Hatshepsut
Historical context:
1.
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Historical overview of early 18th Dynasty
The interest in her has naturally focused on the fact that she
was a woman in a man’s world, a woman who broke with tradition
by establishing herself as a pharaoh.
She also came to power at a time when Egypt was on the
threshold of perhaps its greatest achievements in both internal
and foreign affairs.
The kingship were bound to the sate cult of Amun-Re
In foreign affairs, Hatshepsut inherited the control of Nubia
and the exploitation of its rich resources. In particular, its
gold played an important role in Egypt’s economic development.
Thutmose I was another important influence on her reign. She
was mindful of the legacy she inherited from her predecessors,
but she was also an innovator who set her own stamp on New
Kingdom Egypt, especially in developing ideology of kingship
and the theology of the state cult of Amun-Re
Another source of inspiration came from her female forebears –
Tetisheri, Ahhotep and Ahmose-Nefertari. These women had played
an important role in the foundation and development of the
early New Kingdom, often acting as regents in the troubled
times of war.
Women in Egyptian society derived their social status from the
men to whom they belonged.
Roles of royal women:
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Queen consort – any of the wives of the reigning king
Regent – great royal wife and widow of a king, who managed
the affairs of state for a new, young king until he was old
enough to rule.
Co-regent – ruled as a king in partnership with another
pharaoh.
2. Overview of social, political, economic structures of
early New Kingdom
Social:
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rigidly structured social hierarchy
classes were well defined and social mobility was fairly
limited but possible
top of social hierarchy was the pharaoh
then were the nobles and high government officials such as the
vizier and army commanders
the lower class included labourers, herders, fisherman and foot
soldiers
Nobility – royal family, viziers, high priests, king’s harem,
harem officials
Working classes – skilled – artists, scribes, craftsmen,
sculptors, carpenters, jewellers
Unskilled – farmers, labourers, fisherman, herders, slaves
Political:
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main goal of the king was to provide security for the people by
ensuring good relations with the gods and the maintenance of
general prosperity and stability (ma'at)
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Royal Household – Chancellor, Chief Steward, Chamberlain
State administration – vizier, overseer of the treasury,
overseer of the granary, overseer of the king’s building works
Imperial administration – viceroy of Nubia, Vassal kings,
King’s deputies
Exact rules for Egyptian succession are not known
Military:
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involved in the consolidation of the empire - this is included
by the exploits of Ahmose, Thutmose I and Thutmose III
Nobility – commander in chief, chief deputies of the north and
south, generals, scribe of infantry
Economic:
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Agriculture was the main sector
the expansion and consolidation of the empire also helped added
to state revenues in the way of booty and imperial trade
3. Relationships of the king with Amun
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The cult of Amun was centred at the state capital of Thebes,
with its main temple in nearby Karnak
All major policy decisions of state were justified and
accredited to Amun
Claimed divine birth and to be offspring of Amun-Re
The association helped to legitimise the king's reign and
provided him with significant support from the cult and its
priesthood, which grew significantly in power and influence
throughout the period.
Ideology of kingship – divine birth, oracles, sed festival,
opet festival
Building program – king dedicates temples to Amun, king’s
conquests provide resources for building from booty, tax and
tribute
Warfare and conquest – claims Amun inspires military campaigns,
gives Amun credit for victories, dedicates booty from conquest
to Amun
Relationship with priesthood – Amun’s cult is state cult of
Egypt, Great Royal Wife holds the title of God’s Wife of Amun,
priesthood gains status from wealth from king’s dedications’
4. Overview of religious beliefs and practices
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Religious
myths and
There are
the gods,
pharaoh
beliefs were based upon a combination of polytheists,
a belief in the afterlife.
2 main types of temples - cult temples or mansions of
and the other being the mortuary temples of each
Background and rise to prominence:
1.
Family background
Hatshepsut was the member of the Thutmosid line of kings of the early
New Kingdom period. She was the daughter of Thutmose I and his chief
Queen Ahmose. Little is known about the background of Queen Ahmose.
She has the title of 'God's wife of Amun'.
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Relief of Hatshepsut as the consort of Thutmose II from the
Temple of Amun at Karnak. She is wearing the vulture cap, the
traditional headdress of the Great Royal Wife.
Comparison of genealogy of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III:
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HATSHEPSUT:
○ Father – the mighty Thutmose I (who claimed to have got
as far as the Euphrates River with his army)
○ Great-grandfather was Ahmose (who had liberated Egypt
from Hyksos rule)
○ Directly in the royal blood line, daughter of the ‘Great
Royal Wife’
THUTMOSE III:
○ Almost a commoner
○ Son of a concubine from the harem
○ His father (Thutmose II) was himself only half-royal
Hatshepsut’s relation to Thutmose III – step mother, aunt and mother
in law and also 20 years older.
How did Hatshepsut’s family background contribute to her rise to
power?
Thutmose I – her father who is well respected from his military
campaigns.
Queen Ahmose – her mother who as the Great Royal wife. Possibly the
sister of Amenhotep I – further royal blood. (She may be daughter of
Ahmose and Ahmose Nefertari who drove out the Hyksos)
Thutmose II – half sister to Thutmose II and wife. Queen consort then
a regent to Thutmose III. Power gained from Thutmose II’s death as
Thutmose III was too young. She already had experienced from her
queen consort role.
2.
Claim to throne and succession
Hatshepsut as queen and regent
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She proclaimed herself king during year 2 to year 7 of
Thutmose III’s reign
She later adopted a horus name, or royal name of the king
She was already using her throne name, Maat-ka-re, by year
7. A pottery seal, found in the tomb of Senenmut’s mother
dated to regnal year 7, refers to Maat-ka-re.
