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Hildegard K. Vieregg
ICOFOM and the Role of Museology related to Masterpieces of UNESCO
The topic of my speech is related to ICOFOM and the Role of Museology related to Masterpieces of
UNESCO. That means only a very small sector of the UNESCO Masterpiece-Discussion compared to the
numerous projects defined by the World Heritage Center of UNESCO.
It is also not intended to give an overall overview. Rather I will restrict my contribution to some topics that
seem to me of great importance for on the one hand the museological research and on the other hand a
strategy to encourage persons responsible for museums in practise to think about how a museological
discussion can support the co-operation between world heritage sites, the tangible heritage in the
museums and the protecting and preserving of intangible heritage.
That means that Article 2 of the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, should
be particularly included in the tasks and goals of a museum.
In this concern we should consider the definition given for the Intangible Heritage:
Intangible Heritage is defined as "the practices, representations, expressions, as well as the
knowledge and skills, that communities, groups and, in same cases, individuals recognise as
part of their cultural heritage. It is sometimes called living cultural heritage, and is manifested
inter alia in oral traditions and expressions including language as a vehicle of the intangible
cultural heritage; performing arts; social practices, rituals and festive events; knowledge and
practices concerning nature and the universe; traditional craftsmanship.”,1
(In: Article 2 of 'The Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage". Paris
October 2003)
Let me go back to the history of the idea to create a cultural heritage. The term of the cultural heritage
itself relates to the bishop Henri-Baptiste of Blois in France, who lived in the 18. century. He was the one
who accused 1794 in an essay the damaging and destrudtion of works of art after the French Revolution.
Already 1798 this term was included in a questionaiire of the Academie français.
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In May 1954 – almost two hundreds of years later - was the so-called Hague-Convention
adopted/codificated which was intended to the protection of cultural heritage on the occasion of wars and
international conflicts.
It says that each damage to cultural property to any people means damage to cultural heritage of all
mankind. This is the case because every people is involved in the cultural heritage of the whole world.
1960 was the UNESCO convention on the protection of the cultural and natural heritage decided.
This first convention was also the starting point and gave ideas for one of the most important scientific
projects of UNESCO that is dedicated to the Masterpieces of the World Heritage. It is closely related to
Museums and Museology. The project itself was initiated in 1972. In this context numerous tangible
Masterpieces, famous buildings, monuments etc. cultural and natural important sites – sometimes
including collections or used as museums were also characterised as world heritage.
If we talk about the World Heritage Program of the UNESCO we think also about the Cultural Properties
represented on the World heritage list. It exists since 1972, is meanwhile related to 187 states, about 700
monuments in the history of civilization, about 190 objects of natural heritage, additionally 30 mixed
objects and numerous groups of objects in museums – as we can find an example in the …. Museum of
Seoul, related to nr. 1 of the list….
World Heritage Program of
UNESCO
World Heritage List – Cultural Properties
Tangible Heritage – Intangible Heritage
 UNESCO: Protection of Tangible Heritage
(since 1972, 182 states included)
 About 670 monuments in the history of
civilization, about 170 of natural heritage
 Numerous objects and objectobject-groups in
museums
 Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral
and Intangible Heritage (since 1998)

21.12.2007
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If we talk about the kind of tangible Heritage definitely involved we meet numerous convents,
Monasteries, Palaces of different kind, Monuments and Sites
as e.g.
- the statue Liberty in NY one of the first examples at all (1979)
- the old city of Antigua in Guatemala combined with the Natural national Park of Tikal (1979)
- the historical Centre of the City of Rome in Italy (1979/80)
- the Taj Mahal in India (1983)
- the temple of Apollo in Delphi (Greece) (1987)
- the recently included Sydney Opera House in Australia (inaugurated 1973) and therefore a very young
example as a heritage (2007)
- the Cisterian Abbey of Fontenay in France (founded 1119), a church, a cloister which represents an
excellent illustration of the ideal self-sufficiency as practised by the earliest communities of Cistercian
monks (2007)
- the Palace and Park of Versailles in France (1979, extended 2007)
If we think about the natural Heritage there is e.g. to focus
- on the Grand Canyon, a wonder of the nature as a 450 km long Schlucht in the US-State of Arizona
- on the Dinosaur Provincial Park in the state of Alberta in Canada, connected with the famous Royal
Tyrrell Museum – a Museum for Palaeontology and Anthropology
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Which Kind of Tangible Heritage?
 Numerous
Convents, Monasteries,
Palaces, Monuments and Sites …
 Important Museums:
Museums for Archaeology, Colonial
History, History of Civilisitation,
Music, Ethnology, Handicrafts …
 Museum-Landmarks:
Ecomuseums, „living museums“ of
social relevance …
21.12.2007
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Other Criteria

Intangible:
Intangible:
Independent from
any physical form:
- language
- literature
- oral traditions
- dance
- songs
21.12.2007

Tangible
Importance as
cultural assets for
the functions of
museums:
museums:
- acquisition
- conservation
- presentation
- interpretation
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1998 started the initiative “Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity”1 that is closely connected to museums, monuments and memorial sites. In this proclamation
2001 extraordinary examples of the “Intangible Heritage of the Humanity” from 19 different countries were
included. The Proclamation 2003 took further Masterpieces of 60 states of the world on its list. Those
objects belonging to an international and intercultural “Collection of the World” are in most of the cases
particularly emphasised and adequately signified in museums..2 Concerning the policy for the collections
arose that not only objects of material value but much more the immaterial intangible heritage became
involved – as e.g. witnesses of customs, rituals, music, theatre, dance, written and visual sources,
literature etc.).
