when it became an
independent state. Native Americans from Alaska to South
America have begun to establish their distinct and unique
linguistic heritage.
159. Toponymy – The names different cultures give to
various features of the earth including settlements, terrain
features, streams, and other land features. Reveals interesting
aspects of the spatial patterns of different languages and
dialects. In the United States, many names given to American
cities reveal dominant cultures of first inhabitants: “Baton
Rouge”, “New York”, and “San Diego” reveal French, English,
and Spanish influence, respectively, in these parts of the
country.
160. Religion: What Is It? – All have some set of teachings
that imply a value system, include some notion of the sacred,
and include ideas about the place of human beings in the
universe. For many, more than any other cultural trait, defines
who they are and how they understand the world around them.
Because it is tied to all aspects of human culture and social
systems, geography of religion provides insight into
population growth, international politics, and design and
structure of cities.
161. Geographic Distribution of the World’s Major
Religions
- Hindu is most dominant in the Indian subcontinent.
- Islam is dominant in the Middle East, Northern Africa, and
parts of the South Pacific/Southeast Asia.
155. Official Language – Language in which all government
business occurs. Some countries have multiple official
languages, like Belgium and Switzerland. Polyglots are
multilingual states; for example, Canada, where differing
languages cause conflict between secession activists from
French-speaking Quebec and the majority English-speaking
Canadian population.
- Christianity is dominant in Australia, Europe, and North and
South America.
156. English as the Global Language – English has
approximately four-hundred million native speakers,
162. Universalizing vs. Local Religions
- Buddhism is dominant in South Asia.
- Traditional and Shamanist religions are found predominantly
in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South America.
- Universalizing religions claim global applicability and
actively seek new converts.
- Baptist denominations are predominant in the “Bible Belt”
region, which is essentially the southeastern states.
- Local religions are specific to an area; some are ethnic
religions, such as Hinduism and Judaism, others are tribal and
often polytheistic.
- The upper Midwest is predominantly Lutheran.
163. Monotheistic vs. Polytheistic Religions
- Spanish Catholicism is dominant in the southwestern states
of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas; it also has dominant
pockets in Florida.
- Monotheistic religions teach primacy of a single god;
Christianity, Islam and Judaism are monotheistic religions.
- Polytheistic religions teach numerous gods or spiritual
powers; many Native American religions are polytheistic.
- The midland states are predominantly Methodist.
- Mormonism is dominant in Utah and parts of its surrounding
states.
- Catholicism is dominant in the northeastern states.
164. Global vs. Ethnic Religions
- Global religions have numerous members, are widespread,
and their doctrines have global appeal.
- The West (including large parts of California, Idaho, Nevada,
Oregon, and Washington) is largely categorized as being of
mixed religions.
- Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam are global religions.
168. Islam
- Ethnic religions appeal to small groups of people with a
common heritage or to large groups of people living in a
single region.
- Claims about one billion members worldwide.
- Hinduism and Judaism are ethnic religions.
165. Shamanism and Animism
- Distribution is centered in the Middle East and North Africa,
but is found throughout the world, including Europe,
Southeast Asia, and the United States.
- A monotheistic religion, stemming from Judaism, which is
based on belief that Muhammad was Allah’s prophet.
- Local religion types, associated with particular places.
- Tend to attract small, localized followings; often involve
belief in supernatural powers that reside in particular people or
natural phenomena.
- In Shamanism, a single person fulfills the roles of priest,
counselor, and physician and claims a conduit to the
supernatural world.
- Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is the birthplace of Muhammad and
the base for the nation of Islam.
169. Spread of Islam
- Islam began in Saudi Arabia near Mecca and Medina and
diffused originally through expansion diffusion to surrounding
areas, including other parts of the Middle East and Northern
Africa.
- Animism is most prevalent in Africa and the Americas;
Animists see the world as being infused with spiritual and
supernatural powers.
- It then diffused by relocation diffusion to Indonesia and
Malaysia.
166. Christianity
170. Buddhism
- The world’s most widespread religion with about two billion
believers.
- Has approximately three-hundred million adherents
worldwide.
- A monotheistic religion with its origins in Judaism.