On the walls of the temple at Semna in Nubia, constructed in
the 2nd year of Thutmose III, there is not a trace of
Hatshepsut’s regnancy in the original sculptures.
What are the dates of her accession?
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Several pottery jars or amphorae were found dated to ‘year 7’,
one which bore the seal of the ‘God’s wife Hatshepsut’ and 2
which are stamped with the seal of ‘The Good Goddess Maatkare’
by year 7 of her regency she was acknowledged to be a king of
Egypt
Although she may have believed, even in childhood, that she
deserved to wear the double crown in her own right there is no
evidence that while her husband was alive she was anything other
than a conventional queen consort. There are at least 3 pieces of
evidence to support this statement:
1.
2.
There was nothing unusual in her titles – King’s Daughter,
King’s Sister, God’s Wife of Amun and King’s Great Wife.
She ordered the construction of a tomb, suitable for a
queen, hidden away in a valley several kilometers from the
Valley of the Kings
3.
She is shown on a stela standing ‘in approved wifely
fashion’ behind her mother, and her husband Thutmose II who
is facing Re.
However, there is one interesting feature of this stela. It was
inscribed during the reign of Thutmose II and yet Ahmose, is referred
to as King’s Mother. Ahmose was the mother of Hatshepsut, not
Thutmose II. This evidence has contributed to the theory that perhaps
Hatshepsut saw herself quite early on as having a legitimate claim to
the throne.
Despite her apparent low profile during her regency with Thutmose
III, the evidence points to the fact that from the beginning she was
well and truly in full control of the government. Ineni’s inscription
gives a contemporary comment on Hatshepsut’s control of the state:
‘…the Divine Consort, Hatshepsut, settled the affairs of the Two
Lands by reason of her plans…’
Egyptian Co-Regencies
Conventional
Hatshepsut and Thutmose III
Reigning pharaoh takes an
uncrowned junior partner to
ensure the succession and train
the future pharaoh.
Thutmose III, young reigning
pharaoh, does not take a partner
but his senior Hatshepsut makes
herself crowned co-regent.
Reigning pharaoh takes seniority
in co-regency
Hatshepsut as new pharaoh takes
seniority in the co-regency over
the reigning pharaoh.
Juliette Bentley of Sydney University views that Hatshepsut intended
to make herself pharaoh all along and establish a matriarchy. In
evidence she refers to Hatshepsut holding her Sed festival 30 years
after her father’s death.
Cai Callender believes there was certainty a shared sovereignty, with
Hatshepsut as senior regent and may have been double coronation. With
the evidence of Thutmose III’s active role long before Hatshepsut’s
death, seems to contradict Bentley’s view.
How do you know about Hatshepsut?
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Hatshepsut’s obelisk at Karnak
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Horus name
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‘t’ feminine
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‘she made’
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‘her monuments’
‘Then his majesty [Thutmose I] said to them: ‘This
daughter of mine Khnumetamun Hatshepsut – may she live! –
I have appointed as my successor upon my throne…’ from
the Coronation Scene at Deir el Bahri (the narrative of
her legitimacy)
A relief of Hatshepsut as a king kneeling before Amun
Colossal statue of Hatshepsut (full appearance of a male)
The god Amun-Re with queen Ahmose at the conception of
Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Deir el Bahri –
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Includes expedition to Punt scenes
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Hatshepsut’s conception, birth and coronation
scenes
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She encouraged worship of various gods
Limestone bust of Hatshepsut as Osiris – a portrait from
her mortuary temple at Deir el Bahari. She is depicted as
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the male god Osiris, with whom all kings are identified
with after death.
The co-regency: ‘Identical Thutmosids: Hatshepsut Leading
Thutmose III ‘Lord of the two lands’ These two are ruling
side by side.
Scenes from the expedition to Punt (Deir el Bahari)
Hatshepsut as a man (Red Chapel, Karnak
‘I have raised up what was dismembered, even from the
first time when the Asiatics were in Avaris of the north
land…’ from Hatshepsut’s inscription at Speos Artemidos
An inscription from a block of her Red Chapel at Karnak
temple which refers to the proclaimation of an oracle
predicting Hatshepsut’s accession. It is dated to year 2
of an unnamed king’s reign.
One amphora is inscribed with the date ‘Year 7’ and the
name of Hatshepsut with her ‘God’s wife of Amun’ title
and no pharaonic title.
Two more amphorae had sealing stamped with Maat-kare but
were undated.
Statuary and reliefs show her in a shendyt kilt, the
nemes headdress with its uraeus and khat head cloth and
false beard
The Coronation Inscription:
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Gives details of the revelation of young Hatshepsut’s royal
status
The inscription consists of a number of sections in which
Hatshepsut emphasizes her political right to the throne because
Thutmose I chose her.
Thutmose I presents her to the court and nominates her as his
co-regent and intended successor ‘…This is my daughter KhnemetAmen Hatshepsut, living. I put her in my place.’ – complete
fiction as there is no evidence to show that Thutmose I ever
regarded Hatshepsut as his formal successor.
Inscribed on outside wall of the Red Chapel at Karnak hints
that the political situation may have already undergone a
profound change.
Details of Hatshepsut’s coronation at Karnak are included in a
3rd person narrative carved on several blocks which must have
originally formed part of a wall of the Red Chapel. It is
undated.
Ignores the rule of Thutmose II
‘When she was still in the womb of her mother, all lands and
countries were in her possession.’
Reliability:
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A number of scholars have said that it is propaganda to
justify her accession
● Rejection of authenticity as it is taken word for word from
the account of the coronation of Amenemhet III of the Middle
Kingdom.
● Hatshepsut’s 2 brothers – Amenmose and Wadjmose – did not
become king so they may have died before Thutmose I – he had
no male heir.