1
2
http://www.unesco.org/heritage/html_eng/index_en.shtml.
Vieregg, Hildegard, Reflection on Intangible heritage, in: Vieregg, Hildegard K./Sgoff, Brigitte/Schiller, Regina onn
behalf of the International Committee for Museology (ICOFOM) (Eds.), Museology and Intangible Heritage II, Munich/Seoul
2004, p. 90.
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Starting from the definition of Intangible Heritage this contribution will deal with the following
main points:
Firstly, Museology, Tangible and Intangible Heritage represented in ICOFOM Study Series
2000.
This summary signifies general ideas and a classification of the articles in ICOM Study Series
2000 concerning the topic "Museology and the Intangible Heritage". It was an important step for
preparing the topic "Museums and Intangible Heritage" for ICOM General Conference 2004.
Secondly, Intangible Heritage, Proclamations of Masterpieces by UNESCO and the Role of
Museology
Thirdly, Examples and Prototypes of World Heritage as well as remarks to "Positive" and
"Negative" Heritage
Fourthly, Challenges to Museums and Museology in the Future
Framework for World Heritage
There are certain criteria related to the inclusion on the UNESCO-World Heritage List. Each
member state can suggest extraordinary cultural sites on a tentative list. Those sites have to fulfil
at least one of the following criteria – either as cultural or as natural assets in the history of
civilization.
Criteria for cultural possessions are:
The object
- is a unique artificial achievement, a master-piece of a creative spirit
- it influenced over a long period or in a cultural area of the world the development of architecture,
the urban development or the shaping of landscape development as well as large-scale
sculpture projects
- it is an unique or at least extraordinary witness of a lost civilization or cultural tradition,
- it is an extraordinary example of a building or an architectural ensemble representing an epoch
in the history of civilization,
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- it is an outstanding example of human settlement, typically for a certain manifestation of
cultural development,
- it is connected with events, living traditions, ideas or with religious professions, with artificial
works of art or literature of an outstanding universal importance.
(This last point has – according to the committee joined to one of the material criteria.)
Criteria for natural assets:
The object
- represents an outstanding example in the development of the geological history of the earth,
including phenomena of the evolution, geological processes, geographical and
geomorphological forms,
- it is an excellent example of ecological and biological processes in the Evolution related to the
Eco-system as well as to plants and animals,
- it is an extraordinary natural phenomenon or an area of unusual beauty and aesthetic
importance,
- it includes the most important and most typical natural lebensraum (habitat) for in
situ-protection of biological diversity, included endangered species
Shanghai Charter
”Shanghai Charter” is a very good framework clearing up the importance of creativity, the
adaptability of peoples, localities and communities as frame-conditions concerning ethical and
everlasting values, traditions, languages, oral history and the various ways of life. Shanghai
Charter was drawn up after the 7th Regional Assembly of the Asia Pacific Organisation/lCOM
(October 20-25, 2002 in Shanghai/China), refers also to "Museums, Intangible Heritage an
Globalisation". It describes in fourteen paragraphs the most important "contents" and
responsibilities of Museums and Museologists in regard to "intangible heritage" related to Asia
Pacific Regions. It also focuses on the significance of "intangible heritage" defined in the
preamble, and moreover gives practical advice and tips for using and carrying out the various
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possibilities in order to safeguard the heritage.6 Shanghai Charter is both a model and a
structure - exemplary for other regions of the world, too.
Thesaurus Museologicus
The “Thesaurus Museologicus" is also part of this framework. It is going on to be elaborated as a
specific project of ICOFOM since several years - by the expert André Devallées (Paris/France).
In this concern different criteria are involved and classified by museological points of view. They
are - in each case - respectively clarified by examples of museums of various typology that are
responsible for the conservation of the intangible heritage and its process of development.
In this concern the statement of André Devallées, Honorary President and Permanent Adviser of
ICOFOM, as well as an expert in definitions is of particular importance. He wrote in his article
"Museology and Immaterial Heritage. Musealisation and Visualisation" (2000): "Immaterial and
virtual contents put some important museological questions:
The translation of the words 'intangible' and 'virtual' in English, 'immateriel' and 'virtuel’ French, is
very delicate, because their meanings are ambiguous in each language. The question is not
settled to know, if all the processes (specifically dynamic) which are generally classified in
immaterial range (because we cannot touch them) are not merely part of concrete and real
things which are studied and exhibited with difficulty: These 'real things' that Duncan F. Cameron
has named 'kinetifact' since 1968.
A second question is to know, what we name 'virtual', because it is non visible ... (biological,
chemical and electronic processes) but given in reproduction by apparatus complex digital
processes is not also merely real: it is not settled, if these processes have to be classified in the
'real thing' or 'substitute' range.
In this short survey, we might catch a sight of the immense possibilities provided by the new
technology of information and communication leading to a without wall new range of museum
integrating the world heritage."8
1. Museology, Tangible and Intangible Heritage 2000
The papers in ICOFOM Study Series 2000 represent in a scientific way different perspectives of
Intangible Heritage from different parts of the world:
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- Cultural Identity and Diversity
What you see here is an example from Jakutia in Siberia: on the other hand the shamans who
are believing to magical rituals and on the other hand Jakute people on he occasion of a festivity.