- Originated in sixth century B.C. in northern India.
- The three major categories include Eastern Orthodox,
Protestant, and Roman Catholic.
- Traces origins and many traditions from Hinduism.
- Roman Catholicism is prominent in large parts of Central
and South America, North America, and Western Europe.
- Protestantism includes distinct denominations and is
especially prevalent in North America.
- Eastern Orthodox is dominant in Eastern Europe and Russia.
- While still centered in East Asia, has gained an increasingly
large following in Europe and North America since 1950s.
- A pattern attributable in part to emigration by Asian people
to Western nations and in part to Buddhism’s teachings, which
resonate with many westerners.
- Nearly half of Buddhists in the United States live in southern
California.
167. Christian Denominations in the United States
171. Hinduism
- An ethnic religion tied to Indian culture.
- Oldest major religion, at approximately four thousand years.
- Not just a religion; also contains philosophical, social,
economic, and artistic elements.
- Involves more than physical characteristics associated with
race; also includes a person’s perceived social and cultural
identity.
177. Charter Group
- The first ethnic group to establish cultural norms in an area.
- The caste system is an important aspect, which gives every
Indian a particular place in the social hierarchy from birth.
- Each caste defines individuals’ occupation, social
connections, where they can live, clothes they wear, and the
food they eat.
- Sometimes called the “first effective settlement” or “first
self-perpetuating society,” whose imprint affects modern
cultural geography of an area.
172. Judaism
- Cultural geography of the eastern United States was heavily
influenced by British settlers, while southwestern cultural
geography displays more Spanish influence.
- First major monotheistic religion.
178. Ethnocentrism
- Based on a sense of ethnic identity; adherents tend to form
tight-knit communities wherever they live.
- Tendency to evaluate other cultures against the standards of
one’s own, implying superiority of one’s ethnic group.
- In 1948, Jewish people establish their own state in Israel,
which, in addition to the United States, is where most Jews
reside.
- Can be negative in multiethnic societies by provoking social
discord and isolation.
173. Fundamentalism vs. Extremism
- Can be positive when ethnic groups exist in relative isolation
by providing familiarity through traditions, friends, business
opportunities, and political identification.
- Fundamentalism is strict and literal adherence to a set of
principles, beliefs, or teachings.
- Members of any religion can be fundamentalist.
- Fundamentalism differs from extremism, which is violent
fundamentalism, and is becoming more prevalent across the
globe.
174. Sacred Spaces
- Areas or places of religious or spiritual significance.
179. Ethnic Enclaves
- A relatively small area occupied by a distinct culture or
ethnicity, which largely result from chain migration.
- “Little Italy” or “Chinatown” are common names of ethnic
enclaves that exist in numerous American cities.
- Ease the adaptation process by providing business
opportunities, community, and cultural items and traditions
from home such as food and clothes.
- Some are historical, such as the Dome of the Rock and the
Western Wall in Jerusalem.
180. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide
- Some are current, including all the various places of worship
such as cathedrals, mosques, temples, and tabernacles.
- Cleansing involves the effort to rid a country or region of
every one of a particular ethnicity either through forced
migration or genocide.
- Cemeteries are often included in this category as death and
the afterlife are an integral part of many religions.
- Genocide is a premeditated effort to kill everyone from a
particular ethnic group.
175. Interfaith Boundaries and Intrafaith Boundaries
181. Ethnic Neighborhoods
- Interfaith boundaries refer to boundaries between the world’s
major faiths, such as Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam.
-Concentration of people from the same ethnicity in certain
pockets of the city
- Intrafaith boundaries refer to boundaries within a single
major faith, such as the boundary lines that separate different
denominations of Christianity.
-Friends and relatives who have immigrated, encouraging
other back home to join them where opportunities of freedom
are more available
176. Ethnicity
-When forced to live in segregated parts of the city, it becomes
a “ghetto”
- Refers to a group of people who share a common identity.
- First came into popular usage during the 1940s as an
alternative to the term “race,” which was negatively associated
with Hitler’s Nazi regime.