The monarchical system of the New Kingdom appears matrilineal:
the ruler had to be the son of a first queen, a lesser queen,
or husband of a daughter of a first queen.
Her reign as king could have been seen as a legitimate element
in the dynastic process of ensuring a stable and smooth
succession to the throne of a ruler from within the Thutmosid
royal family. This would also help to explain Thutmose III's
apparent acceptance of his junior position within the coregency for as long as he did.
-Divine Birth and coronation reliefs
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To further substantiate her claim to the throne, Hatshepsut
employed propaganda. Claims to Divine Birth had become
important for Egyptian rulers from the Fifth Dynasty onward and
had helped establish their legitimacy to the throne.
The reliefs at Deir el-Bahri depict the process of divine
conception and birth
The ‘divine birth’ scenes are shown in a series of reliefs on
the middle colonnade at Deir el Bahri
Relief one of the Divine Birth – ‘My soul is hers, my bounty is
heres, my crown is hers, that she may rule the Two Lands.’
Hatshepsut's mother Queen Ahmose is shown being courted and
impregnated by Amun in the form of Thutmose I; Amun goes on to
prophesy her coming to a council of gods.
After her birth, Amun legitimised her future reign by
nominating her as king and saying, 'I will give her all the
lands, all the countries.'
Hatshepsut had a fictitious coronation ceremony also depicted
on the colonnade at Deir el-Bahri
The Divine Birth and Coronation inscriptions clearly
demonstrated the importance Hatshepsut attached to her royal
bloodline, especially Thutmose I.
Hatshesput ordered that the tale of her own divine conception
and birth be told in a sequence of images and escriptive
passages carved on the north side of the middle portico
fronting her mortuary temple.
The doctrine of theogamy – the physical union of a queen with a
god
At Deir el Bahri temple, the story of Hatshepsut’s conception
starts in heaven.
Shown as a legitimate pharaoh – the naked infant is shown as a
boy.
How did she become Pharaoh?
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By year 7 of Thutmose III’s reign, Hatshepsut had abandoned
the title of ‘God’s Wife’
There is an inscription referring to her with full regal
titles which dates from this year, and accompanying
depictions of her in full male garb as pharaoh, while her
daughter, Nefrure, now bears the title of God’s wife
Earlier depictions dating from year 3 showing Hatshepsut as
a woman, with a woman’s hairstyle, but wearing the double
crown hairstyle, but wearing the double crown of Upper and
Lower Egypt, which only the Pharaoh was entitled to wear.
Hatshepsut holding her Sed Festival 30 years after her
father’s death, as if her husband Thutmose II had never
existed.
She is more royal – daughter of the Great Royal Wife and
Thutmose I.
She had to win over the support – such as the High Priest of
Amun, the Vizier and commanders of the army.
Claimed it was the will of her father.
Gradual evolution, a carefully controlled political
manoeuvre
Jubilee or sed-festival
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Recorded on the walls of both Karnak and Deir el Bahri temple
Announced her jubilee during year 15 – 30 years after the death
of her father.
On walls of Deir el Bahri temple we see Hatshepsut and Thutmose
I offering milk and water.
3. Political and religious roles of king and queen in
early 17th and 18th dynasties
Political:
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many New Kingdom kings emphasised their military role
Ahmose I drove out the foreign Hyksos and conquered Lower Egypt
Power would eventually be delegated to groups of advisors and
administrators
Queen's had no official role in politics unless acting as coregent
There were no feminine words for a reigning monarch. So in most
of her inscriptions, Hatshepsut is referred to in both
masculine and feminine forms – Her Majesty, King Maat-ka-re.
She arranged for her daughter Neferure, to marry Thutmose III
to give him legitimacy.
Hatshepsut saw her vital task and achievement as the rebuilding
and stabilising of Egypt after the explusion of the Hyksos
Major difference between Hatshepsut and other reigning queens
is that she adopted the role of pharaoh claiming godship and
sovereignty over Upper and Lower Egypt.
Religion:
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they associated themselves very closely with the Cult of Amun
King is seen as the link between the gods and his people
Son of Amun-Re
Queens appear to have played a supportive role in religion
4. Marriage to Thutmose II
Hatshepsut married her half brother Thutmose II who succeeded his
father as king in 1512 BC (ESTIMATED). Thutmose II was not as active
as his father in empire building, but there does appear to have been
military expeditions to Nubia and Palestine during his reign.
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Thutmose II and Hatshepsut had a daughter – Neferure
A stela from this time shows her with Thutmose II and mother
Queen Ahmose, standing in front of a statue of Amun-Re
On the death of Thutmose I, the throne passed to his son by a
lesser wife, Mutnofret. This was Thutmose II, who was
apparently younger than Hatshepsut and of less ‘royal’ lineage.
He married his half sister Hatshepsut, thereby securing his
right to the throne.
The famous story of the vandalisation of her inscriptions and
monuments, often blamed on Thutmose III does not hold up under close
examination. The attack took place 30 years after her death (maybe
Akhenaten). The vandalism does not coincide with evidence of Thutmose
III’s attitude in Ineni’s tomb inscription.
Career:
1.
Titles and changes to her royal image over time
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In the first 2 years of her regency Hatshepsut appears to have
performed the role expected of her as Queen Dowager
Depicted on public monuments in subordinate roles to her
stepson Thutmose III
She was in command - 'Hatshepsut settled the affairs of the two
lands by reason for her plans' – Ineni
She was careful to never appear subordinate to Thutmose III
It is possible that Thutmose III did not regard his own right
to the throne as automatic. His need to cite an oracle of Amun
is support of kingship is certainly unusual.