Both of them are from the same ethnic group – but their way to express identity and diversity is
different.
- Inspiration, spiritual and Cultural Heritage
In the context of museology also questions concerning inspiration, spiritual and cultural heritage,
the eventuality of a cyber-world, play a particularly important role. Our example relates to
schamane-rites in the context of inspiration, hunting rituals that are also an important part of
intangible heritage in the North of Siberia and last but not least to the horses-rituals on the
occasion of festivities and the skills. The ornamented horse-blanket is characteristic for it.
- Musealisation and Visualisation
When we have to talk about musealisation and visualisation we have to go back to the history of
museums to the Antique – but particularly to the time of Renaissance – by 16th century - when
the cabinets of arts and curiosities presented the items discovered on the occasion of travels
around the world or the achievements of Natural Sciences in the age of discovery. Musealisation
today includes even the virtuality.
If we talk about visualisation and intangible heritage there is more practical relation: The Russian
lady from Tolstoy-Museum visualises how people worked by the end of 19th century in Russia.
Or: A young girl in a German Art Museum is dressed in a costume and represents the kind of
posture like the lady on the work of art. She not only visualises rather more portrays the lady who
was painted.
- Modes of philosophy
The modes of philosophy in different countries are also an important part of the intellectual
intangible heritage – whether you consider the philosophers of Antiquity – Sokrates and
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Pythagoras – or philosophers of the modern times as Jean Jacques Rousseau or Wilhelm von
Humboldt.
Additional articles in ICOFOM Study Series deal with museums of particular importance
concerning the heritage in contrast to the traditional museum. An up-to-date facet was put by a
contribution related to the intellectual dialogue between museum and school concerning history,
art and culture, nature and techniques.
- Contemporary approach
Sometimes is particularly emphasised on the contemporary approach. On the one hand the
interrelationship between intangible heritage and contemporary art is discussed. On the other
hand the methodology of dealing with relics of the totalitarian past in 20th century as a
depressing and “negative” intangible heritage as well as the remembrance-culture of our society
is focussed.
In this concern I relate particularly to the totalitarian past in both countries Germany – under
Adolf Hitler - and Russia – under Joseph Stalin.
There was a very good example on the IVth Biennale in Krasnoyarsk/Siberia with the theme “Art
of Memory” 2001. The exposition was partly open-air and partly in the Museum Centre. It had the
motto:
”Memory is not only remembrance to the past but rather an indispensable condition for the
future.”
2. "Intangible Heritage", Masterpieces of UNESCO and the Role of Museology
Let me first give a summary related to the different world of thought of the Masterpieces created
by UNESCO.
- Traditions of communities – Festive Events
The pictures show the famous Carneval of Baranquilla in Latin America that was elected as one
of the first Masterpieces.
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It represents in a convincing way an important part of the daily life related to both society and
museums.
In contrary the Japanese calligraphy – as a specific intangible heritage of countries in Asia
shows how intangible heritage depends not only from tangible objects rather more from
mentality, temperament and zest of life.
- Economic traditions, crafts and skills
This example represents different crafts and skills. While the Indios in Latin America deals with
techniques of harvest and are far-reaching independent from a fixed building, the Jakute-people
in Siberia has to deal with the traditional forms of building a house against the temperature with
until to 50 degrees under zero in a dreadful winter.
One may ask what relationship exists to Museology: There is to say that Museums in Siberia
present and deal with those techniques in a similar way as Guatemalan museums – we could
see in the coffee-museum in Antigua – do it concerning the harvest of coffee-plantations.
- National customs
National customs are often in correlation with objects, artefacts, instruments, performances and
cultural spaces. In this context ethnological museums and "Museums of World Cultures" play, on
my view, a particularly important role because they are to be seen in the context and
responsibility of an international evaluation, interpretation and intercultural development.
The pictures show examples from ICOFOM Meetings, the Meeting in Bahia 2003: The
Christmas hayboxes. The Musicians in the museum in Pontal on the occasion of the Meeting in
Rio, and an exciting performance in Hyderabad/India 1988.
- Individual cultural and social expressions
Individual and common, cultural, social and creative terms of expression are independent from
any physical form as e.g. language, literature, oral tradition, dance, songs and non-written music,
but also the knowledge of long-established practices - shape a particular group.
On our examples it is Indian dancers, a dancing group from Ecuador which gave a performance
in the Banco Central in Cuenca – on the occasion of the ICOFOM – and ICOFOM – LAM Meeting
2002, and social and individual performances of the Vienna-Waltz in Austria. I choose this
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example particularly from the reason that the next General Conference of ICOM will take place
in Vienna.
The individual expression of the indigenous people in Australia – the Aborigines – shouldn’t be
forgotten.
In this sphere for example also theatre-museums play an important role because they are
represents of the stage and ether kinds of performing arts. They are focusing on performances
which take place on a certain place, at a certain time and in each case with ether visitors.
Therefore they are connected to a unique power of statement, nevertheless concerning
"tangible" heritage as e.g. the place of events, theatre-costumes, requisites of various kind. What
remains from a performance to the visitors is only remembrance of immaterial and intangible
nature.
- Knowledge of long-established practices
My last example related to the kind of the Masterpieces of UNESCO is on the knowledge of
long-established practices as they are: building a boat by the Eskimos, building passion-groups
as a technique that is very common to many countries during the Holy Week before Easter, Arts
and crafts or playing instruments.
