CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.1. Introduction
The challenges of orphans, worldwide are relentless and huge in magnitude. Orphans are
more deprived of education, socialization and nutritional needs than their peers (United
Nations
International
Children’s
Emergency
Fund,
2004,
UNICEF:
(2004).
www.unicef.org/publications/index_4378.html accessed on line 13 April 2010). Because of
this deprivation, orphans often find themselves confined in orphanage institutions. These
institutions in Zimbabwe exist to nurture and socialise orphans with life-long survival
capabilities. The socialization process takes place from birth to 18 years. Upon attaining
18years, the orphan leaves the institution and is reintegrated into the community. In order to
cope in the community the graduate is expected to use the survival capabilities learned in the
institution.
1.2. Background to the study
Institutional socialisation of orphans continues to dominate in Zimbabwe, Africa and the
world. This is despite the negative effects associated with institutionalisation and
recommendations that it should be used as a last resort for orphans (Powell, Chinake,
Mudzinge,
Maambira,
Mukutiri,
2004,
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William... accessed on line 23 January 2010).
Socialisation is described by Macionis and Plummer (2009), as the process by which children
learn and adopt the behaviour patterns, and norms that enable them to function in their
community. These are the life-long survival capabilities that enable an individual to cope in
society. In this study survival capabilities were a combination of social, moral, cognitive and
emotional capabilities. These survival capabilities are built from the attachment processes of
mother-child bonding. Attachment capabilities included social-emotional development
(managing emotions) and child’s welfare and meaningful relationships. Complex interplay of
cultural values, beliefs, parenting practices influences attachment and relationships
development. Social capabilities were the ability to use social relations to cope in the
community.
1
Social relations covered respect for elders and other people, meaningful relationships,
emotional regulation and assertive skills and meaningful communication skills, patience,
resolving conflicts and resisting negative behavior from peers, and different behaviours in
different situations encountered in life. Moral were self discipline, meaningful social
relationships, control of emotions, assertive skills, following orders, initiative, self esteem
and conforming to social rules (avoiding abuse of drugs, beer and other people through
relationships). Cognitive were reasoning, learning and problem solving and emotional were
emotional regulation, social maturity, resisting in disruptive behavior, initiate reasoning self
regulation, mood management, self motivation, empathy (social abilities), management of
relationships. All these capabilities make up an individual who is a responsible person, able
to cope in the community and in the nation.
Socialisation is usually done in a family setup of mother, father and other children (Groark, &
McCall 2005, http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Files/PDF/111.pdf
accessed 7 December 2009).
Parents in the family usually refer to the surrounding culture, parenting methods in the
society that the family is part of. This makes it easy for the child to integrate when the child
becomes an adult. The family helps equip a child with developmental milestones that help
individuals to acquire survival capabilities. Upon the death of parents, an orphan can be
socialized in a kin system. In traditional African culture, there were “no orphans” as
parentless children were cared for within kin systems (Foster, 2002). The kin system which
was once the seemingly limitless network of extended family that expanded through
geographic areas and generations is depleting because of migration, westernization,
demographic changes and AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) (Muchanga,
1999,
http://www.ukzambians.co.uk/home/tag/africa/page/2/
http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/workshops/Windhoek-backgr
Foster,
accessed
12
2002,
November
2011). Muchanga (1999) and Foster (2002) further say that the extended family, which was
once the safety net for orphans and vulnerable children is fast disintegrating because of
poverty, high rates of unemployment, hyperinflation, urbanization and the HIV (Human
Immuno Virus) and AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) epidemic.
Because of these problems, orphan care by extended family members is difficult. The
adoption problem is further compounded by African cultures. When it comes to Africans in
Zimbabwe, it is difficult to adopt a child. Adoption by non kin is difficult to practice in
2
Zimbabwe and Africa at large because of strong cultural barriers. In some African cultures
the adoption of a child is believed to introduce alien spirits into the family resulting in
orphans
being
placed
in
institutions
(Muchanga,
1999,
http://www.ukzambians.co.uk/home/tag/africa/page/2/ accessed 12 November 2011).
Powell et al (2004, https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William... accessed on
line 23 January 2010), states that orphans can be socialised from paternal or maternal kinship
and in Zimbabwe it is the responsibility of the paternal side to take over the socialisation of
orphans. In a kin-system orphans are in-cooperated within the system and socialised just like
other children living in that system. Information on the socialisation processes within the
extended family is scarce. However it seems within the kin system that social relationships
continue and the sense of identity does not die for orphans in a kin system as opposed to
those who are institutionalised. Orphans in the kin-system are also equipped with survival
capabilities such as social, moral, cognitive and emotional skills and are able to use the
learned capabilities to function in the society that they found themselves in.
Besides kin system, an orphan/s can be socialised within an institution. In Zimbabwe, the
Government has the obligation to take care of its children under the Children’s Protection Act
of 1996 and through National Action Plan for Orphans and the Vulnerable Children
(Muchanga,
1999,
http://www.ukzambians.co.uk/home/tag/africa/page/2/
accessed
12
November 2011). Under this Act, a child must be placed in a place of safety as established by
the Minister of Labour and Social services. The expectation is that institutions will socialize
orphans to be at par with their counterparts who were socialized in the community. The
graduates from institutions were expected to use the survival capabilities of social, moral,
cognitive and emotional skills to cope in the community upon discharge from institutions.
Results from institutions have shown that orphans fail to cope in the community, with
research results showing antisocial behaviours, unlawfulness, poor assertive skills (UNICEF,
2006, (http://www.unicef.org/romania/sitan_engleza.pdf) accessed 13 April 2010) and failure
to
emotionally
stabilize
following
death
of
parents
(Powell
et
al,
2004,
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William... accessed on line 23 January 2010).
This is despite the fact that institutions are now using families to socialize the orphans with
3
survival capabilities. Given this scenario, the question was how then were institutions
socializing orphans such that the institutional graduates fail to cope in the community.
The support by the UNICEF (2008, http://www.unicef.org/sowc05/english/sowc05accessed
on line 27 August 2010) for orphans to be de-institutionalised also seems to confirm the fact
that, institutions are not socialising orphans, in order to survive in a given community when
they age out. A study in Russia, reported that of the 15000 orphans aging out of state-run
institutions every year, 10% committed suicide, 5000 were unemployed, 6000 were homeless
and
3000
were
in
prison
within
three
years,
(UNICEF,
2006,
(http://www.unicef.org/romania/sitan_engleza.pdf) accessed 13 April 2010). Whilst the
Russian results are not going to be generalised to the Zimbabwean institutions the report
created a base from where this study worked from. All these facts show that there is a missing
link in the socialisation of institutional orphans. This was the focus of the study, to explore
the socialisation processes of orphans in institutions. Two institutions which were studied are
Khayelihle and John Smale institutions in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, Figure 1.1.
4
Figure 1.1 Map of the Republic of Zimbabwe
Source: (www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/Africa/Zimbabwe/ accessed on line 23/6/11)
Figure 1.1 Map of the Republic of Zimbabwe
Source: (www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/Africa/Zimbabwe/accessed on 23 June 2011
Khayelihle Children’s Home is an orphanage institution situated along Airport / Nkayi road
in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. It nurtures orphans and abandoned children from birth up to 18
years of age. The mission statement for the village is “To provide, through residential and
community care, the physical, educational, medical, social and spiritual needs of children that
have been orphaned or abandoned”. The other institution which was studied was John Smale
Children’s Home also in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. It is found along Reebeck road off Plumtree
road. Both institutions had 250 orphans with 25 orphans due for discharge and 9 who were
overage and failed to be discharged, as of April 2011 because these orphans were still
furthering their studies and others were not yet established.
It is estimated that there are half a million orphans institutionalised in Zimbabwe and 9.5
million
institutionalised
in
the
world
(Save
the
Children
UK,
2006,
http://handstohearts.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Global-F...accessed on line8 June 2011).
Each day, globally, 38493 orphans age out with no family to belong to and no place to call
home (UNICEF, 2008, http://www.unicef.org/sowc05/english/sowc05 accessed on line 27
August 2010). It is against this background that the study was undertaken to explore the
5
institutional socialization processes of orphaned children. After exploring the socialization
processes in institutions, a follow up was done to ascertain the behaviours institutional
graduates were using to cope in the community.
1.3 Statement of the problem
Institutional graduate orphans discharged back to the community have been observed to lack
life-long survival capabilities (social, moral, cognitive and emotional) following institutional
socialization. This resulted in failure by institutional graduates to integrate positively into the
community as expected. The problem was where were the institutions failing?
1.4. Purpose of the study
The purpose of the study was to explore institutional socialisation processes of orphans at
Khayelihle and John Smale institutions.
1.5. Research objectives
1. To explore the understanding or meaning of socialization in the institutions.
2. To establish how institutional families’ positions, roles and culture are developed,
structured and used to guide the socialization processes in institutions?
3. To determine how institutions use parenting roles to socialize orphans with the
following survival capabilities or skills, attachment, social, moral, cognitive and
emotional?
4. To establish the survival capabilities that institutional graduates were using to cope in
the community following discharge from the mother institution?
1.5.1. Research Questions
1) How was the process of socialization viewed in the institutions?
2) How were institutional families’ positions, roles and culture developed,
structured and used during the socialization of orphans in the
institutions?
6
3) How were parenting roles used to socialize orphans with the following
survival skills in the institutions, attachment, social, moral, cognitive
and emotional?
4) Which capabilities were institutional graduates using to cope in the
community?
1.6. Assumptions of the study
The study was carried out with the assumption that institutions of orphans have a well
structured socialisation process for equipping orphans with life-long survival capabilities of
social, moral, cognitive and emotional. The follow-up assumption was that institutional
graduates were using survival capabilities as taught in the institution to cope in the
community following institutional socialization.
1.7. Significance of the study
The study will help establish whether institutions equip orphans with lifelong survival skills
such as social, moral, cognitive and emotional skills to enable the orphans to cope in the
community following discharge from the mother institution. The findings of this study will
also assist policy makers to review and redesign effective intervention policies aimed at
enabling institutions to provide expected parenting roles and responsibilities that can mould
the orphaned children into self reliant citizens
1.8. Limitations
During the study there were challenges with respect to researcher bias. The researcher was
the primary instrument of data collection and as a result she recorded in detail the part she
played during the research process and thus exercised objectivity in that manner. This
allowed the researcher to minimize bias during the study. Subjectivity is a cause for concern
with case studies, and therefore the researcher triangulated data from the different sources of
institutional administrators, caregivers, adolescent orphans and institutional graduates.
Besides triangulation, data from all participants were transcribed and corroborated. The study
was limited to two institutions due to the financial constraints because of lack of sponsorship
for the study. However the two institutions were appropriate for a case study design. Case
7
study design allowed for exploration of institutional socialization processes because of its
flexibility in getting rich data from participants. I used a convenient sample, which resembled
the institutional participants who had rich information on institutional socialization processes.
Convenient sampling was also appropriate in getting institutional graduates to participate in
the study. This was so because most of the graduates were scattered all over the country
given the time frame of the study.
1.9. Delimitation of the study
The study was limited to Khayelihle and John Smale institutions because of resources and
time limit. It focused on exploring the institutional socialisation of orphaned children.
8
1.10. Definition of terms
The following terms were used according to the meaning given in this study.
De-institutionalisation policy
referred to the method of reintegrating children from institutional homes back into the
community (UNICEF, 2004, www.unicef.org/publications/index_4378.html accessed on line
13 April 2010).
Institution
referred to an orphanage, home or village which admits children and adolescents orphans for
safety and socialisation, (Groark, & McCall 2005, http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Files/PDF/111.pdf
accessed 7 December 2009).
Institutional Graduate
In this study “graduate” refers to an orphan who is discharged back to the community from
the institute upon attaining the age of 18 years and or when the orphan completes school.
Orphan
referred to a child under the age of eighteen, who has one or both parent’s dead, (Santock,
2000).
Socialisation
referred to the complex process by which individuals learn and adopt the behaviour patterns,
culture, attitudes, values and norms that enable individuals to function appropriately in their
social environment (Macionis & Plummer, 2009).
Survival skills
These were skills that an orphan/child was expected to acquire during the socialization
process in order to live as a productive, responsible, socially and morally self reliant adult.
1.11. Organization of the Thesis.
The study is organised in 5 chapters namely chapter 1, 2, 3, 4 5. Chapter 1 has given a
background to the problem of the effectiveness of the institutional family socialization
processes on orphans. Chapter 2 discussed the review of literature on community
socialisation of children, orphans in the kin system and in institutions. Methodology of the
study was dealt with in chapter 3. This covered the research design, population sample,
sampling procedure, data collection techniques and data analysis procedure. Data
9
presentation and analysis were the concerns for chapter 4 whilst chapter 5 covered summary,
conclusions and recommendations.
1.12. Summary
This chapter dealt with the introduction to the study. Background to the study was looked at
in this chapter. Purpose of the study, statement of the problem, research objectives and
questions are part of chapter 1. Issues that were also included are assumptions of the study,
significance of the study, limitations, delimitation of the study, definition of terms and
organisation of the thesis.
10
2.0. CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. Introduction
This chapter gives an overview of the literature on the socialization processes of children.
According to Grabowski, Call, and Mortimer (2001, accessed 12 November 2011) and
Kumar (2008), literature review identifies similarities and differences between the present
study and studies done by other researchers. The weaknesses and shortcomings of other
studies were critically analysed so that the present study addressed the gaps. The fact that,
communal socialisation of a child or orphan took place in the family between parents and
children, meant looking at the institutional family, culture, institutional socialization methods
and the parenting styles used in the institutions.
Because socialization process starts with the bonding processes, and then the equipping of
social, moral, cognitive and emotional capabilities thereafter, meant that the study had to look
at the role and methods of family and orphanage institutions in equipping children with the
survival capabilities starting. The main subtopics of the chapter are socialization process,
socialization of survival capabilities of social skills, moral skills, cognitive skills, emotional
skills, orphanhood and its challenges, theoretical frame work, socialization agents, parenting
styles and their outcomes of socialization process and comparison of parenting styles
depending on whether one is a natural parent or an institutional caregiver. Lastly a
comparison of outcomes depending on whether the children are taken care of by parents or
institutional socialization is made.
2.2 The socialization process
According to Maccoby (2007, http:///family.jrank.org/pages/1186/Motherhood-MaternalRole-inChildrearing.html)
accessed on line 27 December 2009), the term socialization
refers to the process by which people learn culture, roles, and norms in order to function
within a society. Socialization occurs throughout one’s lifetime despite gender, culture or
geographical location. It is particularly important during childhood, when the child’s
personality
is
taking
shape
(Grusec, Goodnow, &
11
Kuczynski, 2000,
http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/fam/20/4/705/accessed on line 7 December 2009). Scroufe
(2002, (http://www.ehow.com/family/) accessed on line 21 December 2009) points out that,
in early childhood children are socialized to learn the fundamentals of language and culture,
which will affect behaviour and outcomes throughout their lives. Powel et al (2004,
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William...accessed on line 23 January
2010) go further and say that socialization of a child is mostly done by biological parents
especially mothers, and in the absence of a mother, a female caregiver within the family. In
the event that both parents die, socialization will be taken over by the paternal side in cases
where the practice is paternal and maternal when it is maternal. The fact that successful
socialization can result in uniformity within a society, if all children receive the same
socialization; it is likely that they will share the same beliefs and expectations. Those who
internalize the norms of society are less likely to break the law or to want radical social
changes.
Different cultures use different techniques to socialize their children. There are two broad
types of teaching methods, formal and informal. Formal education is what primarily happens
in a classroom. It is structured, controlled, and directed primarily by adult teachers who are
professional "knower’s." In contrast, informal education can occur anywhere. It involves
imitation of what others do and say as well as experimentation and repetitive practice of basic
skills O'Neil (2002) www.//anthro.palomar.edu/social/soc_i.htm
accessed on line 7
December 2009)...
According to O’Neil (2002) www.//anthro.palomar.edu/social/soc_i.htm accessed on line 7
December 2009), most of the crucial early socialization throughout the world is done
informally under the supervision of women and girls. Initially, mothers and their female
relatives are primarily responsible for socialization. Later, when children enter the lower
school grades, they are usually under the control of women teachers. In North America and
some other industrialized nations, baby-sitters are most often teenage girls who live in the
neighbourhood. In other societies, they are likely to be older sisters or grandmothers.
12
Charlie (2010) www.buzzle.com/authors-asp?accessed on line 23 January 2010 Reports that
children who have a good environment which is conducive for learning at home, end up
being the winners in the fields which they choose in their later life. The things which are
taught in the childhood remain with the children throughout their lives. According to
Maccoby (2007), socialization can be divided into two main categories. The primary
socialization is when the child learns values from parents. The next phase in the life of these