Since Thutmose III was between 3 and 6 years old, the Great
Royal Wife, Hatshepsut, became regent for him and his wife.
It is perfectly possible that the vast majority of the
population, illiterate, uneducated and politically unaware,
were indeed confused over the gender of their new ruler. There
is absolutely no evidence to suggest that she suddenly came out
as a transsexual, a transvestite or a lesbian.
Image of Hatshepsut
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Red Granite Statue as a royal woman –
○ Wearing the nemes headdress of the king – however her
figure and face are those of a woman
Painted limestone sphinx
○ One of a pair which stood either side of the first flight
of steps at Deir el Bahri with the inscription ‘Maat-kare, beloved of Amun, given life, forever.’
○ She wears a false beard, royal nemes and a uraeus (broken
off)
○ The sphinx was the traditional symbol for NKE warrior
pharaoh
○ Feminine appearance
Painted limestone bust
○ Portrait as Osiris found at Deir el Bahri (pharaohs are
shown as Osiris after death)
Red Granite Sphinx
○ Typical warrior pharaoh
○ Less feminine and wears royal headdress, uraeus and false
beard
Kneeling statue
○ Formal, shows Hatshepsut in full regalia, kneeling and
offering 2 vases
○ Identical to a later statue of Thutmose III – apart from
the name carved
Colossal statue as a male monarch
○ Full male dress, with the pleated skirt of a pharaoh and
a male body
○ Red granite
○ Formal stance
Stages of her royal image
Stage
Features
One
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In the first two years of her regency,
Hatshepsut appears to have performed
the role expected of her as Queen
Dowager
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She retained her titles as Thutmose
II’s wife and was depicted on public
monuments in subordinate roles to her
stepson Thutmose III
Two
Three
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It appears that she was well and truly
in command of the machinery of
government
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Evidence supporting this is found in
the tomb of Ineni: ‘Hatshepsut settled
the affairs of the two lands by reason
of her plans.’
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After two year, Hatshepsut’s titles
and royal image began to change and
reflect those of a male ruler
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She retained her female
characteristics and was depicted in
art with soft facial features and
feminine physical attributes
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The final stage saw Hatshepsut assume
male characteristics with the full
regalia of a king
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She wore the shendyt (kilt), false
beard, made offerings to the gods and
was often depicted as the god Osiris
who wore the regalia of an Egyptian
king
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Her titles also underwent change over
time, eventually becoming those of a
king
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As queen, she was known as ‘king’s
daughter’, ‘king’s sister’, ‘king’s
great wife’ and ‘god’s wife of Amun’
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As regent she retained her original
titles but the change was signified by
the new title – ‘Mistress of the Two
Lands’
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By the time she had evolved into a
king, her titles had changed
dramatically
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She now acquired full pharaonic titles
and male regalia
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Her ‘great names’ included ‘Horus,
Mighty of Kas’, her throne name ‘Maatka-re’, and her personal name ‘KnemetAmun-Hatshepsut’
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Other titles included ‘Two ladies
Flourishing of Years’, ‘Horus of
Gold’: ‘Divine of Diadus’, ’King of
Upper and Lower Egypt’, ‘Lord of the
Two Lands’ , ‘Daughter of Re’
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By year 7, her image and titles
reflected her power and status
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There must have been no doubt that
Hatshepsut now ruled as senior pharaoh
in the co-regency
2.Foreign policy - military campaigns and trading expedition to Punt
The Great Speos Artemidos Inscription
What does Hatshepsut claim in this inscription?
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rebuilt the temple of the Lady of Cusae to protect her city
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made Pakhet’s temple worthy
‘I have raised up what was dismembered.’
Banished those who disrespect the gods (Hyksos)
‘My command stands firm like the mountains.\
What achievements does she emphasise?
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Her army has become possessed of riches since she arose as king
Sculpted the image of the Lady of Cusae in gold
She made Pakhet’s temple worthy
Why would she make these claims?
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To show that she is a rightful pharaoh
Emphasis her power
Strong and successful
Military campaigns
1) How have interpretations of Hatshepsut’s military campaigns
changed over time? Provide quotes.
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Fragmentary evidence points to several campaigns. In the Speos
Artemidos inscription she emphasizes her military role by
referring to upgrading the army and by portraying herself as
the traditional warrior pharaoh.
Few today would claim, as John Wilson did in 1951, ‘she records
no military campaigns or conquests’ or as Sir Alan Gardiner did
in 1961, that her reign ‘had been barren of any military
enterprise except an unimportant raid into Nubia.’
Current scholarship based on an assessment of a wider range of
evidence recognizes that Hatshepsut pursued the traditional
military policy of a ‘warrior pharaoh’ and conducted campaigns
in Nubia and to a lesser extent in Syria-Palestine.
The view proposed by Wilson when comparing the reigns of
Thutmose III and Hatshepsut that ‘her pride was in the internal
development of Egypt and in commercial enterprise’.
2) Suggest reasons why scholars of the 1950s and 1960s were
dismissive of Hatshepsut’s military activities. (Tyldesley pg 137141)
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‘Hers was a rule dominated by an architect, and the
Hapusenebs, Neshis and Djehuty’s in her following were
priests and administrators rather than soldiers.’
‘triumphs of peace, not war’
Many feminist theorists and historians who view extreme
violence and aggression as a purely male phenomenon
Evidence is now growing to suggest that Hatshepsut’s
military prowess has been seriously underestimated due to
the selective nature of the archaeological evidence which
has been compounded by preconceived notions of feminine
pacifism.
Egyptologists have assumed that Hatshepsut did not fight
As so many of Hatshepsut’s texts were defaced, amended or
erased after her death, it is entirely possible that her war
record is incomplete.