Metaphorical meanings of objects are making up the "tangible heritage" as e.g. its outward
appearance, size and importance as cultural assets.
In this context is to focus on the important function of museums particularly concerning the
acquisition and conservation of these objects, whose scientific interpretation in a historical
context and an adequate presentation. Additionally, formal principles, exemplary in regard to
exhibitions and the symbolic messages to the visitors shall be mentioned.
This examination is corresponding from this reason with an adequate context as of new "theories
of heritage", immaterial, aesthetic and ethic values, virtual "reality", creativity, immaterial
heritage and communities, the spiritual heritage, the interdependence between musealisation
and visualisation, qualities of art and contemporary methods for art-interpretation, the
relationship with the "negative" and indelible heritage of twentieth century as well as the
commemorative culture of our society at present.
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In Germany as well as in many other countries of the world people emphasise on tasks of
UNESCO as education, science and research, culture and communication. The most important
purpose is to distribute the knowledge of the cultural assets. In this regard the International
Council of Museum as well as the sub-committees as ICOFOM – the International Committee for
Museology – are very active.
Already 2004 the German UNESCO Commission started a project on Cultural Diversity. This
was initiated by UNESCO in order to emphasise on the cultural individualities and diversities in
Germany, Europe and all over the world.
This initiative is not without any risk because the cultural expressions and diversities are
principally characterised by a double-nature in both forms: as values on the one hand and
representatives of moral concepts and identities on the other hand.3
This is particularly related to the activities of museums and cultural projects supported by
governments. The specific purpose of the UNESCO has also to be considered in this context: It
should be the aim to achieve a Convention for all of the states of our world. This convention
should on the one hand support the double-character of the cultural values and on the other
hand respect the cultural policy of the government of the day.
The World Heritage of Latin America
The cultural identity of Latin America results in a specific cultural heritage. While in Middle
Europe the Chambers of art and Curiosities in the period of the Late Renaissance became the
starting points for museums and museology, the cultural development of Latin America is
connected with the travels of discovery since the 16th century.
Already in the period between 1980 and 2005 the particular cultural assets were established. In
this concern I will choose some significant examples which can also be considered in an
international context. Those deal with the cultural heritage of Ouro Preto and Congonhas/Brazil,
the Cultur- and Museum-Landscape of Antigua Guatemala and the Jesuit Reductions of
Argentina and Paraguay. Besides the tangible, also the intangible heritage is in this concern of
3
Lüdtke, Hartwig, Das Engagement der Deutschen UNESCO-Kommission für den schutz der kulturellen Vielfalt.
http:www.icom-deutschland.de
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particular importance.
The intangible heritage is in close relationship to the tangible, in the kind of artefacts, objects,
musical instruments, even entire spaces of cultures as the Jesuit-Reductions. The living cultural
heritage, as we can name it, exists in traditions and languages, performing art, social
expressions, rituals and festivities, knowledge and practises related to the nature and the
universe.4
Examples for the Proclamation of Masterpieces 2001
Each consideration of definitions of "Intangible Heritage" was unsufficient without the great
reliability of UNESCO that is of serious consequences for the sciences of museums.
1998 UNESCO started the international initiative "Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and
Intangible heritage of Humanity". 9 Usually, cultural heritage – positive and negative - is
associated with museums, memorial sites and monuments. Nevertheless, it includes also
"Intangible Heritage" which can be defined as "the body of cultural and social expressions that
characterize communities and are based on tradition."10
2001 the First Proclamation was carried out. At that time a list of 19 Masterpieces was
proclaimed that covered the different kinds of Intangible Heritage as e.g. "The cultural Space of
the brotherhood of the Holy Spirit of the Congos of Villa Mella" (Dominican Republic) to "Cross
Crafting and its Symbolism" (Lithuania/Latvia) and "Nögaku Theatre" (Japan).
2003 the Second Proclamation took place. Already between 2001 and 2003 over 60 associated
States evaluated and recommended outstanding examples of intangible cultural heritage of
humanity from the different continents to UNESCO. Finally, twenty-eight Masterpieces were
selected that supplemented the first choice from 2001. They are from Africa (2), e.g. "The Oral
Traditions of the Aka Pygmies of Central Africa"l Central African Republic; Asia (11), e.g. "The
Wayang Puppet Theatre"/lndonesia; Europe (4), e.g. 'The Art of the Meddah, Public
Storytellers"l Turkey; the Arab States (3), e.g. "Song of Saana"l Yemen; Latin America and the
Carribean (6), e.g."The Carneval of Barranquilla"l Colombia; Multinational (2), e.g. Shashmaqom
4
UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Heritage. Article 2 of the convention for the safeguarding of
Intangible Cultural Heritage. Adopted on 1st October 2003. Paris 2003.
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Musicl Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Looked at in this way Ritual Music and Songs, Arts and
Creativity, Literature and Poetry play an important role, not only as "Masterpieces" but also in
relationship to exhibits in museums.
In this context is also to relate to the important functions and tasks of the museums which not
only achieve a lot of scientific work rather much more present the results of their work to the
audience. Particularly related to the Jesuit Reductions an adequate presentation and
interpretation of the sites and objects in an historical, aesthetical, ethical and social context is
necessary.
At the same time, in October 2003, the "Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage" was adopted on the occasion of the 32"d session of the General Conference
of UNESCO.