children is the school phase. In the school, the children interact with many more people than
they do in the days before joining school. The result of this interaction is that children are
able to learn new things by indulging in group activities and games. Teachers too, play a vital
role in the child development process.
The job of these teachers involves finding out the strengths and weaknesses in their students.
They suggest innovative ways to improve the weaknesses and prepare the children for the
future challenges. Apart from the academic subjects, teachers at school encourage their
students to participate in non curriculum activities and programs which can bring out the best
in them. This generates a lot of self-confidence, pride and ambition to chase their dreams.
However, the socialization process can be beneficial only if it is positive. The process of
learning can never be successful by the use of force. The use of methods such as punishment,
criticism and force will never help to make the learning simple. In fact, such kind of
socialization can be termed as negative socialization Maccoby (2007).
2.2.1. Socialization of social skills.
According to Steinberg, (2001, http://www.actforyouth.net/resources/rf/rf_stages_0504.cfm
accessed on line 8 June 2010) social skills include taking turns, sharing, praising and
thanking others, treating others with respect and kindness, listening to others, conversing with
others, showing interest in others, following directions, exercising patience and tolerance,
resolving conflicts, and resisting negative peer pressure. A child can achieve these social
skills in the home by learning basic manners and proper conduct, interacting with family
members, developing quality friendships, engaging in conversations with others, and through
role-playing to further hone social skills for a variety of situations he or she may encounter in
life.
According
to
Halberstadt,
Denham,
&
Dunsmore
(2001,
http://www4.ncsu.edu/~halbers/publications.htmla accessed on line 7 December 2009),
13
children gain important social skills from parents who play with them in ways that reflect
equality in the play interaction. Loving and responsive parenting helps children to see the
world in a positive way and to expect that relationships with others will be rewarding. Powell
et al (2004), many institutions still focus on meeting children’s physical needs while ignoring
more important psycho-social needs.
2.2.2. Socialization of moral skills
Morality
is
defined
by
Eisenberg,
(2000,
http://social.jrank.org/pages/426/Moral-
Development-Socializ...accessed on line November 2011) as individuals' prescriptive
understanding of how individuals ought to behave towards each other. Moral judgments are
proposed to be obligatory, universalisable, unalterable, impersonal, and determined by
criteria other than agreement, consensus, or institutional convention. The social world is not
unitary; parents are concerned with ensuring children's welfare, protecting their rights, and
helping children learn how they ought to relate to others. Morality pertains to the system of
rules that regulates the social interactions and social relationships of individuals within
societies and is based on concepts of welfare (harm), trust, justice (comparative treatment and
distribution), and rights. It is the aim of this research to identify the institutions moral code
for orphans.
Santrock (2007) observed that child rearing studies consistently imply that use of inductive
discipline promotes moral maturity. He suggests that providing children with opportunities to
question their own moral reasoning and behaviour will foster moral development, but
discussing the intentions, perspectives, false beliefs, and judgments of characters within a
moral dilemma may also foster moral development. These children learn how to set their
own limits and personal standards.
Aristotle (344 BC) in Maccoby (2007), suggested a more integrated view -that effective
moral training should first involve the young child's emotional dispositions, so that the child
learned to love and hate correctly; later when maturation allowed reasoning to emerge, there
would be a "symphony between habituated preferences and what reasoning shows to be
good" (Fortenbaugh, 1975) cited in Dienstbier (2003, (http://www.ehow.com/relationships/)
accessed on line 10 June 2010). Grusec, Goodnow & Kuczynski, (2000, accessed on line 7
14
December 2009), state that the social domain view adds specificity to our understanding of
reasoning as an effective parenting practice by suggesting that reasoning will be effective
only if it is coordinated with the domain of the act under consideration, because only such
explanations would provide the child with domain-relevant information. Social domain
theory also suggests that effective parental reasoning needs to consider the child's
developmental status. Two other important aspects of social development are the emergence
of guilt and shame which are related to moral development and altruism (Nucci, 2001,
http://www.amazon.com/Education-Moral-Domain-Larry-Nucci/dp/... accessed on line 12
December 2009).
2.2.3. Socialization of cognitive skills.
Cognitive or intellectual functioning as measured by IQ (intelligence quotient) has been
found to be influenced by the environment, family background and socioeconomic status.
Cognitive functioning of ex-institutionalized children has been found to vary according to
length of time spent in an institution, type of post-institutional placement (adoption, restored
to birth family) and age at the time of adoption or restoration (MaClean, 2003).
Cognitive
skills,
according
to
Vygotsky
cited
in
Goswami,
(2002,
http://www.cne.psychol.cam.ac.uk/people/ucg10@cam.ac.uk accessed on line 13 January
2010), cognitive skills have a social origin. They must first be performed jointly with a
competent adult before they come under the child's control. Thus all higher psychological
functions including thinking, learning, and problem solving, appear first on an inter-mental
plane, that is, in the course of interacting with another person, before they become
internalized and the child is able to perform them on an intra-mental plane. Santrock, (2007),
suggested that the adult’s role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials
for the child to interact and construct. Piaget suggested hands on experience that is parents
had to help with homework or assignments (Amy.Tiller, & Tiller, (2006). “The Influence of
Parenting Styles on Children’s Cognitive Development”. Louisiana State University,
AgCenter. http://www.kon.org/urc/tiller.pdf accessed 8 June 2010.
According to (Mupinga, 2002) http://www.huec.lsu.edu/research/researchpubreferred.htm
accessed 12 November 2011.as family size increases, more of the socialization of the younger
children is taken on by their older siblings, either by default or because the parents delegate
15
this responsibility to the older children. Steinberg, Bornstein, Vandell, & Rook, (2010,
http://www.actforyouth.net/resources/rf/rf_stages_0504.cfm accessed on line 8 June 2010)
argues that, this puts younger children in large families at a disadvantage with regard to
cognitive development, since they have relatively less contact with the most competent and
committed family members, the parents.
Baumrind (1991, http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1737/Adolescent-P... accessed
on line 11 November 2009), found that parental involvement in the education of their children
has positive influences on the overall success of their children as youths and adults. The
research was to find out how institutional caregivers promote the socialization of cognitive
skills in orphans. The capability part was explored on the graduates coping skills in the
community.
2.2.4. Socialization of emotional skills
Goleman (1995, www.lifecho.com/social-emotional-skill accessed on line 21 December
2009) says “IQ is only a minor predictor of success in life, while emotional and social skills
are far better predictors of success and well being than academic intelligence Emotional wellbeing is dramatically and positively predictive not only of academic achievement, but also of
satisfactory and productive experiences in the world of work and marriage, even of better
physical health. Goleman (1995, www.lifecho.com/social-emotional-skill accessed on line 21
December 2009) goes on to say, there are five crucial emotional competencies basic to social
and emotional learning. These are self (self-regulation), mood management (selfconsciousness), self motivation, empathy (social abilities), and management of relationships.
Powell et al (2004, https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William...accessed on
line 23 January 2010), observed that cases of verbal abuse, through repeated taunting and
humiliation of children about their orphan status, were common. Feelings of abandonment
and/or rejection by their extended families were common and contributed to a lack of selfesteem in the youth. Boredom was a greater problem for children in homes situated in
isolated rural areas (Zeanah, Smyke, Koga, Carlson 2005, & the Bucharest Early Intervention
16
Project Care Group, http: //www.child-encyclopedia.com/documents/van_IJzendoorn-B.
accessed on line 14 January 2010).
2.2.5 Orphanhood, its challenges and how challenges result in institutionalisation.
Orphanhood is one of the catastrophes that face a child upon the death of a mother, father or
both. An orphan lacks the socialization by parents. The orphan has no bonding figure that
should help in social, moral, cognitive and emotional skills development compared to other
children whose socialization is being done by their own parents. Orphans face a lot of
challenges, in view of the absence of the natural parent. Upon the death of parent or parents,
orphans may be socialized in institutions from zero months until orphans graduate
(Zimbabwe National Orphan Care Policy, 1999, http://www.crin.org/docs/BCN - Children in
Residential Care ...accessed on line 13 April 2010).The causes of death of parents range from
AIDS and other diseases, armed conflict, natural disasters, forced displacement and extreme
poverty (UNICEF, 2004, www.unicef.org/publications/index_4378.html accessed 13 April
United
2010).
Nations
International
Children’s
Emergency
Fund
(2008,
http://www.unicef.org/sowc05/english/sowc05 accessed 27 August 2010) estimated that there
were 2 million children who were in orphanages around the world. In Zimbabwean
institutions, poverty was cited as the main reason for placement of orphans into institutions.
According
to
Powell
et
al
(2004,
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William...accessed 23 January 2010) there
are currently 56 residential institutions for children in Zimbabwe with a registered capacity of
3279 children. Three thousand and eighty (3080) are currently in institutional care, including
67 children in unregistered orphanages. Institutions operations are guided by the child
protection act. In Zimbabwe the need for family care for orphans has resulted in dormitory
institutions being converted into family based care and the new institutions adopting the plans
of
a
family
based
institution
(Powell
et
al,
2004,
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William... accessed on line 23 January
2010). This is despite the negative results associated with institutional graduates’ survival
capabilities led to this study. The exploration needed to identify how institutions were
17
socializing orphans until the orphans graduate from the institutions. Orphaned children can
also experience discrimination within their new households.
Reports have emerged of orphaned children receiving less food, denied school fees, and
forced to do more work. Children especially girls have also reported instances of sexual
abuse in their new households. However, many may silently accept it because they have
nowhere else to turn for shelter or for protection. (Wild, L.2001.)
In some African countries, the education of girls is considered to be less important than that
of boys, and girls are more likely to be withdrawn from school to perform
household work and care for sick family members. On the other hand, in some contexts boys
are regarded as more likely to contribute to production and so are more likely to be fostered
under conditions of emergency (Ntozi & James, 1997.)
In addition to the practice of exchanging sex for food, money, and clothing, young girls face
a range of challenges that affect their sero prevalence. While at school young girls may be
raped by their peers or coerced into having sex with their teachers. Young girls are also
vulnerable to sexual exploitation as they work, particularly as vendors and domestic servants.
A study in Fiji found out that 8 in 10 young domestic workers reported having been sexually
abused by their employers. (Worden, J.1996.)
2.2.5.1. Loss of inheritance
Children who are solely responsible for their siblings struggle not only to support the
household, but also to keep their homes. Property grabbing is a practice where relatives of the
deceased come and claim the land and other property, is reportedly a serious problem for
widows and child-headed households in Kenya. Traditional law in many rural areas dictates
that women and children cannot inherit property, (Makame, Ani, & Grantham-McGregor,
(2002).
Property grabbing has a number of negative consequences particularly for girls’ and
women. Girls may experience sexual abuse and exploitation from their new caretakers, girls
and women may be forced into the sex trade in exchange for shelter and protection, further
increasing the risk of contracting HIV. Some are concerned that the practice of property
18
grabbing heightens the strain on extended families and increase the number of street children.
(Geballe & Gruendel, 1998.)
For orphans in particular this can mean denial of basic social and economic
rights, including the right to health and education. Children rarely know their rights,
how to engage a lawyer or how to access the Office of the Public Trustee. In many cases,
surviving relatives grab the property they are meant to administer for the child, in other cases,
relatives seeking to safeguard a child's inheritance face numerous bureaucratic obstacles.
Sometimes children are chased away from their parent's property. (Geballe & Gruendel,
1998.)
2.2.5.2. Adult responsibilities
A young adolescent may be responsible for many siblings, some of whom may be infants.
Children who are the heads of households are in a difficult position not only because they
must now support their siblings with little to no education or employable skills, but also
because they most likely have limited resources. In many cases much of the family’s
possessions may have been sold to care for the sick. Large numbers of orphaned children find
themselves in homes that cannot afford to pay school expenses and drop out to work in the
household, fields, or on the street (UNAIDS, 2001.)
Children with minimal education or employable skills can be found doing work such as
shining shoes, begging for money in the streets, bartending, selling food, and most often in
the case of girls, becoming domestic workers.
Children who are orphaned find themselves in institutional care because even children who
are not HIV-positive may find themselves rejected and alone. This only adds to the feelings
of anger, sadness, and hopelessness that they may feel after witnessing their parents die. It is
difficult for orphaned children to concentrate in school. (UNAIDS, 2001).
It is common for teachers to report that they find orphaned children daydreaming, coming to
school infrequently, arriving at school unprepared and late, or not being responsive in the
classroom. Some teachers ignorant of the cause of the children’s distress are not sympathetic.
Orphaned children have reported that unsympathetic teachers yelled at them, made fun of
19
them, or put them out of the classroom. However, other orphaned children have reported that
their teachers have been their primary support base at school. (Wild, 2001.)
2.2.5.3.Violence and abuse against orphans
Orphans with or withouth AIDS are particularly vulnerable to violence and abuse. They also
face challenges with accessing medical treatment can also be very difficult for such children.
Orphaned Children who live with non-parent guardians may face violations of property
rights, labour exploitation, sexual harassment, abuse, and violence. (UNAIDS & WHO,
2003.) According to Human Rights Watch (2007), it was found out that some orphans in
Kibera slum are suffering from beatings and other physical mistreatment by their guardians
and care takers.
2.2.5.4. Psychological impact of orphans resulting from HIV and AIDS.
The psychological impact of HIV/AIDS on children is often overlooked. Not only do many
children who live in heavily affected areas contend with the death of one or both parents, but
they also frequently face the death of younger siblings, aunts, uncles and other relatives in the
case of HIV and AIDS. While there are a number of programs that address the material needs
of orphans and vulnerable children, there is less emphasis on helping children cope with the
trauma associated with witnessing the deaths of family members. The additional burden of
caring for terminally ill relatives may send children into shock leaving many of them with
unanswered questions about their own mortality and future. (UNICEF, 2001.)
There are a number of psychological impacts affecting children of HIV/AIDS parents. A
parent who is HIV infected may show less interest in the child due to the dramatic mood
swings associated with the pressure of being infected. The child usually does not know what
the problem is, that it is not his or her fault, and does not understand why the parent seems
moody. The child is likely to react with fear and anxiety and sometimes will blame
themselves. (UNAIDS, 2001.)
The psychological impact of HIV/AIDS on the young orphans is often misunderstood,
particularly in the classroom. Children who are affected by HIV/AIDS may be frequently
20
absent or tardy from school, find it hard to concentrate or unable to assume school-related
expenses, such as school fees, uniforms, books and other school supplies.
While teachers may have noticed that AIDS-affected children tend to have lower
performance in school, many apparently do not link the behavior with HIV/AIDS. As a
result, some organizations are beginning to train teachers on how to identify griefrelated
behavior. Teachers who have completed grief-identification training have reported that the
sessions “opened” their eyes to the reasoning behind what they had identified as misbehavior
of orphaned students. (Kiragu, 2001.)
Programs are also being developed that enable children to play, which is a luxury to many
orphans and vulnerable children. Children affected by HIV/AIDS often begin to assume adult
responsibilities, such as earning wages, caring for the terminally ill, and cultivating the land,
leaving them with little to no time for recreational activities. These children may also be
stigmatized and isolated, as ignorance about the virus remains high. (Kiragu, 2001.)
2.2.5.5. Education and economic impact
Some households took children out of school to care for members with AIDS and to fulfill
mothers’ roles. Even if children were not withdrawn from school, their education was often
interrupted by poverty and the need to attend to members with AIDS. Children without
appropriate school uniforms, shoes and socks were sent back home. Some children are forced
to care for members with AIDS when they are bed-ridden. One child in Kibera slums had to
attend to a nearly blind mother with AIDS by assisting with her walking (UNICEF, 1997.)
The growing number of children affected by HIV/AIDS could lead to a decrease of skilled
laborers within a country, further destabilizing the national economy and society at large. In
many parts of the developing world, people rely on their own plots of land for the majority of
their food consumption and income.
However, significant populations of engineers, miners, police, lawyers, and the like, rely on
skills gained through education and professional training for income. Children who are
affected by HIV/AIDS are less likely to be employed in these professions, as they have a
lower chance of completing basic and secondary education. Without education and skills
training, children orphaned and made vulnerable by HIV/AIDS are more likely to fall deeper
21
into the cycle of poverty. The affected countries might find it harder to overcome national
poverty and become effective members of the international economy (Whiteside& Desmond,
2001.)
2.2.5.6. The Economic challenges
The economic challenges of children affected by HIV/AIDS occur in stages. The first
stage often begins when children realize that their parent has AIDS and is likely to die. They
begin to fear for their future, wondering that who will care for them, and worry about how
they will be able to stay in school. Children are often pulled out of school to care for an ailing
family member, or because meager household income is now spent on the sick. School fees,
notebooks, and pencils become unaffordable and children begin to struggle to provide care
and replace lost adult labor and income (Cohen 1999). At this stage, the quality of childrearing is compromised and many important lessons on life skills and self-sufficiency are not
taught, mostly because the parent(s) is too ill to transfer the knowledge. After one parent dies,
most children continue to live with the surviving parent or a relative, but they often slide
more deeply into poverty. For some, the next stage begins when they find themselves the
heads of households. (Cohen, 1999). Many observers believe that the desperation of these
young children makes them more vulnerable to abuse and exploitation, ultimately making
them more susceptible to contracting HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS, 2001).
2.2.5.7. Street children