Location
Deir el-Bahri
mortuary temple at
Djeser-Djesenu
Details
During the 19th
century Naville had
uncovered enough
Evidence
Provides us with
evidence for
defensive military
references to battles
to convince him that
she embarked on a
series of campaigns
against her vassals.
activity during her
reign.
Blocks originally
sited on the eastern
colonnade show the
Nubian god Dedwen
leading a series of
captive towns towards
Hatshepsut.
Evidence of military
campaigns in Nubia.
Elsewhere in the
temple she is
portrayed as a
sphinx, a human
headed lion crushing
the traditional
enemies of Egypt.
There is also written
but badly damaged, a
description of a
Nubian campaign.
‘…as was done by her
victorious father,
the King of Upper and
Lower Egypt,
Aakheperkare
[Thutmose I] who
seized all lands… a
slaughter was made
among them…’
Unofficial graffito
from Sehel by Ti
Confirms there was
some fighting in the
south.
‘I saw him [i.e.
Hatshepsut]
overthrowing the
Nubian nomads…’
Tomb of Senenmut
Evidence for at least
one Nubian campaign
‘I seized…’ and
further onwards ‘the
land of Nubia’
Stela of Djehuty
Stela by nobleman
Djehuty says she hew
Hatshepsut on
battlefield
collecting booty.
‘I saw the collection
of booty by this
mighty ruler from the
vile Kush, who are
deemed cowards, the
female sovereign,
given life,
prosperity and health
forever.’
Broken blocks at
Karnak
References to Nubian
campaigns.
‘[Hatshepsut] who
makes excellent laws
and divine plans, who
comes forth from the
god, who commands
what happens… [the
Asiatic] being in
fear and the land of
Nubian submission.’
Deir el-Bahri
mortuary temple
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4) What conclusions can be drawn about Hatshepsut’s military
activities? Pg 144 Tyldesley
Hatshepsut’s military policy is perhaps best described as on of
unobtrusive control; active defence rather than deliberate offence.
She was certainly prepared to fight to maintain the borders of her
country. Her military record is in fact stronger than that of
Thutmose II. The fact that Hatshepsut did not need to fight may
actually be taken as an indication of strength rather than weakness.
The expedition to Punt:
Significance of Hatshepsut’s expedition to Punt
Political:
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Shown as a traditional pharaoh
Highlights the prosperity and good government of the reign
Promotes Hatshepsut as a successful pharaoh
Ensures continued support of Amun priesthood
Economic:
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Hatshepsut responds to demand for valuable exotic goods e.g.
ebony, ivory, gold, cinnamon and other aromatic woods, animal
skins and eye cosmetics
Use of these goods as materials for temples, tombs, furniture
and furnishing etc. Stimulated the economy
Religious:
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An oracle of Amun is credited with initiating the expedition
Myrrh trees planted in a garden at Deir el-Bahri dedicated to
Amun
Exotic goods from Punt dedicated to Amun, e.g. panther skins
for priestly robes, baboons as symbols of Thoth
Trade:
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On the façade of Speos Artemidos, Hatshepsut alludes to her
trading activities
The autobiographical inscription in the tomb of Thutiy points
to the raw materials brought to Egypt from the south and northeast – gold, silver, copper, ebony and cedar
Expedition to Punt…:
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Recorded as year 9
She had this expedition recorded in detail near the Birth and
coronation reliefs on the walls of her mortuary temple
Incense (kyphi) was burned in great quantities in cult temples
Egyptians needed a continuing supply of exotic products for
example:
○ Incense resins
○ Ebony
○ Live animals and animal skins
○ Ivory
○ Metals e.g. gold
According to the reliefs in Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple:
The expedition was organized and led by Nehsi, and accompanied by a
small military contingent.
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Nehsi and his escort of soldiers carrying olive branches,
ostrich fans, ceremonial axes to show peaceful intentions to
Punt
The people of Punt led monkeys and panthers and piled up loose
myrrh resin
Leaders of Punt are presented with bread, wine, fruit and meat
Loading of the ships – ‘marvels of Punt’
Translations by Naville and Breasted:
○ Good woods
○ Myrrh resin
○ Ebony and ivory
○
○
○
○
Green gold of Emu
Cinnamon wood, khesyt wood, resin, eye cosmetic
Apes, monkeys, dogs, skins of south panthers
Natives and children
Expedition to Punt features:
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Punt was a land of mysteries
Punt was a major source of incense
The expedition was originated from oracle to Hatshepsut from
Amun
Dedicated to Amun
3. Building programs: Deir el-Bahri, Karnak, Beni Hassan and tombs
Hatshepsut's building program
Research assignment
Hatshepsut's top priority seemed to be her building program as she
repeatedly refers to it. She built from the delt to Kush and outlined
her policy in the text inscribed on the facade of a small rock-cut
temple near Beni Hassan, which the Greeks referred to as Speos
Artemidos. Her building policy appears to have involved:
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Repairing temples, chapels and sanctuaries neglected during the
domination of the Hyksos, such as the temple of Hathor at
Cusae, a temple for Min and the temple of Thoth at Hermopolis.
Constructing new ones such as her mortuary temple at Deir elBahri; the Red Chapel, obelisks and pylon at Karnak; the barque
sanctuary at Luxor and the cliff temple dedicated to the lion
goddess, Pakhet at Beni Hassan
Completing work begun by Thutmose II
What do the following extracts reveal about the motivating factor
behind her building policy?
'She made them as a monument for her father, Amun, Lord of Thebes,
presider over Karnak...'
'I have done this with a loving heart for my father Amun...'
Deir el-Bahri
Djeser-djeseru (Holy of Holies)
1. What are the main architectural features of the mortuary temple at
Deir el-Bahri - including innovations and decorations?