This Convention was followed by numerous Festivals and Events in different countries, e.g. in
Korea and Mongolia. Anyway, those Festivals could easily become connected with Museums
that are most important representatives for the tangible heritage and intangible culture as a
mirror of Cultural Diversity.
- costume and masks
A study of a definition of Intangible Heritage usually leads to the result that the development is
considered with reference to a positive development of culture and civilisation. In the most cases
objects are presented in this way. The Masterpieces of UNESCO are also chosen in this positive
way. Even exhibits in several so called “War-Museums” or in Memorial Museums are presented
in an artificial and aesthetic way. Therefore it is necessary to focus on this issue particularly.
My contribution relates on the UNESCO World Heritage accepted for Latin American Countries and
particularly to the Jesuit Reductions and Jesuit Missions in the so-called Jesuit-State of Latin America. It
is also to be seen in an international context as well as with Asia.
In this concern I will also relate to the high standard of Museology and the extraordinary efforts to
preserve those Cultural Heritage.
This explanations are also related to the World Heritage in changing Societies, international
Communication and the amalgamation of civilisation, ethical challenges concerning the management of
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the cultural heritage and the responsibility of the Museum.
The Heritage of the Jesuit Missions and the Museological Approach
Former Jesuit Missions, the “Reducciónes”, are historical and inter-cultural prototypes of globalisation in
17th and 18th century in Latin America. They are situated particularly in the present border-area of Brazil,
Argentina and Paraguay 5 – “Paraqueria”. They form an extraordinary cultural heritage that is in the
present used in a museological way.
In these missions – the “Reducciónes” – totally 70 settlements of a specific kind - lived between 1610 and
1768 two 200 000 Indios, mainly the ethnic group of the Guaraní. The centre of the so-called “Jesuit
State” included 30 settlements. The Guaraní and the Jesuits together left a remarkable tangible and
intangible heritage.
Originally about thirty Missions, several of them were between 1980 and 2000 included in the World
Heritage List. These are San Ignacio Mini, Santa Ana, Nuestra Señora de Loreto, Santa Maria Mayor
(Argentina), Ruins of São Miguel das Missoes (Brazil), Jesuit Block and Estancias of Córdoba
(Argentina), Jesuit Missions of La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná and Jesús de Tavarangue (Paraguay). 6
However, the founder of Missions was P. Diego Torres. He initiated the first settlement for the Guaraní
“San Ignacio Guazú” situated about 250 km south from Asunción. Afterwards 30 so-called “Reducciones”
came in existence which built the “Jesuitenstaat” (State of the order of Jesuits). This was an independent
Republic in the centre of Spanish colonies. The settlements were created as “pueblos” situated close to
the rivers Paraná and Uruguay and often compared with “Utopia” (Thomas Morus), “Sonnenstaat”
(“Sun-State”, Tommaso Campanella) and “Gottesstaat” (Augustin’s “City of God”). The descriptions of
Anton Sepp are valid up to now and form an excellent source on Museology, too. Nowadays the Jesuit
Reductions are used as Museums. They reflect in a particular way the cultural interrelationship between
the native culture of the Guaraní and European cultural influences particularly by the Jesuits. In this
concern the former Jesuit Reductions are a specific type of Museums for Ethnology.
Equivalence of Cultures – Museum Landmarks in Latin America
This nearly un-known type of Museum is in Latin-America of individual relevance. This means
foundations that came into existence in the 17th and 18th century by early globalisation initiated by
5
The area included in former times also parts of Uruguay and Bolivia which are not discussed in this concern. There were
other holy orders (Roman Catholic Church), as for example the Capuchins who founded settlements in Latin America to another
purpose than the Jesuits.
6
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list
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missions and colonisation. These are churches and monasteries, places of work for the indigenous
people of the Guaraní, civil and sociological organizations of life.
The so-called “Jesuit-State” (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay) was the first democratic society in the world
and kept finally an “Utopia”. Today we find at the many places Museums combined with the origin
environment wrested away from the jungle.
These “Museum – Landmarks” consist of rebuilt buildings, buildings under reconstruction or well
restored buildings. They are extraordinary cultural sources and witnesses for the history of Argentina,
Brazil and Paraguay in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The example of Trinidad – it is on the World Heritage List – is considered as a prototype for several
others.
They were determined to give the indigenous people better living conditions and to teach them various
handicrafts in connection with their own culture. Many of these settlements are situated along the only
main road which forms a kind of triangle from Asuncion in the West to Encarnación in the South and
Ciudad del Este in the East. In this period Jesuits also built roads through the pathless areas. The
Missions were well designed according to a general plan. This plan included for each settlement a
magnificent cathedral equipped with furnishings, works of art, frescoes as well as decoration in marble.
Most of them are ruins today. On the Museum Landmark are also various workshops, restored
accommodation for the indigenous population and a large meeting area.
Today each settlement is a unique, partially open-air Museum with an archaeological background.
Very important Missions are Cosme y Damian, San Ignácio and Trinidad.
The museological conception starts from the intention to show the ruins, reconstructions, archaeological
sites and findings at the original site/area in such a way that visitors receive an impression as intensive as
possible from the religious and cultural life and the sociological body of the “Jesuit State” and the
achievements of the Guaraní.