-Ghettos exist in some of the least desirable locations in a city
182. Ethnic Islands
-Small, rural areas settled by a single ethnic group as opposed
to ethnic neighborhoods/ enclaves, which are urban
-Geographers are increasingly interested in spatial behavior
pattern differences between males and females
-Formed in the US by later settlers like Germans in
Appalachians, upper Midwest, and Texas
-Ex. Females. For safety, may be less willing to travel alone in
parts of cities
-Leave their imprint in rural areas via housing, barn style, and
farmstead layouts
-Culture can play a strong role in determining a women’s role
in society, often has implications for economic development
183. Ethnic Provinces
-When entire regions become associated with ethnic/racial
aggregations
-Include French Canadians in Quebec, African Americans in
Southeast US
184. Social Distance
-Measure of the perceived differences between an immigrant
ethnic group and the charter or host society
-Increases with greater perceived differences between groups,
diminishing likelihood of the charter group assimilating the
newcomers
-when distance in high, enclaves exist for much longer than
when it is low
188. Popular “Pop” Culture
-Conveys a nation of cultural productions fueled by mass
media and consumerism
-Includes visual and performing arts, culinary arts, architecture
and city planning, music, fashion, sports, and other
entertainment
-Does not reflect local environment; looks virtually the same
anywhere it appears
-Rapidly changes over time giving terms like trend or fad
being commonly used
189. Cultural Imperialism
-Dominance of one culture over another, like colonization
185. Segregation
-Measure of the extent to which members of a particular
minority ethnic group are not uniformly distributed among the
total population
-Occurs in pop culture today, which is easily diffused across
national boundaries, causing traditions to die out or become
commercialized
-Also called cultural homogenization
-Quantitatively measured using the segregation index/ index of
residential dissimilarity
190. Folk Culture
-Index indicates the percentage difference between 2 ethnic
groups
-cultural practices that form the sights, smells, sounds, and
rituals of everyday existence in traditional societies in which
they develop
-NY in 2000, measured at 82%. Meaning 82% of blacks or
whites need to locate to new census tracts before equal
distribution is achieved
-Usually rural with strong family ties leading to cohesive
group identity
186. Diaspora
-Experiences of people who come from a common ethnic
background but live in different regions
-Often used to refer to Jews or blacks, who maintain aspects of
their common heritage despite living outside their home
community
-Often use music, food, or religion that allow people to
celebrate and maintain their heritage outside of native cultural
regions
-usually forms a subsistence economy where goods are
handmade and people do multiple tasks rather than
specializing
-elements vary dramatically from place to place but don’t
change much over time
#191 Folk Cultures Today
-very few exist today, especially in North America.
187. Gender and Sex
-Many traditions perpetuated, materially and nonmaterially,
through art and other handicraft as well as music, stories,
philosophies, and belief systems.
-Gender refers to socially created distinctions between males
and females, while sex connotes biological differences
between the male and females
-Relics of past folk cultures exist in the present in the form of
different types of houses, food, and drink, and music, and
different kinds of medicines or remedies.
#192 Vernacular Regions
-
A perceptual region defined by perceived unique
physical and cultural characteristics in that area
-
While region boundaries are based on individual
perception, much overlap exists among people as to
where these regions exist
-
For example, most people in the US would define the
boundaries of the Deep South similarly.
-
Many of the defining characteristics are based on
stereotypes, often from mass media sources,
particularly if an individual has not had a direct
experience with a place.
#193 Sense of Place
-
Term used to connote attachment to and comfort in a
particular place
-
Typically individuals have strongest sense of place
attached to where they grow up, which is manifested
by loyalty to sports teams and other items or people
associated with home
-
Many argue that individuals are losing it as placeless
landscapes of pop culture increasingly take over the
unique characteristics of local landscapes.
#194 Placelessness
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Loss of distinct local features in favor of standardized
landscapes
-
Happens as a result of pervasiveness of pop culture
and mass production and availability of a wide
variety of consumables.
-
Fought through the opposition of establishment of
pop culture elements such as big box stores like
Walmart or standardized and stagnant strip malls.
-
Communities fighting placelessness work to promote
local businesses and local characteristics to keep their
place unique