The mortuary temple of Hatshepsut was undoubtedly influenced by the
style of the earlier temple at Deir el-Bahri, but Hatshepsut's
construction surpassed anything which had been built before both in
its architecture and its beautiful carved reliefs. The temple of
Hatshepsut was built on three terraced levels, with a causeway
leading down to her Valley Temple (now lost) which would have been
connected to the River Nile by a canal. Gardens with trees were
planted in front of the lower courtyard. The Red Chapel is part of
these outstanding buildings: original in concept, it is unique in
creation since it is probably the first 'prefabricated' in stone in
the history of the world. The Red Chapel is constructed with the hlep
of blocks of red quartzite and of grey diorite.
2. How do they differ from traditional New Kingdom temples like those
at Luxor and Karnak?
The Red Chapel was entirely preassembled on the ground. It is
interesting to note that this process of assembly wouldn't be resumed
subsequently in Egypt.
4. How does the decorative program at Deir el-Bahri support
Hatshepsut's religious innovations?
Hatshepsut showed her devotion to Amun and thanked him for having
expressly appointed her, and one could say dubbed her, as legitimate
Pharaoh in front of all the people.
The Speos Artemidos Temple at Beni Hasan
5. What was the reason for the construction of this temple?
They are dedicated to Pakhet. One of the temples bears a long
dedicatory text of Hatshepsut with her famous denunciation of the
Hyksos.
6. Where was it built? Why was this location unusual?
It is located about 2 km south of the Middle Kingdom tombs at Beni
Hasan, and about 28 km south of Al Minya.
Hatshepsut’s building program:
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She outlined her building policy in the text inscribed on the
façade of a small rock-cut temple built at Beni Hassan (speos
Artemidos)
Her building policy appears to have involved:
○ Repairing temples, chapels and sanctuaries destroyed
during the Hyksos e.g. Temple of Hathor at Cusae
○ Constructing new monuments such as her mortuary temple at
Deir el Bahri, the Red Chapel
Her architects – generally believed that Senenmut
She initiated building projects as far as Cusae and Nubia
There are clues as to which officials were responsible to her
building programs found on statues, graffiti at excavation
sites, reliefs and autobiographical texts in tombs
Identified – Senenmut, Thutiy, Ineni
On the façade of Speos Artemidos, she claimed to have ‘restored
that which was in ruins’
Cult worship re-established
New temples would serve as perhaps the greatest offering that a
king could make to the gods
Large stone building possessed the useful feature of allowing
the monarch to exploit this billboard
Her Tombs:
9. Why were two tombs built?
Hatshepsut had begun construction of a tomb when she was the Great
Royal Wife of Thutmose II, but the scale of this was not suitable
when she became "king", so a second tomb was built. This was KV20,
which was possibly the first tomb to be constructed in the Valley of
the Kings.
10. What was found in the second tomb?
At some point it was decided to inter her father, Thutmose I from his
original tomb in KV38 into a new chamber below her own. Her original
red-quartzite sarcophagus was altered to accommodate her father
instead, and a new one was made for her. It is likely that when she
died (no later than the twenty-second year of her reign) she was
interred in this tomb along with her father.
11. What was innovative about the construction of the second tomb?
Her original red-quartzite sarcophagus was altered to accommodate her
father instead, and a new one was made for her.
Construction of new monuments
- Djeser-djeseru (Holy of Holies)
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Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple
The magnificence of the site is captured in the words of
archaeologist Naville in 1894
Created a garden for her divine father Amun-Re
Painting of her accomplishments – divine birth and coronation,
the expedition to Punt
The purpose was also to:
■
Show dedication to Amun
■
Dedicate worship to other deities – Hathor, Anubis
Evidence of the foundation of the temple
● The temple was inspired by Mentuhotep II, but
she introduced a completely different type of
rock-cut temple – carved from living rock
● Hypostyle hall
● Colossal statues of Osiris
● Central sanctuary to Amun
Building at Karnak
Hatshepsut initiated a renewed emphasis on building at AmunRe’s temple at Karnak.
Throughout her reign, she embellished Amun’s temple at Karnak
by:
○ Repairing the Middle Kingdom temple
○ Adding a pylon (eighth
○ The Red Chapel
○ Erecting 4 obelisks
Obelisks:
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two of the original four still exist and one is
still standing. The inscriptions on them
announce that they were made of red granite with
the pyramidions of fine gold.
According to Alison Roberts, Hatshepsut claims
that she made Karnak the sacred akhet
Evidence suggests that Senenemut was responsible
for the first pair
The height and weight of the surviving obelisks
reveal the manpower and skill that would have
been required
Propaganda:
Inscriptions focus on her right to the throne, the
glorification of Amun and her relationship with
Thutmose I.
The Red Chapel:
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Built a barque chapel at the Karnak temple
Dedicated to Amun-Re
Hatshepsut, not Senenmut, takes full credit for the
transportation of the obelisks (shown at the Red Chapel)
The Temple at Karnak
●
The temple at Karnak was the major temple to the god Amun-Re
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Hatshepsut, in keeping with established tradition, extended it,
adding four obelisks to Amen, various chambers, the ‘Red
Chapel’ and the Eighth pylon.
Completion of structures begun by Thutmose II
The Temple of Karnak
8. What did Hatshepsut build to embellish the Temple of Karnak?
(mention the Red Chapel, Hatshepsut's Suite, Pylon 8 and the
Processional Way)
The Red Chapel was initially destined to replaced a building dating
from Amenhotep I, the Alabaster Chapel. The erection of the Red
Chapel comes within the framework of a vast political program of the
Pharaoh-queen, essentially centred on her concern ofr ecognition.