The prototype of Trinidad – a museological approach
In order to present as many as possible elements of the former equipment and sculptures of patron saints
were “in situ” preserved in the ruins of the Cathedral. It is e.g. in Trinidad the baroque pulpit that is
reminding on pulpits in churches of baroque style of Austria and Germany. This area forms a unity
together with the former sacristy that is a Museum today. In this Museum are important objects taken from
the church to the real Museum because of the climate: sculptures, relics from frescoes and
stucco/moulding, carved figures of patron saints, figures of baroque angels rather more also religious
objects shaped by the indigenous population of the Guaraní.
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This enables the audience able to compare the style of European works of art of that epoch with the
artistic works of the Guaraní, as e.g. on the occasion of a comparison of patron saints – carved in baroque
style. However, the physiognomies of the figures resemble those of the indigenous people; this is a
particular phenomenon indicating the artistic quality.
Altogether the Missions are an important part of Paraguay's cultural heritage and identity, and an
excellent example of community living. In the Museums belonging to each site – specifically in Trinidad visitors can familiarise themselves with important objects, wall paintings, frescoes, sculptures, figures of
saints and other items from the workshops of the eighteenth century-designed by indigenous people. The
style of European works of art of that time, including plans, paintings and sculptures brought to Latin
America by members of the Jesuit Order, architects and artists may be reflected in these objects. The
settlements themselves and also the Museums rank as some of the finest examples of inspiration coming
from new ideas, and of cross-cultural fertilisation combined with the creativity of the indigenous people of
Paraguay.
Also the core-idea should be transmitted to the visitors as a museological and political task: the creation
of a “Jesuit State”, the first democratic and intercultural “ideal” type of state in the world, a kind of “Utopia”.
It was meant as an integral way of life concerning social, architectural and economical issues. The
members of Jesuit Order delegated to Latin America aimed at creating better living conditions for the
indigenous people of the Guaraní and to support those skills which were in a close relationship to this
indigenous culture.
Considering those prototypes as Trinidad the museological conditions are completely fulfilled: This
means the collections, research, preservation, presentation and communication.
Above that the intangible heritage plays an important role, particularly the music.
Cultural Heritage as a Basis for Museums and Museology
In Ouro Preto one can find a number of churches and sites built in the colonial period between the
sixteenth and the early nineteenth centuries. The abolition of slavery in 1875 gave them a new
importance. These towns, like Salvador da Bahia on the coast, are among the most interesting examples
of cultural diversity in Brazil and of the indigenous people's pride in their patrimony.
The development of Museums depended on the great work of Aleijadinho and his father.
Some towns of Minas Gerais have magnificent works by Brazil's most famous architect and sculptor,
Francisco Antônio Lisboa. He was called Aleijadinho, meaning the crippled one, since he suffered from
leprosy. His father came from Portugal, his mother from Africa. She was brought to Brazil as a slave.
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When Aleijadinho's father immigrated to Brazil he took with him a number of interesting designs and
plans of churches which were already realised in Portugal. These included also examples by the
Austrian-born architect, Fischer von Erlach who had designed the Jesuit church in Salzburg/Austria.
Another thesis in a recent study is based on the assumption that Aleijadinho visited Europe and after
studying art and architecture returned to Brazil.7
The ingenious language of picture of Aleijadinho was aimed to a divine idea, and he created an artistic
unity of sculptures and paintings.
At present these small towns of Ouro Preto, Congonhas and Mariana are in a close connection with
both the name of the national artist Aleijadinho and the nature of Museums. On my view this is one of the
most homogenous ensemble of Museums in Brazil.8
Ouro Preto, Congohas and Mariana are “museal” sites themselves and are entitled to a museological
claim and heritage. The far-reaching cultural history and heritage is reflected by both the sacred and
secular buildings, by the sites and places as well as the well preserved theatre founded in colonial times.
Besides they fulfil the museological criteria according to the recent definition of a Museum.
Once more the sights of the cities are in a close connection to the historical buildings and Museums
established in specific rooms in churches – as in former sacristies, crypts etc. – which provide the
preservation and presentation of objects and the understanding of international cultural relationship.
The façade of the most famous Church of São Francisco de Assis and the Church of Nossa Senhora do
Carmo are the masterpieces of Aleijadinho. São Francisco shows scenes from the life and the legend of
the Italian saint. Besides São Francisco with the most famous sacristy nearly situated to Museu da
Inconfidência enables museological considerations: On the one hand original sculptures related to
Francisco de Assis and the legends about him are presented at the original place in the church, on the
other hand figures which need particular preservation.
The original plans of the church (from 1774) are exhibited in Museu da Inconfidência. Besides this is
an ideal combination related to museological needs and the needs of the audience.
This is an interesting link between the cultural heritages of two continents. The style of the sculptures and
saints is comparable to those of the Bavarian sculptor, Christian Jorhan from Landshut/Germany. If one
visits the room devoted to the work of Aleijadinho in the Museum da Inconfidência or the other small
Museums attached to various churches in Ouro Preto, both the similarity and the differences are striking.
All countries of Latin America, particularly Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina and also Chile, identify themselves
with an architectural heritage based on a foreign culture imported during the colonial period and enriched
by extremely valuable contributions from the indigenous cultures. Therefore their identity is based on both
7
Machado de Almeida. L.: Passeio A Ouro Preto. Edù. Da Universidade de Sao Paolo. 1980, p. 84.
20
the cultural heritage of their patrimony and cross-cultural diversity. There are also other significant links
with Europe.