Street children are long-term runaways or homeless children who are able to fend for
themselves on the streets .Worldwide, UNICEF estimates that 30 million children spend most
of their time on the streets. Of these, around 10 million are to all intents "abandoned", having
lost or severed links with their parental homes. These children are prime targets for STDs and
HIV infection. Their life style often places them on the wrong side of the law. Emotionally
vulnerable and economically hard-up, such children are easily drawn into selling sexual
favors (UNICEF, 2001).
Kenya is estimated to host more than 300,000 children and youth on the streets who engage
in survival tactics that endanger their well being and that of the society. Most of them are
abused, neglected, exposed to criminal and gang activities, suffer poor health due to their
lifestyles and exposure to harsh environment, drug and substance abuse, and exposure to
22
HIV/AIDS infection (KBC 2007). According to the government of Kenya reports many of
them have escaped abuse at homes. Street children face serious difficulty in getting medical
treatment. Hospitals are ill-prepared to deal with children and many cannot afford the
treatment. The situation of street children is complicated by the fact that they are sometimes
treated as criminals. Police have repeatedly rounded up and detained street children. They are
also often subjected to police brutality, sexual abuse, and economic exploitation (Human
Rights Watch, 1997.)
2.2.5.8. Uncertainty in life.
Both before and after the death of a parent, AIDS-affected children are exposed to a
high degree of uncertainty. Unfortunately, it seems that the only thing that is certain to
them is the eventual death of the loved one. Children are faced with many questions,
which often are impossible to answer. Questions such as “How long will the sickness
last?”, “How will we afford medicine if my father is unable to work?”, “Will my parent
die?”, “What will happen to me and my siblings once they die?”, “Where will we live?” Such
uncertainties pose a great challenge to secure a psychological base, essential to a child’s
development of a healthy and functional personality” (Dwaine, L.2000.)
After the death of their parents, AIDS orphans continue to face enormous uncertainties. If
they are living with extended family members, they may be uncertain about their role within
the existing family, and how much of a burden they are placing upon the family. They may
also be uncertain about their education, and whether the family will be able to pay the fees to
send them to school. On the other extreme, some orphans either fall outside of the extended
family safety net and end up as street children, or they become heads of households, where
they are responsible for looking after their siblings and taking on the roles that their parents
used to have. Such children often must face the everyday uncertainties of life on their own.
(Fleshman, 2001).
The orphans are expected to forego their childhood and to assume the responsibilities of
adults, which may include caring for younger siblings, growing their own food, and engaging
in income generating activities. Often, these young children are poorly prepared for their new
adult roles. For example in Namibia, children left with small livestock – chicken and goats –
saw many of their animals die, simply because they did not have the experience to care for
them properly (UNAIDS 2000).
23
A study carried out in Kenya found out that four out of five orphans who were farming in one
rural area said they did not know where to go for information about food production. Such
uncertainties can severely affect the psychological and physical health of these children, and
hinder their opportunities to become loving, caring, socially developed individuals
(UNAIDS, 2000).
2.2.5.9. Stigma, discrimination and depression
According to UNAIDS, stigma and discrimination continue to accompany the HIV/AIDS
epidemic. Children are not immune from stigmatization. In cases of stigma, children tend to
be rejected as early as their parents fall ill with AIDS. Some children may be teased because
their parents have AIDS, while others may lose their friends because it is assumed that
proximity can spread the virus (UNAIDS, 2001). Harsh cases of discrimination have been
reported in many countries, including India particularly for HIV-infected children. UNAIDS
study found out that HIV-related stigma is particularly high in India, where 36% of the
respondents in a survey felt that HIV-positive people should kill themselves, and the same
percentage felt they deserved their fate. Another 34% reported that they would not associate
with an HIV-infected person. (UNAIDS & WHO, 2004.)
A recent case study from India illustrated how the desire to disassociate from HIV positive
people impacts children. Two HIV-positive children, who lost both of their parents to
HIV/AIDS, were repeatedly barred from schools for two years in India. After the children
and their grandfather protested in front of government buildings, one school finally accepted
them. However, all 100 of their schoolmates were withdrawn by their parents fearing
infection by association with them (BBC, 200...)
With all these problems that are insurmountable facing orphans, philanthropists have often
taken them into institutions to alleviate their plight. However orphanages have their
challenges which are the subject of this study.
2.3. Socialization Theories
In the area of socialization, there has been a steady progression from unidirectional-effects
models—first, from parent to child, and then from child to parent—to bidirectional-effects
24
models, and finally to multidirectional-effects models (Harris, 1995). In this study the
researcher looked at Bowlby’s attachment theory, Erikson’s psychosocial theory (1969),
Baumrind’s (1991) typology, Family System’s theory by Turnbull & Turnbull (2001). In the
area of socialization, there has been a steady progression from unidirectional-effects
models—first, from parent to child, and then from child to parent—to bidirectional-effects
models, and finally to multidirectional-effects models (Harris, 1995).
2.3.1. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
According to Bowlby’s attachment theory, children who experiences parents as emotionally
available, loving, and supportive of their mastery efforts will construct a working model of
the self as lovable and competent. In contrast, children who experience attachment figures as
rejecting, emotionally unavailable, insensitive and non supportive, or inconsistent will
construct a working model of the self that is unlovable, incompetent, and generally unworthy
(Verschureren,
Buyck,
and
Marcoen
2001
http://family.jrank.org/pages/371/Development.html">Development - Cognitive, Self EMOTIONAL, MORAL)
In addition, those who are securely attached will report more realistic or balanced selfconcepts, reporting on both positive and negative characteristics, although typically more
positive
attributes
are
cited
(Easterbrooks
&
Abeles,
2000
http://family.jrank.org/pages/371/Development.html">Development - Cognitive, Self EMOTIONAL, MORAL. That is, securely attached children have more access to both
positive and negative self-attributes than do insecurely attached children, who often present
an unrealistically positive account of their strengths in an attempt to mask underlying feelings
of unworthiness.
Attachment is a crucial stage in a child’s development. The attachment process sets the
socialization process in motion. It is from the attachment process that all other skills of
survival are developed in children. The institutional caregivers faced the mammoth task of
creating an equal participatory base for all orphans in their respective families, those with
different age and from different backgrounds.
25
Attachment is defined as instinctual drive to seek proximity to a parent. The behaviour that
we observe when a child is seeking closeness with a parent is called attachment behaviour.
The theoretical basis of most of the attachment research is that secure attachment in infancy
will predict good psycho-social outcomes in later years (Goldbert, 1982) cited by Maccoby,
(2007, http://www.ehow.com/family/ accessed on line 27 December 2009). During the early
years parental attitudes toward the infant are critical, family attachment systems have shown
that, a growing bonding attachment marked by strong mutual effect, with at least one
particular adult is critical to the child’s welfare and social-emotional development (Feinberg
and Hetherington 2001). However the complex interplay of cultural values, beliefs, parenting
practices and other factors influence attachment and relationship development. The primary
relationship is the building block for the child's further development in affective and
cognitive development spheres, for social problem solving, for the creation of peer
relationships, and for conscious formation (Maccoby, 2007 http://www.ehow.com/family/
accessed on line 27 December 2009).. The Interaction between Relationship Building,
Parenting Practices and Socio-Cultural Influences as indicated in figure 2.1.
26
Conscience
formation
morals, ethics
Peer relationships
Socio-problem solving
Cognitive development
Affective Development
Core or primary relationships
Parenting Practices
Socio & Cultural Influences
Figure 2.1. The Interaction between Relationship Building, Parenting Practices and
Socio-Cultural Influences
Source: Bornstein, Azuma, Galperin, Maital, Ogino, Painter, Pascual, Pechuex, Rahn,
Toda, Venuti, Vyt, & Wright (1998, www.attachmentacrosscultures.org/research/
acccesed on line 06/12/11)
Attachment is influenced by the quality and organization of child upon birth, the newborn
infant is capable of receiving input from all five senses (sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch
and is wired to respond to the human face. Infants can distinguish their mother’s odour from
other women, are readily responsive to soothing and stimulating touch, and are capable of
imitating adult facial movements (Berk, 2004).
27
According
to
the
(Attachment
Parenting
International
(API),
http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml accessed on line 12
March 2010). There are eight principles that foster healthy (secure) attachment between the
caretaker and infant. However these principles are not derived directly from original
attachment research, they are presented as parenting practices that can lead to "atonement",
"consistent and sensitive responsiveness" and "physical and emotional availability" that
research has found to be key factors in secure attachment. (Berger, 2001) observed that a
well-attached infant regards the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore his
surroundings. Santrock (2000) believe that the major influence on the quality of the infantcaregiver attachment relationship appears to result primarily from the caregiver’s
responsiveness. The methods that promoted attachment in orphans seemed to face challenges
in institutions because institutional caregivers looked after many orphans.
2.3.2. Attachment in an institutional setting
Caregiver behaviours with children tend to be perfunctory with little talking and even less
conversation, little interaction outside of routine caretaking duties, minimum responsiveness
to children's individual needs (such as crying), caregiver-directed rather than child-directed
interactions when they do occur, and almost no attempt by caregivers to form relationships
with
children
(Muhamedrahimov,
2005”
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2892211/accessed on line 6 February 2010.;
Groak & McCall (2005), http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Files/PDF/111.pdf The St. Petersburg-USA
Orphanage Research Team, Characteristics of children, caregivers, and orphanages for young
children in St. Petersburg, Russian Federation.
Fuhrmann and Munchel, (2009, http://poundpuplegacy.org/node/17680 accessed on line
November 2010) observed that a child in an orphanage has, on average, 10 caregivers a day,
owing to staff shift changes throughout the day. At the same time, the caregivers themselves
frequently change as a result of high staff turnover, with serious implications for children's
growth and development. Sometimes the child’s needs are met and sometimes they aren’t.
The child never knows what to expect. Because of change of caregivers, the large numbers of
the children under the institutional caregivers with their different demands, institutional
attachment
process
is
at
risk.
28
McCall
&
Groak
(2008,
http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Files/PDF/111.pdf accessed on line 7 December 2009) adds that the
institutional caregivers may be virtual strangers to the children.
Interpersonal investment and reward, such as eye contact, verbalization, and face-to-face
communication is minimal. Institutional caretakers tend to lack any formal training in
childcare, and in some cases, caretakers may be older institutionalized children Interest and
time spent on any particular child would hinder completion of duties and caring for the other
children. This type of socialisation seemed to have negative impact on the development of the
orphan. The study will reveal how institutional caregivers rendered the attachment skills to
orphans in preparation of the orphan graduating.
The study hopes to bring out the potential risks of this type of socialization. Once the
attachment processes is disrupted, the outcomes of the socialization processes might be
negatively affected. However, many other factors can be expected to modify the impact of
secure attachment on later functioning, including cultural variations of attachment,
psychosocial
circumstances,
intergenerational
factors
transmission
of
within
values
the
child
and
(child
temperament),
beliefs
(Serficik,
and
2009,
(http;www.education.com/reference/article/parenting styles) accessed on line 10 January
2010).
2.3.3. Attachment outcomes of parents versus institutional caregivers
Mares, Newman & Warren (2011, http://www.ehow.com/legal/ accessed on line 21
December 2009) observed that children from authoritarian parents were found to be less
confident and more reliant on others to have their needs met, and more at risk for
psychosocial malfunctioning, such as somatic complaints, social withdrawal and anxiety
disorders. They go on to say children of authoritative parents displayed confidence, self
esteem and can form social relationships. Grabowski, Call, and Mortimer (2001).
http://family.jrank.org/pages/239/Childhood-Stages.html accessed 12 November 2011 says
permissive or avoidant parents, have avoidant children who exhibit different forms of social
incompetence, they are often identified as the bullies by their peers and are hostile and
aggressive.
29
According to McCall & Groak (2008, http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Files/PDF/111.pdf accessed
on line 7 December 2009), institutional children have insecure attachment due to the child’s
movement
from
one
caregiver
to
another.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2892211/
(Muhamedrahimov,
2005. ”
Powell
(2004)
et
al
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William ...accessed on line 23 January
2010), reported that institutional orphans had disorganized attachments. Institutional infants
have also been described as passive and quiet (Gunnar, (2001). A child with insecure
attachment or an attachment disorder doesn’t have the skills necessary to build meaningful
relationships. Children with attachment disorders or attachment problems have difficulty
connecting to others and managing their own emotions. This results in a lack of trust and selfworth, a fear of getting close to anyone, anger, and a need to be in control. A child with an
attachment disorder feels unsafe and alone.
2.3.4. Parent-child attachment and psychosocial outcomes
Parent-child attachment quality has been linked to a number of psychosocial outcomes in
childhood. On the one hand, attachment security is associated with adaptive emotion
regulation processes in childhood. Secure infants evidence less stress reactivity during the
Strange Situation paradigm than do insecure (avoidant and ambivalent) or disorganized
infants (Nachmias, Gunnar, Mangelsdorf, Parritz, & Buss, 1996; in Bennett (2004,
www.interscience.wiley.com).
Further, babies later classified as secure display more positive and varied affect toward
mothers by 4 months of age by 24 months, secure toddlers show better affect and behavioral
regulation during a teaching task with their mothers (Vondra et al., 2001). By childhood,
secure children show less aggression and more cooperation in peer interactions and more
appropriate, flexible emotional attunement and behaviors responses to a range social and
environmental cues (Sroufe, 2005; than do their insecure counterparts. These data highlight
the long-term emotion regulation benefits associated with secure attachment patterns in
infancy. As noted above, avoidant and ambivalent-resistant attachment are forms of
attachment insecurity; both strategies are associated with less effective affect and stress
regulation. By childhood, insecure children evidence other markers of affective deregulation.
Avoidant children evidence less prosocial and more aggressive behavior toward peers
(Rydell, Bohlin, & Thorell, 2005) cited by Bennett (2004, www.interscience.wiley.com).
whereas ambivalent children report more loneliness than do their secure counterparts. On the
30
whole, insecure children endorse less positive affect, more depression, and more separation
anxiety from their mothers (Borelli, 2007; in Bennett, (2004, www.interscience.wiley.com).
They exhibit less perseverance in social interactions and competitive games, as well as
greater emotional reactivity during a threat-based experimental paradigm. These data reflect
the greater difficulties that insecure children face in their attempts to regulate affect and
engage in interpersonal interactions.
Finally, disorganized infants and children evidence various pronounced indices of affective
deregulation. In childhood, disorganized children respond to their parents’ frightened and
frightening behavior through a range of controlling strategies including punitive and coercive
bossiness or, alternately, caregiving by directing, organizing, and entertaining the parent. Not
surprisingly, compared to other attachment groups, disorganized mother child dyads display
the lowest levels of cooperation and positive mutuality in a range of interactions. Over the
course of childhood, the mother-child relationship remains a forum in which disorganized
children
evidence
disrupted
and
deregulated
ways
of
managing
affect.
Controlling/disorganized children also display elevated aggressiveness in peer interactions
and more externalizing, internalizing, and dissociative symptoms than their organized
counterparts and perform more poorly on mathematics and syllogistic reasoning tasks during
childhood (Bureau, Moss, & Dubois-Comtois, 2005; cited by Bennett , (2004,
www.interscience.wiley.com).
2.3.2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory.
Erikson (1902–1994) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage in
the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is
toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy
versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference
between initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness
and inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of
gaining identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people
gain insight to life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven,
or middle adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus
31
self-absorption). In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the
challenge of integrity and despair Macionis (2009)
Table 2.1. Erikson Psychosocial Stages
Source: Macionis (2009)
Erikson's
Freudian
life stage / relationships basic
psychosocial
psycho-
/ issues
crisis
and
stages sexual
(syntonic
v stages
dystonic)
virtue maladaptation
/
second malignancy
named
(potential
strength
outcome - one or
(potential
the other - from
positive
unhelpful
outcomes
experience
from
negative
during
each each crisis)
crisis)
1.Trust
v Oral
Mistrust
infant / mother / feeding Hope
and Sensory Distortion /
and being comforted, Drive
Withdrawal
teething, sleeping
2.Autonomy v Anal
toddler
Shame
bodily functions, toilet and
&
Doubt
/
parents
training,
/ Willpower
Impulsivity
/
Self- Compulsion
muscular Control
control, walking
3.Initiative v Phallic
preschool / family / Purpose
Guilt
exploration
discovery,
and Ruthlessness
and Direction
/
Inhibition
adventure
and play
4.Industry
Inferiority
v Latency
schoolchild
/
teachers,
school, Competence
Narrow Virtuosity /
friends, and Method
Inertia
neighbourhood
achievement
/
and
accomplishment
32
5.Identity
v Puberty and adolescent
Role
Genitality
Confusion
groups,
/
peers, Fidelity
influences
and Fanaticism
/ Devotion
/
Repudiation
resolving identity and
direction, becoming a
grown-up
6.Intimacy
v (Genitality)
Isolation
young adult / lovers, Love
friends,
and Promiscuity
work Affiliation
/
Exclusivity
connections / intimate
relationships, work and
social life
7.
n/a
mid-adult
Generativity v
community
Stagnation
back',
/
children, Care
/
and Overextension
'giving Production
/
Rejectivity
helping,
contributing
8.Integrity
Despair
v n/a
late adult / society, the Wisdom and Presumption
world, life / meaning Renunciation
and
purpose,
/
Disdain
life
achievements
2.3.3. Turnbull &Turnbull Family Systems Theory
Family systems theory is more than a therapeutic technique. It is a philosophy that searches
for the causes of behavior, not in the individual alone, but in the interactions among the
members of a group. The basic rationale is that all parts of the family are interrelated.
Further, the family has properties of its own that can be known only by looking at the
relationships and interactions among all members.
The family systems approach is based on several basic assumptions:

Each family is unique, due to the infinite variations in personal characteristics and
cultural and ideological styles;
33

The family is an interactional system whose component parts have constantly shifting
boundaries and varying degrees of resistance to change;

Families must fulfill a variety of functions for each member, both collectively and
individually, if each member is to grow and develop; and

Families pass through developmental and non developmental changes that produce
varying amounts of stress affecting all members.
According to The family systems theory by Turnbull, A. P., & Turnbull, III, H. R. (2001),
MacMillan.www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Family+Systems+Theory, the family system has
subsystems. The subsystems are parental subsystem, the parent-child subsystem and child
child subsystem. In the family, family members have positions and expected roles,
boundaries to avoid enmeshment. Families are known for their support and engagement. The
belief is what affect a family member, affects the whole family as shown in the diagram
below.
.
Figure 2.2. Turnbull &Turnbull Family Systems Theory
Source: MacMillan.www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Family+Systems+Theory,
34
2.3.4. Baumrind’s typology
Most researchers who attempt to describe this broad parental milieu rely on Diana
Baumrind’s concept of parenting style. The construct of parenting style is used to capture
normal variations in parents’ attempts to control and socialize their children (Baumrind, 1991
http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1737/Adolescent-P...
accessed
on
line
11
November 2009.)
According to Bennett (2004, www.interscience.wiley.com). There are two points which are
critical in understanding this definition. First, parenting style is meant to describe normal
variations in parenting. In other words, the parenting style typology Baumrind developed
should not be understood to include deviant parenting, such as might be observed in abusive
or neglectful homes. Second, Baumrind assumes that normal parenting revolves around
issues of control. Although parents may differ in how they try to control or socialize their
children and the extent to which they do so, it is assumed that the primary role of all parents
is
to
influence,
teach,
and
control
their
children.
Parenting style captures two important elements of parenting: parental responsiveness and
parental demandingness (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Parental responsiveness (also referred to
as parental warmth or supportiveness) refers to "the extent to which parents intentionally
foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and
acquiescent
to
children’s
special
needs
and
demands"
http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1737/Adolescent-P...
(Baumrind,
accessed
on
1991,
line
11
November 2009 Parental demandingness (also referred to as behavioral control) refers to "the
claims parents make on children to become integrated into the family whole, by their
maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who
disobeys" (Baumrind, 1991, http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1737/Adolescent-P...
accessed on line 11 November 2009
Categorizing parents according to whether they are high or low on parental demandingness
and responsiveness creates a typology of four parenting styles: indulgent, authoritarian,
authoritative, and uninvolved. Each of these parenting styles reflects different naturally
occurring patterns of parental values, practices, and behaviors (Baumrind, 199
35
http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1737/Adolescent-P...
accessed
on
line
11
November 2009 and a distinct balance of responsiveness and demandingness. parenting
styles range from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent or permissive style and neglecting
style.
However, despite the long and robust tradition of research into parenting style, a number of
issues remain outstanding. Foremost among these are issues of definition, developmental
change in the manifestation and correlates of parenting styles, and the processes underlying
the benefits of authoritative parenting (Barber, 1996.)
Parenting style has been found to predict child well-being in the domains of social
competence, academic performance, psychosocial development, and problem solving
behaviour (Serfcik 2009, at http://www.education.com/reference/article/four-parenting-styles/
accessed on line 21 December 2009). The reason being that the parenting style directs the
parent or parents on how to socialize their children. As a result different parenting styles yield
different outcomes. Parental responsiveness also referred to as parental warmth or
supportiveness refers to "the extent to which parents intentionally foster individuality, selfregulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and acquiescent to children’s
special needs and demands" (Baumrind, 1991) cited in (Wentzel and Russel, 2004,
http://www.education.com/reference/article/four-parenting -styles/ accessed on line 12
February 2010). Parental demandingness also referred to as behavioural control refers to "the
claims parents make on children to become integrated into the family whole, by their
maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who
disobeys" (Baumrind, 1991, http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1737/Adolescent-P...
accessed on line 21 December 2009).
Baumrind identified four types of parenting styles; these are authoritative, authoritarian,
permissive and passive.
2.3.4.1. Authoritative parenting style
The
authoritative
is
also
known
as
assertive
parenting
(Maccoby,
2003,
http://www.education.com/reference/article/parentingstyles 2 accessed 10 March 2010). The
36
authoritative parent is democratic or balanced parenting style. It values a child’s autonomy
and self-expression, but knows when to put on the brakes (Maccoby, 2007
http://www.education.com/reference/article/parentingstyles 2 accessed 10 March 2010).).
The child of an authoritative parent is given a rational explanation for why set rules must be
followed. Discourse between parent and child is encouraged, but the authoritative parent does
not get friendly rather, the parent uses adult reason and logic during communicative
interactions. Serfcik (2009(http; www.education.com/reference/article/parenting styles)
accessed on
line 10 January
2010. observed that, authoritative parents are both
demanding and responsive. Authoritative parents monitor and impart clear standards for their
children’s conduct. Their disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive.
2.3.4.2. Authoritarian parenting style
The authoritarian or indulgent parenting style is diametrically opposed to the permissive style
Permissive parents have few rules or standards of behaviour (Dienstbier, 2003,
http://www.ehow.com/relationships/ accessed 10 June 2010). These parents are more of a
friend to children, rather than a parent and may use bribery such as toys, gifts and food as a
means to get child to behave.
(Scroufe, 2002, (http://www.ehow.com/family/ accessed on line 21 December 2009. A parent
who uses this method believes that the child has a place in the household, which is to be seen
but not heard as very little dialogue exchange is encouraged. The parent will set strict rules
and standards to which children are expected to adhere, lest they receive harsh punishment
for deviation. The authoritarian parent leads by example based on his/her own system of rigid
moral constructs and lays down the law without offering the child a reason (Maccoby, 2003,
http://www.education.com/reference/article/parenting styles 2 accessed on line 10 March
2010). This leaves a child little latitude to develop his own belief system. Authoritarian
parents are very demanding, but not responsive. These parents don't express much warmth or
nurturing and utilize punishments with little or no explanation. Children of authoritarian
parents are not given options or choices at parenting styles (Serfcik, 2009,
http://www.jstor.org/stable accessed on line 10 January 2010).
37
2.3.4.3. Permissive parenting style
The third parenting style is the permissive style which Santrock (2007), also referred to as
"indulgent” or "nondirective", these parents are more responsive than they are demanding.
They are non-traditional and lenient, they do not require mature behaviour, they allow
considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation. Permissive parents have few rules or
standards of behaviour (Dienstbier, 2003, http://www.ehow.com/relationships/ accessed 10
June 2010). When there are rules, they are often very inconsistent. Usually permissive
parents are very nurturing and loving towards their children.
Children raised in a permissive household are allowed to delegate their own interests, have
unstructured roles in the household and essentially make their own rules. The permissive
parent is a great cheerleader when it comes to encouraging the child to pursue his or her goals
and is always there for a child in crisis. However, the permissive parent puts too much faith
in the child’s ability to know right from wrong and rarely leads by example. Permissive
parents try to reason with the child logically when it comes to his or her actions or manipulate
the child into a different behaviour, but she does not use punitive measures when the child
misbehaves or admonishes inappropriate behaviour.
2.3.4.4. Passive parenting style
Bornstein (2002, http://www.psychol.cam.ac.uk/people/mel37@cam.ac.uk accessed on line
November 2011 says passive parents are emotionally removed or indifferent uninvolved,
abdicates discipline inconsistent and unpredictable. Uninvolved parents are low in both
responsiveness and demandingness. Passive parents rationalize their child’s behaviour. These
parents are known for saying “No” over and over again until they become angry, endlessly
lecturing their exasperated child. Passive parents are unaware of the influences in their child’s
life brought about by the media and their peers. Passive parents don’t place healthy
boundaries around their children, allowing them to explore life beyond what their emotional
and spiritual maturity can handle. These parents allow and expect others to raise their
children for them.
38
2.4. Socialisation outcomes according to parenting style
Different socialization methods give different results. Socialization which is positive gives
out positive results the same applies with the negative aspect of socialization. The following
are the outcomes of different parenting styles.
2.4.1. Outcomes of authoritative parenting style
Baumrind’s studies established that elementary-aged children of authoritative parents display
adaptive levels of self-esteem, socially responsible, independent and achievement oriented
behaviour. This is supported by Santrock, (2007) who claims that children of authoritative
parents are lively and are of a happy disposition, self-confident and have the ability to master
tasks. These children have well developed emotionally regulation and social skills. Children
and adolescents whose parents are authoritative rate themselves and are rated by objective
measures as more socially and instrumentally competent than those whose parents are non
authoritative. Children of authoritative parents achieve academic competencies, are good at
problem solving social maturity, high self-esteem and confidence, self confident in
completing new tasks, self-controlled in their ability to resist engaging in disruptive
behaviour
and
less
gendered
type
(Maccoby,
2007,
http:///family.jrank.org/pages/1186/Motherhood-Maternal-Role-inChildrearing.html)
accessed on line 27 December 2009). The child of an authoritarian parent is an average to
good student and a follower in most cases. Children of authoritarian parents cannot initiate
any reasoning as they are so much used to the parent directing them on what to do and how.
They
are
never
exposed
to
doing
things
their
own
way
(Goswami,
2002,
http://www.cne.psychol.cam.ac.uk/people/ucg10@cam.ac.uk accessed on line 13 January
2010).
2.4.2. Outcomes of authoritarian parenting style
Children and adolescents from authoritarian families are high in demandingness, but low in
responsiveness. Parental demandingness is associated with instrumental competence,
behavioural
control,
and
academic
39
performance
(Maccoby,
2007,
http://www.ehow.com/family/ accessed on line 20 April 2010). Children with authoritarian
parents tend to perform moderately well in school and have poorer social skills, lower selfesteem, and higher levels of depression Work by Steinberg (2001) showed that children of
authoritarian parents had relatively lower levels of psychological well-being, become moody
but anxious and well behaved and tend to associate obedience and success with love
(McKay, 2006,
accessed
on
http://empoweredmommies.com/blogs/notes_from_ivanna/archive/....
line
14
June
2009).
According
to
McKay
(2006,
http://empoweredmommies.com/blogs/notes_from_ivanna/archive/.... accessed on line 14
June 2009), children of authoritarian parents tend to associate obedience and success with
love.
Some other children display more aggressive behaviour outside the home, while others may
act fearful or overly shy around others. Authoritarian parents expect absolute obedience;
hence children raised in such settings are typically very good at following rules. However,
they may lack self-discipline. Children raised by authoritarian parents are not encouraged to
explore and act independently, so they never really learn how to set their own limits and
personal standards. Santrock (2007), states that children of authoritarian parents have poor
emotion regulation (under regulated), are rebellious and defiant when desires are challenged.
These children have low persistence to challenging tasks and have antisocial behaviours.
2.4.3. Outcomes of permissive parenting style
Children raised by permissive parents lack self-discipline, sometimes have poor social skills
and may be self-involved and demanding. These children may feel insecure due to the lack of
boundaries
and
guidance
(Bornstein,
2002
http://www.psychol.cam.ac.uk/people/mel37@cam.ac.uk accessed on line November 2011.).
In a recent study, permissive parenting was linked to underage alcohol use. Teens with
permissive parents were three times more likely to engage in heavy drinking, tend to grow up
without a strong sense of self-discipline and become unruly in school. Since these parents
have few requirements for mature behaviour, children may lack skills in social settings as
adults. While these children may be good at interpersonal communication, they lack other
important
skills
such
as
sharing
Bahr,
&
Hoffmann,
(2010,
http://www.jsad.com/jsad/downloadarticle/Parenting_Style_Rel... accessed on line 2 March
40
2010). Children and adolescents from indulgent homes are more likely to be involved in
problem behaviour and perform less well in school, but they have higher self-esteem, better
social skills, and lower levels of depression.
2.4.4. Outcomes of passive parenting style.
According
to
different
parenting
methods,
(Dienstbier,
2003,
http://www.ehow.com/relationships/ accessed on line, 10 June 2010) children of permissive
parents become demanding and whiny, easily frustrated, lacking kindness and empathy.
Although these children enjoy high levels of psychological and emotional well-being they
have lower levels of achievement coupled with higher levels of misconduct. Nucci (2001
http://www.amazon.com/Education-Moral-Domain-Larry-Nucci/dp/... Accessed on line 12
December 2009 observed that children of passive parenting are likely to be clingy and needy,
inappropriately rude, and likely to get into trouble. The research sought to understand the
rules and regulations that institutional caregivers use to mould the behaviour of institutional
orphans.
2.5. Bronfernbrenner’s Ecological model
Bronfenbrenner is well known for developing his ecological model, which describes the role
of contexts such as family, peers, schools, and political climate in human development. Thus,
social scientists no longer study parent-child interaction in a vacuum. Rather, the family is
best understood as a social system with subsystems, including parent-child, marital, and
sibling systems, that is enmeshed in the larger social context.
Within the concept of culture is the design for sustaining the individual and the collective.
For the creation of the individual the concept of planned parenting must be taken into
consideration. In generalization, development is not universal. All developmental issues must
be studied within social contexts. Bronfenbrenner stresses a phenomenological experiential
outlook which is personal and an individual perspective. All the factors occur within dynamic
contexts as social, historical, and cultural dimensions.
41
One of the primary focuses of this approach is the learning of the child. Both dyadic and
triadic parenting are included. The former pertains to the mother-child relationship and the
latter pertains to the first plus the inclusion of a sibling. Bronfenbrenner has delineated Five
Critical Processes for Positive Development.