Hatshepsut proceeds with the progressive occupation of the main sites
of Karnak.
Hatshepsut's suite - rooms surrounding the Karnak bark chapel.
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Speos Artemidos
● She endowed 2 temples dedicated to Pakhet (known as Speos
Artemidos
● Here carved high above the pillars is where Hatshepsut makes
the bold pronouncement of the policy of her reign; a policy
of renewal and restoration
● She claims credit for ridding the land of the Hyksos and
restoring the monuments
● Organised and supervised by Senenmut
4. Religious policy: devotion to Amun and promotion of other cults
5. Relationship with Amun priesthood. Officials nobles (Senenmut)
Hatshepsut’s officials
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The backbone of her administration lay in the priesthood of
Amun
One of these was Hapuseneb, high priest of Amun, who was at one
time in charge of the construction of the temple at Deir el
Bahri
Senenmut
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Tutor of Neferure
Was he Hatshepsut’s lover? – graffiti
He first took office under Thutmose II
Appears that he had financial management skills
Contributed to the building of the temple at Deir el Bahri,
as well as supervising the cutting and transport for 2 of
her Karnak obelisks.
Because of Senenmut’s undoubted eminence and the privileges
he enjoyed some popular writers have claimed a sexual
relationship between him and Hatshepsut. This was fuelled by
vulgar graffito
He left a vast number of statues of himself and built a
large tomb
In year 16 Hatshepsut’s workers were excavating a tomb for
him.
He was not her architect, but he would be enabled to employ
the best architects
His wealth increased – known from his mother Hatnofer’s tomb
and his own.
He appears to have been on intimate terms with the royal
family – from inscriptions
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He disappeared from records about Year 16 of Hatshepsut’s
reign
He was a commoner
Meyer maintains that he had no children and was a bachelor
from:
○ He is shown only with his parent on the funerary
stelae in his tombs (2)
○ He is shown alone in the scenes from the Book of the
Dead in his 2nd tomb
We know little of his early career, although a tomb
inscription implies that he spent time in the army
He appears among her officials before the death of Thutmose
II
The evidence for his status can be found in the inscriptions
on;
○ A black diorite statue dedicated to Mut
○ Walls and funerary stelae of his tombs
○ The rocks at Aswan
○ Name stones from his tombs
Great honors’ Hatshepsut gave him:
○ 80 titles
○ Erect statues
○ Engrave his name in her mortuary temple
Other officials:
Official
Details
Ineni
Had served under Thutmose I. His
tomb biography records favours
awarded to him by Hatshepsut. In
his tomb he wrote he was favoured
by Hatshepsut.
Ahmose Pennekhbet
He was the nurse of Neferure in
her early infancy from his tomb
biography)
Hapuseneb
Was in charge of the Karnak and
Deir el Bahri monuments and
Hatshepsut’s tomb
Thutiy
Hatshepsut’s ebony shrine,
metalwork on the obelisks and
gold brought back from Punt.
6. Relationship with Thutmose III: co-regency and defacement of
monuments
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They shared monuments and stelae, but her image and name were
always in front of his.
Punt reliefs on walls of Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el Bahri –
he is behind the queen.
In a relief on a building inscription in western Thebes,
Hatshepsut and Thutmose III are shown worshipping Amun-Re
together. Once again, he is standing behind her and there is no
mention of him in the inscription.
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Both Hatshepsut and Thutmose III are mentioned on a statue of
the nobleman, Enebni and in the tomb of Thutiy.
Later in Hatshepsut’s reign, Thutmose III appears to have taken
a more prominent role in public affairs. On a stela found in
Wadi Maghera in the Sinai the two kings are shown standing side
by side offering to Hathor and Sopdu.
By downgrading the exploits of Hatshepsut, he was bolstering
the importance of his own.
The fate of Hatshepsut:
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Although her mummy has never been found, there is no evidence
to suggest that her death was anything but normal. Despite the
lack of evidence, some writers, however, wish to make her end
more dramatic
Wilson and Steindorff and Seele believe that her life came to
an abrupt and unnatural end probably during a coup by Thutmose
III.
Mertz suggests that as Hatshepsut grew older, some of her
supporters may have felt that it was time to show their loyalty
to Thutmose III.
At the present time there is no evidence to suggest that she
was either murdered or deposed by her co-ruler.
Damage to monuments:
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Hatshepsut’s names, titles and images were erased from the
walls of the temples and replaced with those of her father,
Thutmose I, Thutmose II and Thutmose III. Her name was absent
from all later lists of kings.
Dozens of her statues were smashed and dumped in a pit at Deir
el-Bahri
Her giant obelisks in the Temple of Karnak were enclosed behind
a wall
In many of Hatshepsut’s reliefs, the figure of Amun has been
obliterated. This was obviously not done on the orders of
Thutmose III since he continued to glorify Amun and surpassed
Hatshepsut in his dedications to this god of empire.
A king called Akhenaten introduced the worship of a form of the
sun god called Aten. He may have ordered the mutilation of the
images of Amun. It is believed that Ramesses II also ordered
alterations to the inscriptions on Hatshepsut’s monuments.
At Djeser-Djeseru her statues and sphinxes were torn down,
smashed and flung into rubbish pits.
The removal of a name and image of a dead person, occasionally
called a damnation memoriae, served a dual purpose. It allowed
the rewriting of history; it was also a direct assault.
Naville had done recent analysis (1906) of the Chapelle Rouge –
the defacement of Hatshepsut’s monuments occurred late in his
reign – possibly not before Year 42.
Why would Thutmose III wait 20 years before venting his hatred
on his co-ruler?
The obelisks adapted (like the Chapelle Rouge)to fit in with
Thutmose III’s building plans?