There is to focus on a specific museological problem: It is to be distinguished between Museums in
Brazil and Museums in Europe. In many cases in Brazil was tried to connect the original location of
objects – e.g. churches, houses in baroque style – with the presentation in Museums as a help for cultural
understanding and knowledge. In that way also the smaller Museums and churches of Ouro Preto are in
a close relationship to the city itself – e.g. the church Nossa Senhora da Conceição with the grave of
Aleijadinho, the Museu Alejadinho and the crypt.
Contrary, in Europe numerous works of religious art were after the period of Secularisation completely
torn out of the former context. Many of them were presented in governmental Museums without any
relation to the architecture of the interior space of the church for which they were originally created. This is
not only a problem for presentation rather more for the communication of a Museum with the audience.
This indication is an example for almost all Latin American countries – Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador,
Paraguay, Venezuela – which identify themselves with the cultural heritage. This heritage is like an image
mirror. Although a part of this cultural heritage refers to a kind of “import” from foreign countries, it was
enriched by extraordinary contributions of the indigenous people and the native cultures.
In this concern the identity refers to both the intercultural diversity and the peculiar cultural heritage. At
present this is an ideal museological phenomenon.
Congonhas – a Pilgrimage Hill and the “Prophet – Staircase” as Part of the Landmark
To give an explanation for the conceptions the close interrelationship to European art should
particularly be mentioned. In Congonhas is the most interesting pilgrimage path of Brazil placed. It is
leading across a slope to the church. The path is bordered by several chapels. This footpath to the top of
a hill - framed by these small chapels – is similar to the pilgrimage hills of Portugal, Switzerland and
Bavaria/Germany. The scenes from the Bible in the chapels depicting the Passion of Christ are built as if
on a stage and correspond to the specific topics in the foreign countries.
The unique monumental figures of the Old Testimony prophets, created by Aleijadinho and his
workshop positioned/placed along a staircase – the so-called “Prophet-Staircase - build the culmination.
Those examples in Portugal, Germany and Brazil are similar in their geographical location (formed at
hills), in architecture, design and subject. In spite of their different cultural origins they demonstrate
Pfeifer, Wolfgang: Kunst in Brasilien – die Epochen: Brasilien, Völker und Kulturen zwischen Amazonas und Atlantik.
Köln 1987. (Art in Brazil – the Epochs. In: Brazil – peoples and Cultures between Amazonas and Atlantic.)
8
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cross-cultural interaction and exemplify early globalisation. Despite their origin they affirm the
culture-crossing interaction and exemplify the early globalisation.
This is an example for a very interesting interrelationship between the cultural heritages of two different
continents. It is not only a museological phenomenon but rather more a knowledge that should be
communicated by the audience.
"Negative" Intangible Heritage of 20th Century
In contrary to this positive project we have also to think about “Negative Intangible Heritage of the 20 th
Century”.
While usually Museums of different typology portray the "positive" cultural and natural heritage,
Museums concerning with "Contemporary History" and Documentations on "Memorial Sites" are closely
related to "negative" intangible heritage e.g. Museums: Memorial in Caen/Normandy; Musée de la
Grand Guerre/Péronne/France;Musée de la Paix Verdun. Memorial Sites: War memorials and
commemorative ways; memorial sites on areas of former National Socialistic Sites
(e.g."Topography of Terror"/Berlin/Germany). Identification and remembrance are in this context
also categories of the intangible heritage.
."Musee de la Civilisation in Quebec", "Museum of Mankind" in London or "Musée de la
Civilisation Gallo-Romain" are also characterised by "remembrance" Identity" as intangible
heritage. Nevertheless, the focus is different: The Museum in Quebec emphasises with the
permanent presentations "Memory " and the "People of my Country" not on history rather on
identity and character. In contrary "Museum of Mankind" in London stresses on anthropological
relations, “Musée de la Civilisation Gallo-Romain" in Lyon on identification with a certain level of
civilisation.12
In contrast to museums, memorial sites as authentic places and environments are particularly
characterised by their leftovers of the history of former concentration camps or sites of war
theatre.
Above all, the "Transition Project", one of the main projects of ICOFOM stands for dealing with
negative" Intangible Heritage the conservation and preservation of former GULag Camps and
the remembrance to totalitarian states as intangible and immaterial heritage. But not only the
GULag camps are affected by this unhappy memory rather former and present totalitarian states
22
all over the world - even countries where genocide is carried out like in Ruanda. Therefore the
programme "From Oppression to Democracy" is the basis for the framework of the mission and
action of the International Movement - finally established on the occasion of ICOFOM Annual
Meeting 2000 in Brno, Czech Republic. Vinos Sofka, former President and now Honorary
President of ICOFOM and Permanent Adviser of the Committee (Stockholm/Sweden) drew
attention to the people responsible for heritage care to realize the fact that former totalitarian
regimes are now history. This also transmits important intangible kind of memorial sites, written
and visual documents, records etc.13
Let me conclude with a short summary about
Challenges to Museums and Museology in the Future
The UNESCO "Convention for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage" explains in a
very convincing way, how the intangible heritage is as a developing process transmitted tram
generation to generation and needs permanent "revival" by communities and teams – in
correspondence with historic conditions and circumstances of life in present. This is the
requirement for the sense of identity and continuity, cultural development and creativity.
People responsible for Museums and Memorial Sites are in this concern asked of ethical
questions related to:
- Training programmes and workshops (e.g. "From Tradition to Innovation")
- Dissemination of knowledge concerning immaterial and intangible heritage
- Documentation and publications
- Exhibitions and museum-presentation.