Proposition 1. In order for the child to develop intellectually, emotionally, socially,
and morally a child must participate in progressive reciprocal activity on regular basis
over one’s life. This activity is with an individual who shares with the child a strong
mutual emotional attachment.

Proposition 2. The establishment of patterns of progressive interpersonal interaction
under conditions of strong mutual attachment enhances the child's responsiveness to
the immediate physical, social, and later symbolic environment.

Proposition 4. The effective functioning of child-rearing processes in the family and
more distant settings requires the ongoing patterns of exchange of information, two
way communication, mutual accommodation, and trust.

Proposition 5. The effective functioning of child-rearing processes in the family and
other settings requires support from public policies. All occupations and members of
the society must support cultural practices that provide time, space, stability, and
customs
in
child-rearing.
(Bronfenbrenner,
www.usd.edu/mrenud/broffamily.pdf accessed on line November
1990,
2009)
The Ecological Systems Approach is unique in its division of four ecologies. The model has
many distinct advantages in its favor as well as its weak points. Traditional Systems
Approaches tend to stress the development of institutions as components of a sustaining
culture, society, and government. Such is also more concrete in their boundaries by mapping
out physical objects. Usually a social dimension approach is then applied to account for
relations between individuals and one another and other objects in their environment. In
traditional Systems, Secondary Institutions usually begins at the teacher and classroom, easy
to see for all. Religion is the next territorial not so easy to see, but the structures as churches
are. The outermost level would be government. Hence it assumes a more modern approach
that one will live in a state where the government has more Social Control than religion. The
mapping out of these components is more objective. Erickson's theory is an individual
42
identity psychosocial based model. His dimensions of man link the socialization of object
relations in the environment. This later could be applied to collective identity. This is
important to the socialization creates the individual thinkers. This area is very subjective from
both sides and an area to attack either model.
According to Santrock, (2007, http://powereality.net/ecological -system.htm accessed on line
6 February 2012), what is unique is that Bronfenbrenner includes both in his ecologies
without a separation from analysis. This combination of not separating the object and the
relationship with the object in a collective setting is a weakness. If such does indeed exist
objectively to all it will tend to be perceived subjectively by not only laypersons but also
researchers. Its uniqueness is its complexity, which prevents such from being researched
independently.
The Ecological Systems Approach has many uses, however almost all data collected
pertained to Lifespan and Development. Bronfenbrenner was a co-founder of Headstart. His
model is heavily focused on the positive development of the child and family. His work has
readily aided the at-risk child through the above program which in this case is the orphan in
an institution. He is a strong advocate of active government involvement in child-rearing.
The Ecological Systems Approach was used because of the basic premise, that the effect of
parenting is embedded in the myriad social factors affecting child development. These range
from other family influences, such as marital and sibling relationships, to broader
environmental factors, such as neighbourhood violence or family poverty. This perspective
was useful to consider the ecological niche in which a child lives that is, the mixture of
environmental experiences and exposures from the micro- to the macro-environment.
However a question of ‘specificity’ arises in relation to the extent that there are specific
connections between different dimensions of parenting and particular outcomes. There are
indications that certain dimensions may play an especially important role in some outcomes,
such as overprotective parenting for anxiety or monitoring/ control for delinquency.
However, evidence of strong specificity is rare. The implication for future research is that
neither naturalistic nor intervention research studies should adopt a single dimension of
43
parenting as their main focus of study Kuczynski, (2003) in O’Connor (2007, www.jrf.org.uk
accessed on line 10 October 2012)
.
2.6. Theoretical Framework
The study is informed by the ecological development (Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of
human development 1979) and the parenting styles theory by Baumrind (1991). Both theories
assisted in exploring the methods used by institutions in socializing orphans. The use of both
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development (1979) and Baumrind (1991)
parenting styles emanated from the fact that both theories complement each other.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory doesn’t give the outcomes of its socialization process and also it
doesn’t have the parenting styles as Baumrind did. There was need to understand the
institutional environment in order to understand the socialization of the institutional orphan.
Bronfenbrenner (1979, accessed on line November 2009) ecological model of development
describes socialization as always occurring in a context and any specific context is embedded
in a web of other and ever-changing contexts. Bronfenbrenner (1979) claims that in order to
study “the child” one needs to understand the context in which the child develops. The child
is studied in the context of developmental theory, which comes in the context of family,
which lies in the context of community. All of these contexts can be thought of as
environments or settings that hold people, which influence each other and are influenced by
culture. This means that any child is at the centre of what can be visualized as concentric
circles of context set in an overarching system of time, which affects all the contexts and
continually changes them as indicated in Figure 2.2. Bronfenbrenner’s 1979 ecological
development.
44
Figure 2.3: Bronfenbrenner’s 1979 Ecological Model
Source: (http:///www.usd.edu/broffamily accessed on line November 2009)
The study looked at the institutional environment so as to understand how the orphan was
being socialized in the institution and how the different contexts affected the socialization
process of the orphan. The culture was very important to be taken on board as most
socialization research has been done in western cultures which are different from the non
western cultures like the cultures in Zimbabwe. This is supported by Markus & Kitayama
(2010, www.biu.ac.il/PS/docs/diesendruck/2. accessed 23 June 2010); reports that cultural
self-consciousness has generated some interesting studies, especially comparisons of
45
socialization experiences in individualistic cultures (such as most Western societies) with
those in collectivistic cultures (such as most Asian and many African cultures).
In general, the self in collectivistic cultures is experienced much more in relational terms, that
is, as interdependent, socially situated, and lacking definition outside the group context. By
contrast, in individualistic cultures the self is more likely to be experienced as autonomous
and unique and much less as a part of the social context Shiraev & Levy (2001, accessed on
line 16 January 2010). The socialization experiences in the former cultures tend to emphasize
the primacy of the group (e.g., one’s family, clan, or society) over the individual, whereas in
the later the emphasis is on the development of independence, individual uniqueness, the ego,
and autonomy.
2.7. Socialisation Agents
Socialisation has been observed to take place through different agents. As the child develops,
schools, peer groups, mass media and religion become important socializing agents. Each of
these
domains
is
somewhat
controlled
by
the
family.
Scroufe
(2002,).
(http://www.ehow.com/family/ accessed 21 December 2009) claims that family influence on
children’s neighbourhoods and peer groups affects what types of socializing agents the child
has access to.
2.7.1. Family within Microsystems
The family is the first social group that one comes into contact with and from which the
individual learns the basic values of living in a family orientated society. According to
Maccoby
(2001,
http:///family.jrank.org/pages/1186/Motherhood-Maternal-Role-
inChildrearing.html) accessed on line 2 March 2010), families like aeroplanes need good
piloting
(parenting)
to
reach
a
positive
destination.
Scroufe
(2002,
(http://www.ehow.com/family/accessed on line 21 December 2009) states that, within the
family many vital social lessons and skills are learned that are essential if the individual is to
develop
and
find
a
place
in
society.
According
to
Scroufe
(2002)
(http://www.ehow.com/family/ accessed on line 21 December 2009) these include language
skills, physical control of one’s body, recognition and control of emotions, accepted
behavioural patterns both in the home and the outside environment, and moral and ethical
46
values. There are different types of families that can socialize a child or children. Among the
different families that socialize a child are nuclear, extended, single and of late institutional
families.
Williams,
Brian,
Stacey,
Sawyer
&
Wahistrom,
(2005,
http://www.alibris.com/booksearch?qwork=8721946 accessed on line 13 April 2010)
describe a family as a group of people affiliated by consanguity, affinity, or co-residence.
According to Bornstein (2002, accessed on line November 2011) a family which consists of a
father, mother and their children is called a nuclear family whilst an extended family is made
of members of the same blood. Schneider (2006) adds that kinship and family forms have
often been thought to impact the social relations in the society as a whole, and therefore been
described as the first cell or the building social unit of the structure of a society. Kinship
systems are responsible for the care of orphans, with 98 percent of orphans in kin system in
Zimbabwe (Powell, et al, 2004, https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William...
accessed on line 23 January 2010).
Institutional families were not described among the different family types. Institutional
families were made of strangers with women as surrogate parents. Single, widowed or
divorced women were preferred in this role, although a minority was married with families of
their own. Married couples were generally not accepted with concerns that the husband might
abuse older girls being the most commonly advanced rationale. A male institutional
caregiver was designated to fulfill the role of the role model to male orphans for up to 120
children
(Powell
et
al,
2004,
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William...accessed on line 23 January
2010). This ratio created challenges for the male caregiver, because of the number of children
to be role modeled. The results of which might be negative. The 2004 study by Powell et al
(2004) also revealed that overall child to caregiver ratio was 7.1. Family based homes
averaged 6.1 children per caregiver. Parenting a child within a family promotes the sense of
belonging
and
identity
Powell
et
al
(2004)
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William.... accessed on line 23 January
2010).
47
Institutions have a tendency of removing children from their extended families, communities
and culture and socialize the orphans in the institutions with no touch of reality of the society
and culture that the orphans will live in upon discharge. Most institutions base their
socialization on Mission statements and objectives in making orphans productive and
independent leaving the most important element of ubuntu or hunhu. This element is very
important in the Zimbabwean culture especially among the original Africans. This can have
serious implications for the eventual re-integration of orphans into their communities and for
their
future
happiness
as
supported
by
Groark,
&
McCall
(2008)
http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Files/PDF/111.pdf accessed 7 December 2009 the St. PetersburgUSA Orphanage Research Team “the effects of early social-emotional and relationship
experience on the development of young orphanage children”. Powell et al (2004)
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William.... accessed on line 23 January
2010).also observed that the average age of the institutionalised population had increased
with a significant number of children remaining institutionalised after the statutory age limit
of 18 years. This reflects the failure of institutions to make adequate preparation for the
transition of youth to the outside world.
Relatives were seen to be happy to resume responsibility once the child had been educated
and could make a positive contribution to the family. This was particularly so in the case of
girls approaching marriageable age and the prospect of collecting roora / ilobolo (dowry)
arose. In the long term, institutionalization in early childhood increases the likelihood that
children will grow into psychologically impaired and economically unproductive adults.
Studies by Balkermans-Kranenburg, VAN Ijzendoom & Juffer (2009, accessed on line
February 2010), demonstrated that individuals placed in orphanages early in their lives are at
greater risk when they reach adulthood of living in poverty, developing psychiatric disorders,
having difficulties in interpersonal relationships, and serious problems in parenting their own
children. They never have the opportunity to experience what it is like to be part of a real
family
(Johnson,
Browne
&
Hamilton-Giachritis
2006,
http://www.socialsciences.leiden.edu/educationandchildstudie... accessed on line 16 January
2010). Johnson et al (2006) reported that institutions cannot provide what a family can
provide. It is easy to institutionalise orphans than to correct the tides 3, 5 9 or 14 years later
when reintegrating the child back into society.
48
Whilst there is that call to family approach in socializing institutional orphans, institutional
environment is almost totally opposite to that provided by most families in socializing
children. Institutional family is usually made up of strangers (Powel et al, 2004,
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William.... accessed on line 23 January
2010); besides strangers the institutional family has been observed to have a large number of
children
of
varying
age
groups.
However
Groark,
&
McCall
(2008)
http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Files/PDF/111.pdf accessed 7 December 2009The St. PetersburgUSA Orphanage Research Team “the effects of early social-emotional and relationship
experience on the development of young orphanage children” reports that a typical family
environment consists of a small group of children, a mixture of different ages and genders
including children who are typically developing and those with special needs, a few primary
caregivers (parents) responsible for raising the children helped by a relatively small set of
secondary caregivers (grandparents, relatives, friends) all of whom are relatively consistent
and stable in the children's lives. Furthermore, the number of children to caregiver ratio is
typically low, and most parents provide children with much one-on-one time and warm,
sensitive, and contingently-responsive interactions that are more child-directed than in
institutions.
Institutional families don’t provide secondary caregivers as in the communal family; this
might affect the socialization processes. The differences of the institutional family to the
typical family were explored to find out its effectiveness. The idea of the family concept
stems from the belief that the family is the first social group that one comes into contact with
and from which the individual learns the basic values of living in a family orientated society.
Scroufe (2002, (http://www.ehow.com/family/) accessed 21 on line December 2009) states
that, within the family many vital social lessons and skills are learned that are essential if the
individual is to develop and find a place in society. This is supported by Maccoby, (2007).
http:///family.jrank.org/pages/1186/Motherhood-Maternal-Role-inChildrearing.html)
accessed 27 December 2009 who noted that, in all their many forms, families are the primary
providers of protection, support and socialization of children and youth, and families exert a
very strong influence on children’s survival, health, adjustment and educational achievement.
It is against this belief that institutions look forward to socialize orphans and produce
49
graduates who are productive. It was yet to be known how institutional families taught
survival skills to orphans.
Although advocates sometimes argue explicitly or implicitly that essentially any family
environment is better for children than any institution this is unlikely to be uniformly true
(Balkermans-Kranenburg,
VAN
Ijzendoom
&
Juffer
(2009,
http://www.socialsciences.leiden.edu/educationandchildstudie... accessed on line February
2010). The quality of care in adoptive, foster, and biological families certainly matters.
Similarly, the quality of care in orphanages also matters. Children interviewed by Gunnar
(2001,
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2998051/
accessed
on
line
7
December 2009), did not like living in institutions and their comments included criticism of
institutions for the absence of some essential qualities of parental care. Their comments
indicate a wide gap between the blue print for institutions found in professional writing and
the reality of institutions as the children perceived it. This gap indicated the reason for the
study which is to explore the institutional family socialization processes. The differences in
the family set ups might have different impacts to those in the setup. Hopefully this study
brought the issues of that nature out.
2.7.2. Media within the Exosystems
The second major element of socialisation is the mass media Maccoby, (2007).
http:///family.jrank.org/pages/1186/Motherhood-Maternal-Role-inChildrearing.html)
accessed 27 December 2009. This is comprised of television, the internet, radio, music,
movies, books magazines and newspapers. In Western society, the age at which children are
first exposed to mass media, usually in the form of television, is constantly getting younger.
Today infants of only a few months of age may well be placed in front of the television. The
television may serve as a “baby sitter” for busy parents (McQual 2005: 494
http///www.sagepub.com/mcquail6 accessed on line 3 July 2010).
...the media can teach norms and values by way of symbolic reward and
punishment for different kinds of behaviour as represented in the media. An
alternative view is that it is a learning process whereby we all learn how to behave
50
in certain situations and the expectations which go with a given role or status in
society…
Thus the media are continually offering pictures of life and models of behaviour in advance
of actual experience. The third area of socialization is peer groups.
2.7.3. The School within the Mesosystems
Steinberg,
Bornstein,
Vandell,
&
Rook,
(2010,
http://www.actforyouth.net/resources/rf/rf_stages_0504.cfm accessed on line 8 June 2011)
observed that the school is an institution whose mandate is to socialize children just like the
family. The school’s mission is concerned primarily with the formal instruction and the
development of children’s cognitive skills. In this sense, the school context is less involved in
primary socialization (the development of basic values, beliefs, motivations, and conceptions
of the self) and more involved in secondary socialization (the development of knowledge and
skills). In the course of the socialization experienced in school, things other than skills and
knowledge also are learned, such as norms, values, attitudes, and various aspects of a child’s
personality and self-concept. Many activities associated with school (specifically in the