Hatshepsut’s reign might possibly be interpreted by future
generations as a grave offence against maat.
Wounded male pride may also have played a part in his decision
to act
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Thutmose III had always to consider the possibility that the
first successful female king might establish a dangerous
precedent.
One dynastic queen regent – Queen Sobeknofru existed, but her
reign was a failure, suggesting that a woman was incapable of
holding the throne in her own right.
It is only the image of Hatshepsut as king which have been
defaced.
Evaluation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
impact and influence on her time
assessment of her life and reign
legacy
ancient and modern images and interpretations
Hatshepsut’s impact and influence on her time
● In order to evaluate Hatshepsut’s influence on her time, we
must consider her achievements in relation to the criteria
of traditional pharaonic policy, as well as to new
initiatives. Traditional New Kingdom pharaohs engaged in the
following:
○ Promotion of Amun-Re
○ Self promotion
○ Waging successful military campaigns
○ Maintaining Egypt’s prosperity
○ Building programs
○ Ensuring the succession
Activity
Hatshepsut
became regent
for the young
king (Thutmose
III), managing
the affairs of
Egypt for him
until he was
old enough.
Her divine
birth
Traditional
Yes, this was
carried out by
Tetisheri for
Ahmose when his
father
Seqenenre Tao
II died.
Her coronation
as king
Yes, for
rightful rulers
to the throne.
She was female.
Military
activity
Yes, a ruling
pharaoh was
expected to
carry out
military
activity in
Innovative
Yes. Of special
importance is
the role played
by Amun in
Hatshepsut’s
conception.
Significance
An inscription
from the tomb
of Ineni,
records her
role as regent.
Shows that she
started out as
a traditional
regent.
She was keen to
stress her
religious claim
as both the
spiritual and
physical
daughter of the
god.
She emphasises
her political
right to the
throne because
of her father
Thutmose I
chose her as
heir.
She did not
exactly extend
the borders,
she carried out
more of a
defence role.
Depiction as a
‘warrior
pharaoh’
order to defend
and extend the
borders.
Yes, a pharaoh
was seen to be
strong.
Yes, she is a
woman. Warriors
were seen to be
male.
This is seen to
be part of a
pharaohs reign
– to be
depicted as a
warrior
pharaoh.
Assessment of Hatshepsut’s life and reign
1. A strong and capable ruler who consolidated the 18th dynasty
of the Thutmosids and reinforced the legitimacy of the line
through its alleged relationship to the god Amun
2. She was largely responsible for the elevation of the god
Amun to supreme status
3. Though it was unusual for a female to reign as Pharaoh, and
as co-regent with her stepson, it was no unprecedented in
Egyptian history
4. She maintained her father’s conquests by further military
action, but does not seem to have embarked on any additional
conquests to further extend Egypt’s boundary, whereas her
co-regent and successor Thutmose III did.
5. Her policies appear to have been more motivated by a plan to
maintain security, and were therefore basically defensive,
whereas his were blatantly aggressive.
6. The so-called ‘Feud of the Thutmosids’ has little real
evidence to support it, apart from the destruction of her
monuments, and even this may be work of a later pharaoh
7. The foundation of a strong, prosperous and united Egypt
which she helped to create enabled Thutmose III to embark on
his risky campaign of conquest.
Hatshepsut’s legacy
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Legacy – something left to or handed down to someone, a
consequence of some action or event.
Glorified and dedicated extensively to Amun
Extensive building program – Recalled former glory.
Instilled confidence. Provided employment.
Contributed to the prestige of the Amun priesthood, priests
of Amun wielded great power as wealth of the temple
increased.
Trading expeditions – provided raw materials, increased
wealth, widened contacts
Military campaigns – secured borders, controlled nubia,
equipped army
Created a stable, prosperous and secure Egypt
Allowed Thutmose to campaign beyond Egypt for 17 years
Growth of an empire – increased wealth and power of Egypt
Later pharaohs, lead from her Divine Birth cycle of reliefs
and inscriptions and incorporated similar themes in their
own temples.
Introduction of oracles, the development of personal piety
and the public pageantry of festivals
●
Her innovations in architectural design (e.g. the hypostyle
hall) became standard features in later New Kingdom temples.
Questioning historians:
JA Wilson – ‘She records no military campaigns or conquest; he became
the great conqueror and organiser of empire. Her pride was in the
internal development of Egypt and in commercial enterprise; his pride
was in the external expansion of Egypt and in military enterprise.
A Gardiner – ‘…her ambition was by no means dormant, and not many
years had passed before she had taken the momentous step of herself
assuming the Double Crown.’
G. Steindorff and KC Seele – ‘It must have been very much against his
will that the energetic young Thutmose III watched from the side
lines the high-handed rule of the ‘pharaoh’ Hatshepsut and the
chancellorship of the upstart Senmut…’
Modern images and interpretations of Hatshepsut
Modern representations of Hatshepsut reflect a wide range of changing
perspectives from the early days of Egyptology to the present. The
historiographical debate has tended to focus on her gender and the
extent to which she was a legitimate and/or effective ruler.
Interpretations include:
● A wicked step-mother usurping the throne from the rightful heir
● An ambitious power-seeker
● A loyal and dutiful daughter
● An intelligent and competent ruler
● A dynastic visionary, grooming her own daughter for the
succession
Redford ‘Hatshepsut showed herself to be an imaginative planner
possessed of rather original taste…’
Tyldesley ‘…shows Hatshepsut to have been an unexceptional and indeed
almost boringly conformist wife and mother paying due honour…’
Dorman ‘Both Ineni’s biography and Senenmut’s graffito indicate that
Hatshepsut was the effective ruler of Egypt from the death of her
husband…’