- Interpretation of all those questions in our society.
The role of Museums and Museology includes also responsibility for records and transcriptions
of immaterial and intangible heritage which by this way will be both "materialized" and recorded
as immaterial heritage, and at the same time musealised independently from time and space.
'The City Network of Cultures" which is propagated by UNESCO and connected with a specific
award could also be an important step to connect tangible and intangible heritage by the
23
museums.
The interdisciplinary and intercultural dialogue that is enabled by this way is on its part an
important component for a peaceful social life of men and peoples.
Wilhelm von Humboldt
Anyway, these thoughts are not innovative, and a recognition of our society or our period of time.
Rather Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767 - 1835), the famous philosopher, in his "Theory of the
Education of Human Being" thought about these questions almost two centuries ago.
He was one of the first who developed a "Theory of Museums" with the leitmotif: "The Life itself
Provides the Topics". The reflection of Humboldt's ideas is also the starting point to his museum
philosophy including anthropological, aesthetic and philosophical basis. Humboldt's museum
philosophy is closely connected to the essential imagining of education. That is characterised by
himself as "most tolerant interaction" between receptivity and activity, the human being
herself/himself and the world outside, individual and universe. 14
By this interchange culture is not only protected, rather life and "world" of the human being are
involved into the developing process, particularly in the museums.
.
On the origin from education it supports human development and improvement. In this context
particularly art and history, aestheticism and language are of great importance. Individual and
social education without language is impossible rather language is the most decisive factor
between the human being and the world as a whole.15
A study of definitions and descriptions of Intangible Heritage leads to the result that the cultural importance is usually considered
with reference to a positive development of culture and civilisation. In the most Gases museums present objects in this positive
way - even exhibits in several War-Memorials or Memorial Museums are presented in an artificial and aesthetic way. Therefore it
seems necessary to focus on examples that elucidate the "positive" and "negative" approach to Intangible Heritage.
__________________________________________________________________________
Notes:
1 UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. Article 2 of the Convention for the
safeguarding of Intangible Cultural heritage, adopted on 1st October 2003.
http:// www.unesco.org/heritage/intanflible/htmLeng/index_en. shtm I.
24
2 UNESCO General Conference, 32n session: Report of Commission IV, 32 C/74. Paris 16 October 2003.
Insbesondere: Artikel 2.
3 "Museums, Intangible Heritage and Globalisation" (Asia Pacific Organisation/Shangai/China 2002). "Preserving
Cultures: Documenting Non Material Heritage" (Documentation/CIDOCI Porto Alegre/Brazil 2002). "Museology and Intangible
Heritage" (International Committee for Museology/lCOFOM 20001 Munich/Germany and Brno/Czech Republic).
4 Vgl. dazu: Wenbin, Zhangl Perot, Jacques/ Galla, Amareswar: Shanghai Charter. Museums, Intangible Heritage and
Globalisation. In: ICOM's Activities Intangible Heritage. Shangai 2002. hUp/licom.museum/shanghaLcharter.html)
5 Vieregg, Hildegard K./ Davis, Ann (Eds.): Museology and the Intangible Heritage. ICOFOM Study Series - ISS 32.
Pre-prints. Munich/Germany and Brno/Czech Republic 2000.
6 Shanghai Charter, drafted by the coalition ot participants in the Meeting was signed by Zhang Wenbin, President ICOM China;
Jacques Perrot, President ICOM; Amareswar Galla, President ICOM Asia Pacific.
7 Andre Devallées since years is responsible for the ICOFOM project "Thesaurus Museologicus" and Museum-adequate
definitions.
8 Devallées, André: Museology and Immaterial Heritage. Musealisation and Visualisation. In: Vieregg, Hildegard/ Davis, Ann
(Eds.): Museology and the Intangible Heritage, International Committee for Museology. ICOFOM Study Series 32.
Munich/Germany and Brno/Czech Republic 2000. p. 52.
9 2001 were 19 "Masterpieces" declared, 2003 28 pieces additionally; 2005 this proclamation will be continued.
10 International Jury for the Proclamation by UNESCO of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
(UNESCO: Intangible Heritage Activities Worldwide). http://www.unesco.org/heritage/intangible/htmLeng/index - en. shtml.
11 The Festival is intended to create international friendship, understanding and peace between the five countries which were for
a lang period hindered to communicate because of political differences.
12 See: ICOM NEWS: Museums and Intangible Heritage, Val 56. no. 4. Paris 2003.
13 Sofka, Vinos: From Oppression to Democracy. Changes in the World and European Upheavals - Heritage, Museums, the
Museum Profession and Museology. In: Vieregg, Hildegard (Ed.): Museology - an Instrument for Unity and Diversity? ICOFOM
Study Series pre-prints 34. Munich 2003. pp. 71-79.
14 Vieregg, Hildegard: Wilhelm von Humboldt - Ideas on Education of Human Being: museological, philosophical and
educational contemplation. In: Vieregg, Hildegard (Ed.) International Committee for Museology: Museology and Philosophy.
Coro/ Venezuela 1999. pp. 179-193.
15 Lübbe, Hermann: Wilhelm von Humboldt und die Musealisierung der Kunst. In: Schlerath, Bernfried (Hg.): Wilhelm von
Humboldt. Vortragszyklus zum 150. Todestag. Berlin 1986. S. 169-183.
25
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