classroom)
have
implications
for
a
child’s
self-concept
(Mupinga,
2002,
http://www.huec.lsu.edu/research/researchpubreferred.htm accessed 12 November 2011).
McQual (2005, http///www.sagepub.com/mcquail6 accessed on line 3 July 2010) say one of
the most important activities in school involves evaluation of the student’s performance by
the teacher: performance on tests, class reports, presentations, and assignments. Success in
these activities, based on one’s own efforts, is good for self-esteem and builds confidence in
one’s abilities. However, failure is not, and public failure is even worse. School provides
numerous opportunities for public failure as well as public success. One of the consequences
of performance evaluations may be the categorization or ‘‘labeling’’ of students, by teachers
as well as others, as ‘‘smart,’’ ‘‘dumb,’’ ‘‘slow learner,’’ ‘‘underachiever,’’ and so on.
Negative as well as positive labels affect the way in which others respond to a person and,
through their responses, reinforce and shape that person in the labeled direction. Teachers’
51
expectations of students, even when based on erroneous information, had a significant effect
on how students developed over the course of the school year: When the teacher was led to
believe that a student would be a ‘‘slow learner,’’ that student was more likely to do poorly in
class. Labeling and expectancy effects occur in most socialization contexts and have
important consequences for self-concept development.
2.7.4. Peers within the Microsystems
Besides parents and school, siblings and peers play another important role in socializing
children and orphans. There are several important features of the peer group as a context of
socialization. Most important, it is a voluntary association, and for most children it is the first.
This permits greater freedom of choice regarding associations in the group. A second
important feature is that association is between status equals. Consequently, interaction is
more likely to be based on egalitarian norms. The basic relationship within peer groups is not
hierarchical; rather, it is the friendship bond, based on equality, mutual tolerance, and
concern. Third, the peer group is an arena for the exercise of independence from adult
control. As such, it is often the context for the development of values, norms, and behaviour
in opposition to those of adults. Fourth, children’s peer groups, in contemporary American
society at least, typically are segregated by sex and differ in organizational patterns:
Girls’ peer groups tend to feature closely knit and egalitarian friendships, whereas boys’ peer
groups tend to be loosely knit, larger groups with clear status hierarchies Steinberg,
Bornstein,
Vandell,
&
Rook,
(2010,
http://www.actforyouth.net/resources/rf/rf_stages_0504.cfm accessed on line 8 June 2011).
An important socialization consequence of intensive association with same-sex peers and
involvement in sex-typed activities is that this strongly reinforces identification and
belongingness with members of the same sex and contributes to the development of
stereotypical attitudes toward members of the opposite sex. Not only sex-role identity but
also much of sexual socialization during childhood occurs in the context of peer rather than
parent-child associations, since parents are much less interested in discussing sexual matters
with their children than are the children’s peers (Corsaro, 1999, www.jstor.org/stable
accessed on line 12 November 2011). Peers provide an alternative reference group for
children as well as an alternative source of self-esteem and identity. For these reasons,
52
attachment to peers may be even stronger than attachment to family, especially for
adolescents.
2.7.5. Culture within the Macrosystems
Socialization of a child by the family does not exist in a vacuum. It exists within a culture.
Family and society work together. This relationship is bound by accepted parenting practices
and socio-cultural influences.
Nielsen and Tomaselli (2010, accessed on line 8 August 2011) suggest that human children
are hard-wired to exactly imitate the roles of adults, including actions that are not pragmatic.
This is one of the characteristics of humans that facilitate the transmission of culture from
generation to generation. Institutions have their own “culture,” which is a work-related
culture of administrators, caregivers, orphans and auxiliary staff, (Foster 2002,
http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/workshops/Windhoek-backgr... accessed on line 12
November 2011). According to O’Connor, Rutter, and Romanian Adoptees (RA) Study Team
(2002, http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/people/20200312-thomas-g-o-con...accessed 8 August
2011) “Behavior patterns associated with institutional deprivation: A study of children
adopted from Romania”, institutional care is highly regimented with little flexibility to meet
individual needs. Children wake up, eat, use toilet, bath, and sleep at designated times
according to the convenience of the larger system. In this sort of environment a child’s
attempts to elicit attention are repeatedly and consistently ignored. As a result, a child learns
that little can be done to influence the environment and the child becomes passive and
withdrawn.
Apart from attending local schools, many children are confined to their institutions for years
and
have
little
experience
of
the
outside
world
(Powell
et
al,
2004
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William...accessed on line 23 January
2010.). This type of socialization might be costly for the orphans because of the different
cultures, the one in which they were socialized and the other in which the orphans are
expected to function after graduation from the institution. This might result in the graduate
being a stranger to the life outside the institution resulting in the graduate failing to cope. The
53
problem might be with the institutional caregivers parenting methods and the differences in
the environments the graduate will live in, following graduation.
Whilst the mass media, religion and peer groups were looked at as other elements of
socialisation, this study sought to explore how institutional caregivers controlled or dealt with
these agents during the process of socialization of orphans.
2.8. Socialization styles between natural parent and caregiver
2.8.1. Introduction
Parenting styles vary depending on whether one is a parent or an institutional caregiver.
Individual parents or caregiver also reflects on different cultures when socializing a child or
an orphan. The following assumptions are made from observations on parenting in general
both in families and in institutions.
2.8.2. Definition
In a natural family, a parent socializes their children through family interactions, role model,
guidance, providing family needs, financially and materially, emotionally, socially,
cognitively and physically. In the institution a caregiver uses a “family” to socialize an
orphan.
2.8.3. Family
In the natural family, the family size is small for a nuclear family the extended family
supports the nuclear family as a society. In the society there are non related families, which
become related because of geographical proximity and sharing of resources. The nuclear
family can be made up of same sex children or children of different sex that is boys and girls.
Sometimes within the family one or more children are disabled whilst other children are not
disabled. The children in the nuclear family can be made of varying ages, twins or other sets
54
and
single
children.
According
to
Maccoby
(2007,
http:///family.jrank.org/pages/1186/Motherhood-Maternal-Role-inChildrearing.html)
accessed on line 27 December 2009), family management techniques include monitoring,
discipline, reinforcement of positive behaviour.
Powell et al, (2004, https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William...accessed on
line 23 January 2010) says, the nurturing and socialization of infants are the responsibility of
mothers and, in their temporary absence a female relative. In customary practice orphans are
the responsibility of the husband's relatives, in countries where paternal relationships are
practiced.
A caregiver is responsible of a large family sometimes of up to twenty children under his or
her care. The family is usually made up of varying ages and same sex children (orphans). The
orphans will be non-related with different backgrounds. The caregiver will be from a
different background like from Shona or Ndebele background who is an employee. The
caregiver is guided by Mission statements and institutional objectives in “caring” for the
orphans. In the institution all caregivers adhere to the stipulated programme for daily
functioning as made by the administrator. Depending on the type of institution the
institutional family can be made of disabled orphans only or non disabled orphans only.
2.8.4. Method
Parental support continues to be important in the socialization of offspring through
childhood, adolescence, and beyond. Parental support has been found to be positively related
to a child’s cognitive development, moral behaviour, and conformity to adult standards, selfesteem, academic achievement, and social competence.
The caregiver’s support starts from the day the orphan is admitted and lasts until the orphan
graduates from the institution. Orphans of different age groups join the family at different
times like a 13 year old can join a family where there is a 2 year old orphan. Yet in the
natural family every child joins the family at the time of birth.
55
2.8.5. Media
Children in the natural family are controlled by their parent as and when to watch or listen to
the media. The children are also allowed to watch approved programmes by the parent with
respect to their like young children can be allowed to watch Sesame Street and adolescents
watch high school “quiz” show.
A caregiver follows the institutional programme on when to watch and what to watch. The
administrator is in charge of the programming of the daily activities. In the institution the
caregiver has no control of the daily functioning of the family. His or her duties are to
maintain smooth running of the family and assisting with the care of the environment as
designed by the administrator.
2.8.6. Siblings and peers.
Children in the nuclear family have siblings who are older or younger than the individual.
The siblings share the same family territory. Siblings also share the same geographical
territory with their peers. Children in the natural family sometimes attend the same school,
church or recreational facilities, whereas orphans have no defined sibling or peer except in
situations where orphans from the same family are admitted in the same institution and are
cared for by the same caregiver. Otherwise orphans in the same institution are taught that
every other orphan is a sister or brother. Peers are other orphans in other institutions, or from
school. It has been observed that at most, orphans usually attend the same church. Rarely will
orphans attend different churches.
2.8.7. School
In the natural family, a parent sends his or her children to a school of her choice. Usually the
choice is made by the parent according to the affordability, accessibility and availability of
the school. The parent is in charge of the school affairs of the child. The in-charge duties
cover paying of fees, buying of school accessories, attending consultation days and other
functions as and when require d by the school authorities.
56
It has been observed that in the institution the administrator is in charge of the institutional
affairs. The institutional affairs cover the schools to be attended by orphans, the administrator
looks for Government run schools at most. The administrator or anyone appointed by the
administrator is in charge of attending consultation days at schools and other school
functions. The caregiver doesn’t pay for the upkeep of the orphan’s school demands.
2.8.8. Culture
A parent refers to the culture being used in the community to socialize his or her own
children. The parent derives her parenting styles from how he or she was socialized with
reference to culture. The rules, regulations, norms and values that the parent chooses to use
during the socialization period are derived from the culture in which the family stays or
comes from. The socialization of children with the cultural norms, values and beliefs sees the
transmission of cultural inheritance to the next generation.
The researcher has observed that, the caregiver has no culture to refer to; each individual
caregiver refers to his or her own culture. The institutional system is made in such a way that
there are no generations created by orphans in the institution. One of the fundamental duties
of institutions is believed to socialize the orphan from the day the orphan is admitted until the
orphan graduates.
Conversely, lack of parental support that is a caregiver is associated with negative
socialization outcomes for children and adolescents: low self-esteem, delinquency, deviance,
drug
use,
and
various
other
problem
behaviours
(Mupinga,
2002,
http://www.huec.lsu.edu/research/researchpubreferred.htm accessed 12 November 2011.
2.9. Socializing the skills
As stated before during the socialization process parents have to be attached to the child. The
mother-child bonding facilitates how the child develops other survival capabilities like social,
moral,
cognitive
and
emotional.
According
to
Macionis
(2003)
parenting
(http:///family.jrank.org/pages/1186/Motherhood-Maternal-Role-in Childrearing.html on line
accessed 12 April 2010), some aspects of parenting appear initially to arise out of biological
processes associated with pregnancy and parturition. Pregnancy in human beings causes the
release of certain hormones thought to be involved in the development and expression of
57
protective, nurturing, and responsive feelings toward offspring. Prenatal biological events,
age, diet, and stress, as well as other factors, such as disease, exposure to environmental
toxins, and even birth aesthetics all affect postnatal parenting as well as child development.
Some characteristics of parenting may be "wired" into our biological makeup.
Institutional parenting in the context of this study was defined as round the clock parenting of
orphans in institutions by trained institutional caregivers. This is in line with (Save the
Children UK, 2006, http://handstohearts.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Global-F...accessed
on line 8 June 2011). In institutions the talk was about staffing as the institutional caregivers
are regarded as employees and not parents. The employee situation might affect the
socialization process. Staffing patterns in orphanages resulted in children experiencing many
different and changing caregivers over the course of few years. Caregiver turnover was due to
low pay; caregivers often work 24-hour shifts and then are off for three days, caregivers were
given numerous days of vacation, substitutes were assigned wherever needed rather than
consistently to one or another orphan.
There are certain common characteristics of orphanage environments in a variety of countries
such as in family based homes in which surrogate mothers were mature women, who had
raised their own families and who had received the added benefit of a formal training in
child-care. At the other end of the spectrum, young, single girls with no training or
experience in raising children were employed as caregivers in dormitory style institutions
(Grusec & Hastings, 2006, http://www.csus.edu/indiv/h/hembrees/chdv292_f10/examlist.htm
accessed on line 7 December 2009).
The impact of young caregivers and old caregivers needs to be explored in order to
understand how institutions are socializing orphans. In institutions there are more female
caregivers
compared
to
male
caregivers
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William...accessed on line 23 January
2010. This causes challenges to the socialization of male orphans as these orphans need a
male role model. This results in orphans graduating without survival capabilities expected of
man. This leads to failure to adjust in the community upon discharge.
58
A caregiver is not biologically related to the orphan, neither is the caregiver related through
kinship ties. As a result their parenting is not a natural parenting but a duty because a
caregiver is an employee or voluntary person. This makes the bonding between a caregiver
and an orphan difficult especially for those orphans who get admitted when grown up.
The failure to establish the bond results in poor development of other capabilities. Caregivers
are viewed as employees as a result the caregivers perform employee duties and not parental
duties. Whilst there is a sense of belonging to children in the family this lacks for orphans in
the institution.
2.9.1. Social skills
In the natural family, a parent socializes the child with social skills through setting a
conducive environment for such growth to take place. A parent is also a role model to the
child, on how to behave socially. Besides being a role model a parent can allow the child to
play games with other children of her age. The parent can also engage him or herself in the
games by playing with the child. Playing with the child facilitates the bond between the two
parties. This in turn produces favourable outcomes. In social skills socialization the parent
can watch over the games being played so that the child doesn’t involve in dangerous
activities.
In the institution, the orphans seem to play by themselves only with no caregiver participating
in the games. This might be emanating from the poor bond between the orphan and the
caregiver. Since caregivers will be busy with completing their tasks, there is no time of
playing with the orphans, Powel et al (2004)
2.9.2. Moral skills
A parent and caregiver refer to values and laws during the socialization process. The
difference is that the parent uses values and laws with reference to society and culture for
socialization purposes. This is not the same with caregivers as the values and laws are used to
protect the orphans. Caregivers treat orphans in accordance with the children’s protection
rights and according to the Government policy lest the caregivers will abuse the orphans. The
59
results of which might be poor coping skills upon discharge by the orphan. Whilst the parent
is regarded as the role model by his or her children, caregivers on average might not be. Role
modeling is affected because of the too many caregivers that socialize the orphans. This is so
because of the duty roster that caregivers use when reporting for duty. Orphans who are
admitted at an advanced age tend to compare the caregivers with their own parents. This
group of orphans has no respect for caregivers as the orphans know that the caregivers are not
their parents but employees. It has been observed that there are not many males employed as
caregivers, as a result male orphans don’t learn how to behave like a male.
2.9.3. Cognitive skills
The cognitive part differs in the sense that parents attend consultation days for their children.
Children live the reality of being taken or going to school. A parent supervises his or her own
children’s home-works. On the other hand rarely does a caregiver supervise the orphan’s
homework.
2.9.4. Emotional skills
In the natural setting a parent sets a positive family atmosphere. The one that every family
member feels wanted in the family. The created bond assists in times of challenges because
the family members offer each other support bases. Even when the children graduate to
adulthood, these children always refer to the family or to the society for support.
On emotional issues caregivers can’t provide a situation where orphans can fall onto, in times
of need. The rule is once an orphan is 18years they graduate. Besides the institutional rules,
the failure by caregivers to establish the bond with the orphan makes it difficult to offer that
emotional support.
2.10. Comparison of socialisation outcomes between parents and institutional caregivers
Socialization outcomes often differ depending on how the child was socialized by the parent
or caregiver. Whilst the relationships between child and parent or caregiver are of utmost
value, the part played by genes is also recognized.
60
2.10.1. Social Skills Outcomes
The wellbeing of a person can be evaluated by the way they function in the community and
by the way individuals appraise themselves. Three basic psychological needs have to be
satisfied in order for people to function in healthy or optimal ways; these are the need for
autonomy (having a sense of control over one’s life), competence (a sense that one is
functioning effectively) and relatedness (having positive interactions with others) (Deci &
Ryan, 2000). However, the relative importance of each of these needs can vary widely across
countries and across cultures. Other investigators have shown that health and overall life
satisfaction are strongly related to having a sense of meaning or purpose in life Purpose in life
is closely related to the notion of pursuing goals and investing in the future, as well as
believing that what one does is of value. Some investigators have shown that there are further
aspects of functioning that are central to psychological well-being and are the hallmarks of
productivity and creativity; these include being fully engaged in one’s activities and finding
them challenging and having a sense of curiosity or willingness to learn new things Seligman,
2002).
2.10.2. Inter-personal feelings
Extensive research shows that the quality of interactions with others influences all aspects of
health and functioning (Elliott & Umberson, 2004 ;). For example, it is well known that
social isolation is strongly associated with morbidity and mortality, while social support has a
strong positive relationship with physical and mental health and healthy lifestyle. The
concept of social reciprocity (the perceived relationship between what one gives and what
one receives) is related to the concepts of being treated fairly, and this has been strongly
linked to health and productive activities (Siegrist, 2005). Keyes’ work on social wellbeing
divides it, into social coherence, social integration, social acceptance, social contribution and
social actualization.
Gunnar
(2001
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2998051/)
accessed
7
December 2009 found that institutionalized youths have greater social impairment, exhibit
more coercive interactions with adults, and consider themselves (when compared to youths in
foster family care) less loved, less looked after, less trusted, and less wanted. Institutional
care is cut off from communities and children are prevented from developing social networks
61
essential for later life. After years of following a structured routine in which orphans exercise
little or no choice, orphans may not know how to navigate an independent life. Orphans are
especially vulnerable to exploitation and abuse as they are less aware of their rights and
accustomed to following instructions without question. They (orphans) may find it difficult to
develop social relationships, making them more vulnerable to criminal behaviour as a means
of survival. They are also more likely to develop antisocial behaviour, attachment disorders,
and to struggle with positive parenting. Institutional graduates are more likely to be
dependent on the State and other service-providers for their own wellbeing and survival and
less
able
to
contribute
to
social
development.
Powell
et
al
(2004)
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/William...accessed on line 23 January
2010), reports that, “institutional care is creating ‘lost generations’ of young people who are
unable to participate fully in society”.
2.10.3. Moral skills outcomes
Whilst a parent socializes a child who has positive adaptive levels of self-esteem, socially
responsible, independent and achievement oriented behavior, a caregiver according to Powel
et al (2004), is likely to produce institutional graduates who are at risk of being involved in
criminal behavior.
2.10.4. Cognitive skills outcomes
Children achieve academic competencies, are good at problem solving social maturity, high
self-esteem and confidence, self confident in completing new tasks, self-controlled in their
ability to resist engaging in disruptive behaviour and less gendered type (Maccoby, 2007,
http:///family.jrank.org/pages/1186/Motherhood-Maternal-Role-inChildrearing.html accessed
on line 27 December 2009).
Institutional graduates have been observed to fail academically as a result their employment
chances are reduced. As a result they tend to go to Social work for assistance Powel et al
(2004).
62
2.10.5. Emotional skills outcomes
A parent raises children who are lively and are of a happy disposition, self-confident and
have the ability to master tasks. These children have well developed emotional regulation.
Institutionalized children have immature social-emotional behaviour, in which they are often
indiscriminately
friendly,
running
up
and
hugging
strangers
(Gunnar,
2001http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2998051/) accessed 7 December 2009).
Overally it seems institutions have problems in socializing orphans as Altshuler & Poertner,
(2002, https://www.scaany.org/resources/documents/risking_their_fut...accessed on line 6
February 2010, reports that, institutional socialisation is not safer or better at promoting
development, it is not more stable, and it does not achieve better long-term outcomes.
Institutional children often failed to acquire normal life skills and the capacity for
independent thought and motivation (Powell et al, 2004). Powell et al, (2004) go on to say,
the condition of dependency and expectation that resulted in what became known as the
Institutional Syndrome. Institutionalised children commonly endured chronic abuse and
emotional deprivation, which gave rise to a lasting inability to form loving and trusting
relationships. These factors combined, might make it difficult for institutional graduates to
cope outside of the institution.
Whilst it is accepted that relationships socialize children, genetics has its own share. One of
the most striking criticisms concerning parent–child relationship quality and child outcomes
comes from behavioural genetics. Researchers have commonly studied groups of individuals
with different degrees of biological relatedness to infer whether a degree of genetic influence
exists. When it comes to monozygotic (MZ,identical) twins, whose genetic make-up is
identical, are more similar on a measure such as ‘sadness’ than dizygotic (DZ, fraternal)
twins, who on average have only half their genes in common, then one plausible explanation
is that this is due to greater genetic resemblance. Behavioural genetic designs such as twin or
adoption studies can also be used to test environmental hypotheses.
Kuczynski, L. (ed.) (2003) in Scott (2007www.jrf.org.uk accessed on line 10 October 2012).
These studies are important in showing that the effects of parent–child relationship quality
may extend well beyond social, educational and psychological measures.
63
There is abundant literature on institutions and the impact on orphans or children,
nevertheless the identified gap is that no literature that the researcher knows of has covered
how the institutions were socialising orphans for such recorded impact to take place. Another
view was that a lot of studies were conducted on the middle class families in USA, who
practice individualism than the African view of togetherness. What the former studies might
have recorded as abnormal might be recorded as normal in the African view of umunthu
ngumunthu ngabantu (a person is a person because of other people) might be playing a very
significant role in how people exhibit their behaviours in public especially the social, moral
and emotional skills. The majority of measures has been developed for Euro-American parent
and child studies and may or may not be valid for other cultural groups (BarkermansKraneburg et
al,
2009
http://www.socialsciences.leiden.edu/educationandchildstudie...
accessed on line February 2010).
Summary
The review of related literature looked at the communal ways of socialising children in
relation to institutional caregiver’s methods of socialising orphans. The literature covered in
this section dealt with the institutional socialization, culture, theories used in socializing
children like parenting practices according to Baumrind’s typology, the outcomes of the
parental styles of socializing children and the institutional results in the socialization of
orphans with survival skills or capabilities which can be used upon discharge from
institutions. Baumrind typology and Bronfernbrenner ecological system were chosen as the
theories for the framework in this study. Besides the parental styles other socialization agents
were looked at. The socialization agents included family, media, peers and religion. Whilst
the socialization agents were looked at, the interest was on how institutions were dealing with
the agents during the socialization process. The review of related literature identified a
number of negative impacts of institutional socialization as compared to the communal way
of socialising children. It was with this understanding that the study explored the institutional
socialization processes.
Having discussed literature on socialisation, methodology is dealt with in the next chapter
which is chapter 3.
64
3.0. CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the research methodology that was used for this study on institutional
socialization of orphaned children. The methodology, research design, population, sample,
sampling procedure or technique, data collection instruments and data analysis procedures
will be explained. Justification, advantage and disadvantages of the methodology and
research design used will be discussed. The chapter also explains how the researcher took
care of disadvantages of the methodology and the design.
3.2. Research methodology
This study used a qualitative methodology. Qualitative research is a generic term for
investigative methodologies (Burns & Groove, 2005). It emphasizes the importance of
looking at variables which in this case were institutional participants found in the institutions.
Interaction between variables is very important in qualitative research. Qualitative research
seeks to understand peoples’ interpretations about their perceptions using their real
environments and their values. According to Chisaka (2011) qualitative research focuses on
studying phenomena in their natural setting, thus enabling the researcher to draw theoretical
insights and conclusions from academic debate rather than positivism which tends to stay
with theoretical positions which are then supported by the research data. It uses corroboration
and triangulation to produce more in-depth and comprehensive information.
Because of its focus on natural settings, the qualitative research methodology was used to
explore the socialization processes in the institutions that were the sites of this study. The
study sought to identify how the institutional caregivers socialised the institutional orphans
following training, considering the fact that the institutional caregivers used an institutional
environment to socialize orphans.
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Institutional processes seem to be a complex subject which could not be answered by a
simple yes or no, and as a result required the use of the qualitative methodology. As
explained by Gall, Borg & Gall (1996; 2007), the qualitative paradigm makes complex
situations simple and easy to understand. I hoped to generate a theory from the data on
institutional socialisation processes (Chisaka, 2011), since the qualitative methodology is
based on grounded theory (Burns & Groove, 2005).
According to Burns & Grove (2005), the qualitative paradigm allows both understandingoriented and an action-oriented perspective to clarify the deeper causes behind a given
problem and its consequences, which in this case were the socialisation processes. This study
allowed the researcher to use the qualitative understanding in interviewing people on
institutional socialization of orphaned children. Qualitative research has a relation to microsociological action theory and uses coding paradigm (Patton, 2002), which is further used in
the case study design. Case studies probe in depth into an individual situation or personality
with the intent of diagnosing a particular condition and recommending corrective measures.
Qualitative research allowed me to use the case study design. When selecting a case study,
researchers often use information-oriented sampling, as opposed to random sampling.
Qualitative data is subjective because they are perceptions of people in the environment. The
data were used to describe the context, or the natural setting of the participants in the
institutions, as well as the interactions of the different participants in the context. Subjectivity
leads to difficulties in establishing reliability and validity (Baxter & Jack, 2008, accessed on
line 11 December 2009). In order to counteract subjectiveness, the researcher had to make
sure that the study was trustworthy, through checking for auditability, credibility and
fittingness as recommended by Denzim & Lincoln (2000). This was made possible by
choosing the correct environment for interviews like a non threatening environment for all
participants. This made it possible to use emic perspectives in a natural environment to get an
in-depth understanding of the socialization processes. As a researcher in the qualitative
paradigm, the reseacher used open ended questions that provided direct quotations. A holistic
approach of the institutional participants was used by the researcher during the study. The
researcher made contact with participants after visiting the institutions and explained the need
to carry out the research to the administrators, caregivers and the orphans. The Ministry of
Labour and Social Services was assured through the provincial social worker and
administrators about the feedback on the research findings. Explanations concerning this
66
were made by me to the participants and thereafter participants were allowed to participate.
After clarifications, informed consents were granted. This covered issues of trust, rapport and
confidentiality. Information was also collected through use of different data collection
methods which were triangulated during analysis.
According to the qualitative paradigm, the researcher is the primary data collection
instrument under natural conditions. When doing a qualitative research, the investigator seeks
to gain a total or complete picture of events, procedures and philosophies occurring in natural
settings in order to make accurate situational decisions (Chisaka, 2011). Because of that it
was difficult to prevent or detect researcher bias and therefore my role in the study had to be
explained. I was a good listener, recorded the data accurately. The researcher initiated writing
early and included what was considered essential primary data in the final report. This
resulted in interpreting the responses of the participants accurately. This also meant that the
researcher had to uphold the use of deontological and relational ethics during the study.
Instead of taking sides by sympathising with orphans or caregivers, the researcher was
empathetic and focused on researching about institutional socialisation processes, without
imposing my own meanings on the processes.
Whilst the donors play part in supplying needs for the orphans, that in itself was not a major
issue, the issue was about institutions role in socialising orphans.
3.3. Research design
Burns & Groove (2005), describe a research design as the format and theoretical structure
under which the study will be carried out. It includes the discussion of steps to be taken in
order to safeguard the validity or authenticity of the findings. Burns & Groove (2005)
describe the procedure as follows, after formulating the specific problem and thoroughly
reviewing relevant literature, the researcher plans the study. For the purposes of this study the
researcher used a case study design based on grounded theory as supported by Patton (2002).
The case study design was used because of its effectiveness when doing an in-depth study of
a subject such as the institutional family socialisation processes. The case study helped in
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viewing the “social reality” on the social behaviours as explained by Baxter & Jack, (2008,
accessed on line 11 December 2009). Baxter & Jack (2008) say case studies bring about the
social reality of the situation being researched.
3.4. Population
Population is described by Yin (2001, accessed on line 13 April 2010), as the entire number
of subjects under study which is the whole. Gall et al (2007) go on to say that; population in a
study can be found in two types that is target population and accessible population. Target
population includes all the members of a real or hypothetical set of people, events or objects
to which researchers wish to generalize the results of their research (Burns & Groove, 2005).
In this study the target population referred to persons in the two institutions that had anything
to do with orphans and these included the institutional administrators, caregivers, orphans and
graduates. An accessible population was taken from the two institutions that are Khayelihle
and John Smale. The accessible population included administrators, caregivers, adolescent
orphans, and graduates from the two institutions.
3.5. Sample
According to Burns & Grove, (2005) a sample is a subset of the population that is selected for
a particular study. Gall et al (1996) say a sample is a part of a whole. Data are generally
collected from a sample rather than the entire population because using a sample is more
practical and less costly than collecting data from the entire population (Polit & Hungler,
2003, accessed on line 8 August 2011). However, as Patton (2002) pointed out that the
sample can be a disadvantage if it does not reflect the characteristics, behaviours or beliefs of
the population. The sample should then resemble the population.
The sample was composed of administrators, caregivers, orphans and graduates. Graduates
were included so as to make a follow up on the graduate’s performance in the community.
The sample selection ensured gender sensitivity and equitable representation. I also used my
professional experience (nursing and psychology) in collecting data through unstructured
interviews with institutional administrators, caregivers and graduates and focus group
discussions with institutional adolescent orphans. This is recommended by Patton (2002) that
in order to maintain the validity for qualitative designs the researcher should, possess or
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acquire the ability to ask good questions and to interpret the responses. The investigator must
be able to function as a “senior” investigator.
The sample was drawn from Khayelihle and John Smale institutions in Bulawayo. The
sample constituted of 34 participants, which were, 2 administrators, 10 caregivers, 16 orphans
and 6 graduates.
The focus groups were made of 16 participants. These participants were divided into 2 groups
for easy control of them during focus group discussions. Each group was made up of 8
orphans who were in the age group of 15 years to 18 years. Academically the participants are
from form two and A-level respectively. The orphan participants attend school in the
surrounding schools. For the participants, 6 graduates were interviewed. Two graduates are in
formal employment whilst the other 4 graduates are not working formally or informally. Two
graduates were found at their work place whilst other 3 were found at home and one was
interviewed at the institution.
3.5.1 Sampling Procedure and technique
Sampling is described by Polit & Hungler (2003) as the method of choosing participants or
sample from the whole that have the chance of participating in the study. As stated by Adler
and Adler (1987), as cited by Polit & Beck (2004) said that to achieve a systematic approach
to data in qualitative studies two conditions should be met:

First there must be a clear idea of the case to be investigated and

Secondly there must be documentation of feasible techniques in the taking of samples
of individuals, events or activities.
In case study sampling, there are a number of sampling techniques (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).
Convenient sampling was used in this study. According to Denzin & Lincoln (2000),
convenient sampling is another type of non-probability sampling, which is characterized by
the use of judgment and a deliberate effort to obtain representative samples by including
typical areas or groups in the sample. Convenient sampling was chosen because of its
advantages, which among them are accessibility and availability (Jenner, 2004, accessed on
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line 7 December 2009). Participants from Khayelihle and John Smale were, accessible and
available. Convenient sampling was inexpensive, as supported by Patton (2002), who states
that it requires less time to acquire. All participants (administrators, caregivers and adolescent
orphans) in this study were found in institutions, except for the graduates. Three graduates
were found in the community, 2 graduates at their work places and 1 graduate was found at
the institution.
3.6. Data collecting instruments
After literature review, the researcher set out to do the study. The study was divided into four
phases according to the different participants and instruments to be used for collecting data
from the said participants. In phases 1, 2, and 4, semi-structured interviews were used for the
administrators, caregivers and graduates respectively. Institutional adolescent’s orphans used
focus group discussions in phase 3.
3.6.1 The researcher as an instrument
In qualitative studies the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection. This meant
that the researcher had to clarify the role that was played by me so that the study would be
valid and reliable. Yin (2001, accessed on line 13 April 2010) points out that the involvement
of the researcher in collecting data in naturalistic setting raises a number of questions related
to the validity, reliability and objectivity of the research findings. Two issues that seem to
surface are that the presence of the investigator can alter the behaviour of those being
studied? Opinions and biases of the researcher can influence the interpretations assigned to
the findings? In this study the researcher made attempts to maximize my presence, by
prolonging my stay during the study and interviewed participants in privacy. After collecting
data the researcher transcribed data from interviews and then gave them (data) back to
participants for verification. This helped aid validity of the study. Field notes were kept
throughout the study. These notes consisted of:

Participants’ comments before and after group discussions

Tentative interpretations that were made by me during the data collection and analysis
procedures.
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7. Data collection procedures
There are various techniques of data collection as stated (Patton, 2002; Gall et al, 1996;
2007). These are tools that are used for collecting information and data needed to generate
themes to the problem under investigation. In this study the tools included semi-structured
interviews and focus group discussions.
3.7.1 Validity
According to Kumar (2008) validity is the ‘integrity of the conclusions that are generated
from a piece of research’ and reliability is believed to mean dependability of consistency’
and that qualitative researchers' use a variety of techniques (interviews, participation,
documents) to record their observations consistently’ (Polit & Beck, 2004). In order to
address reliability the researcher checked for consistency in the appropriate codes between
herself and her supervisor.
Validity in qualitative data techniques was reached through transcribing, corroborating and
triangulating information from semi-structured interviews from different groups of
participants and focus group discussions. The interview questions were given to an expert in
psychology to confirm content validity of the instruments.
In order to generate data the researcher made appointments with research participants through
phoning the administrators and explaining the expected activities and procedures. The length
of time taken was explained like 1hour 30 minutes for interviews and between 1 hour and 2
hours for focus group discussions. The other issue that was brought to the
participants’ attention was the issue of privacy and individualism especially with interviews.
The researcher emphasised the importance of privacy and used the available rooms within the
institution. Administrators were interviewed in their offices whilst focus group discussions
were held in institutional halls. Caregivers’ offices were used for caregivers’ interviews; and
graduates, were visited in their homes in the community, at work and at the institution. This
was important as suggested by Patton (2002) that steps for data collection need to be clear,
orderly and justified. No participant should be put in a threatening situation like holding
focus group discussions with orphans in the administrator’s office. The involvement of
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administrators and clarity on the steps to be followed during the study assisted in gaining
maximum co-operation from all categories of participants.
3.7.2 Interviews
In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to gather qualitative data from two
institutional administrators, ten caregivers, 16 orphans (inmates) and six graduate orphans
who have been discharged to the community. The semi structured interviews used openended questions concerning institutional socialization processes of orphans in order to gain
personal opinions and knowledge about the socialisation of orphans while under their care.
These interviews allowed me as the researcher to probe and clarify answers as Yin (2001,
accessed on line 13 April 2010) state that, skilled interviewing can follow up a respondent’s
answer to obtain more information and clarify vague statements. Furthermore, non verbal as
well as verbal cues were noted in the face to face interviews.
Non verbal cues helped in identifying the key points in the socialisation process. Kumar
(2008) says that observation is purposeful, systematic and a selective way of watching
interactions or phenomenon as it takes place. In the case of interviews, issues focus on how to
capture behaviour in real time and take into account the sequential and reciprocal nature. This
is in line with Patton (2002), who stated that in-depth interviewing is repeated face to face
encounters between the researcher and the informants directed towards understanding
informants’ perspectives on their experiences or situations as expressed in own words. I as
the interviewer had the opportunity to motivate the participants leading to higher response
rate as noted by Berg (2001).
Interviews of administrators and caregivers were done at the two institutions and in order to
maintain privacy, participants were interviewed individually. Interviews with participants
outside the orphan institution depended on accessibility and availability as a result it took
place at home, work and institution. Interviews took between 1 and 1/2 to 2 hours per session.
I as the researcher took notes during the interviews. After asserting the participant, the
participant was asked by me to clarify answers when need arises. When notes from
interviews were completed, the researcher compiled the notes.
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The compiled notes were given to the participants to correct and confirm the information,
which was further segmented, coded and categorized in order to describe the interviews. The
interviews ended when there was saturation of data as highlighted by Yin (2001, accessed on
line 13 April 2010). Interviewing institutional administrators, caregivers and graduates made
it possible to triangulate information for validity purposes. Interviewing these participants
resulted in obtaining information that the orphans would not reveal by any other datacollection method, like in focus group discussions.
3.7.3. Focus Group Discussions
Focus group discussions are a special kind of group interview combined with techniques of
qualitative analysis. Kumar (2008) says the only difference between a focus group discussion
and an in-depth interview is that the former is undertaken with a group and the latter with an
individual. Focus group discussions (FGDs) are very important they do not discriminate those
who can read and write and those who cannot read and write to express their opinions. They
encourage participation by those who are shy or reluctant to be interviewed on their own
since they can participate in the multitude Chisaka (2011).
Most focus groups consist of five to ten participants selected to discuss a specific topic or
issue. Criteria for selecting participants depended on the purpose of the investigation. The
purpose of the study was to explore how institutional socialisation processes equip orphans
with survival skills like social, moral, cognitive and emotional. Participants were selected
purposively to represent a wide range of views of the issue. For the purposes of this study
orphans who participated in focus group discussion were divided into two groups of 8
orphans. Focus groups were made into small groups so that the orphans were controllable and
facilitated smooth running of the discussion. The groups were made up of adolescent orphans
from the ages of 15 to 19 years.
Once the participants were selected the researcher brought them together for a discussion.
Participants were allowed to use any language that participants were comfortable with.
Ndebele, Shona and English were used. One participant used sign language and the
researcher got assistance in translating the sign language. Questions which were prepared in
advance were presented informally to the group. The order in which questions were presented
73
to the group depended on how the discussion developed. New questions that arose during the
discussion were addressed. The questions were asked by the researcher who kept the
discussion focused on the issues of institutional socialisation processes. As views were
expressed, the researcher sought clarification, asked for agreement or disagreement on
opinions that were expressed and probed for additional comments. The researcher established
and sustained rapport with the group, maintained a neutral role in asking questions,
encouraged all participants to speak without letting any one person dominate the discussion.
Because managing focus group discussions require a great deal of skill and tact, the
researcher used her professional experience. Focused group discussions lasted for two hours.
A dictaphone was used, in order to maintain a smooth flow of the discussion. Focus groups
are usually recorded on audio tape. Audio is recommended over video recording because it is
easier, less expensive and less noticeable to participants and therefore less reactive.
Participants in focus groups generally ignore the microphone used for audio recording, but
are much more aware of the camera and lighting that may be necessary for video recording.
In addition, audio recordings are also easier to transcribe for later analysis. In addition an
observer can add to the audio record by recording notes on the kinds and levels of emotion
and facial and body expressions of agreement and disagreement that were expressed at
various times by participants. These additional observations can add meaning to the verbal
content of an audio recording.
Focus group discussion was used because it is a fast, inexpensive way to obtain a large, rich
body of information. Focus groups were organized quickly and were held within the
institutional hall. Berg (2001) makes a point in relation to obtaining “suppressed discussion”.
The discussions were done using local languages where necessary for clarification. These
discussions were also therapeutic as it helped the orphans to deal with any suppressed
emotions after being given an opportunity to talk about socialisation in the institutions.
To assess the social behaviour of orphans the researcher utilized the norming, storming,
forming and performing stages (Stoner, 1998). It was during these stages that the researcher
observed the interactions, boundaries, roles, rules, bonding and sibling rivalry. Accordingly,
the write up on the discussion was taken back to the focus group for corrections, verification
74
and confirmation as suggested by Gall et al (1996; 2007). This improved the validity as well
as the replicability. It was difficult to deal with those ready to be discharged as they kept on
wondering how they were going to cope in the community as they felt they were not ready
for discharge. The fear confirmed lack of survival capabilities which orphans would use once
they were discharged. I reassured the orphans and forwarded their concern to the
administrators. It was my hope that administrators would take the issue into consideration.
3.8. Measures to ensure trustworthiness
Whilst verifiability of quantitative research is assessed in terms of its reliability and validity,
qualitative research is accurately assessed according to trustworthiness through credibility,
transferability, dependability and confirmability (Baxter & Jack, 2008, accessed on line 11
December 2009). In this study the researcher used Guba’s model for ensuring the
trustworthiness of qualitative data. In this model, the following tactics were used: first, focus
groups and unstructured interviews were used to triangulate the methods. Secondly, she
obtained feedback from participants if she was uncertain about the meanings of sentences.
The responses were circulated among participants so that they could confirm whether the
researcher had captured their views correctly. Thirdly, convenient sampling was used to
choose the participants. Fourth, the researcher used a Dictaphone, and transcribed the data
verbatim. Fifth, the raw data was analysed and reliability was ensured with the assistance
from the supervisor.
3.9. Ethical considerations
Ethics is defined by Kumar (2008) as “moral philosophy that deals with making judgments,
good or bad, proper or improper, approval or disapproval and right or wrong”. The purpose of
observing ethics in this study was to protect the participants from harm. These participants
were granted the autonomy to give informed consent and to participate voluntarily in the
study without any repercussions in the event of withdrawal. Participants’ rights were also
upheld. The Ministry of Labour and Social Services consented to the research. The willing
institutional administrators, caregivers, adolescent orphans in the institution and graduates
from the institutions, who gave consent to participate were included in the study. No name
has been noted for confidentiality purposes. For adolescents, administrators gave consent to
75
hold a focus group with all even those over 18 years because they are still in the institution as
a result they are regarded as children under the custody of administrators.
3.10. Bias
Bias on the part of the research is unethical and Kumar (2008:214) says that bias is a
deliberate attempt to either hide what one has found in their study, or to highlight something
disproportionately to its true existence. According to Burns & Groove (2005:727) biases
distort the findings from the expected true picture. Potential sources of bias were dealt with
through

Triangulation of data and methods (Polit & Beck 2004:431).

The interviews were conducted privately in a friendly environment that was free from
any suggestion of victimisation (Polit & Beck 2004:37).

Interviews were conducted in Ndebele, Shona, English and Sign language. An
assistant was sought to help with sign language translations.
3.11. Summary
Qualitative research was chosen for the purpose of studying socialization and case study
design was used to have an in depth understanding of the phenomena. The study sample and
the population were described. Data collection techniques and procedures were discussed.
Concern on ethical considerations was explained and methods used to deal with it were
clarified. In this chapter the study was discussed, paying attention to research design, research
methodology, population sampling, data collection and data presentation and analysis. The
research findings are presented in the next chapter.
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4.0 CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
The results were drawn from in-depth interview responses from two institutional
administrators, ten caregivers, and six graduates as well as focus group discussions held with
institutional adolescent orphans. Emerging themes were identified following the presentation
of findings from different groups that were interviewed.
The study sought to answer the following research questions
1) How was the process of socialization viewed in the institutions?
2) How were institutional families’ positions, roles and culture developed,
structured and used during the socialization of orphans in the
institutions?
3) How were parenting roles used to socialize orphans with the following
survival skills in the institutions, attachment, social, moral, cognitive
and emotional?
4) Which capabilities were institutional graduates using to cope in the
community?
4.2. Data Presentation and Analysis Procedures
Data collected from the interviews and group discussions were analyzed by qualitative means
as indicated by Mayring (2000, accessed on line 2 November 2009). Qualitative data analysis
contains reviewing, summarizing, generalizing and interpreting data in an appropriate and
accurate way. It is to describe and explain the phenomena or social worlds being studied. One
of the most important steps in the qualitative research process is analysis of data.
The researcher used Constant Comparison Analysis, often called “coding system”: Coding
enables the researcher to locate and bring together similarly labeled data for examination and
to retrieve data related to more than one label when wanting to consider patterns,
connections, or distinctions between them. Content analysis techniques were used to analyse
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the discussion of focus groups. A set of categories, based on them or issues is developed for
coding the discussion. Like most qualitative reports, the data consisted of extensive quotes
from the participants that illustrated typical domain points in the discussions. The data were
transcribed into English as local languages were used in some instances during discussions.
The approach used to analyse data was according to Yin (2001, accessed on line 13 April
2010). The approach involves an interim analysis, which refers to the cyclical process
whereby data collected are analysed, prior to additional data collection. This approach was
used throughout the study. Memoing was used which refers to reflective notes written by
researchers recording ideas generated during data analysis (Berk, 2006). Focus group
discussions and individual interviews were transcribed verbatim before data were analysed.
4.2.1 Segmenting
Segmenting involved dividing the data into meaningful analytical units (Yin, 2001, accessed
on line 13 April 2010). This was done by carefully reading the transcribed data one line at a
time, taking cognisance of the following questions:

Is there a segment of the text which is important for this research?

Does it differ in any way from the text that precedes or succeeds it?

Where does the segment begin or end? Such segments (words, sentences or several
sentences) were bracketed as a way of indicating their starting and ending points.
4.2.2. Coding
According to Patton (2002), codes are labels for assigning units of meaning to the descriptive
or inferential information compiled during a study. Key words are attached to chunks of
varying sizes, words, phrases, sentences, or whole paragraphs; these are referred to as “units
of meaning”. Coding is the process of marking these units of meaning with symbols;
descriptive words or category names. In addition, face sheet codes which applied to single
complete transcripts and group codes were assigned to enable me the researcher to search for
group differences. Focus groups were coded as FG1 and FG2, administrators as Ad and
caregivers as Cg.
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4.2.2.1. Compiling a master coding list
All the category names developed, together with their symbolic codes, were placed on a
master list. The codes on the master list were re-applied to new sections of text each time
appropriate sections were discovered.
4.2.2.2. Enumeration
The frequency with which observations were made helped me to identify and take note of
important ideas and prominent themes, occurring in the research group as a whole or between
different focus groups.
4.2.2.3. Identification of broad categories
The data from focus group discussions, individual follow-up interviews and observations
were then sorted into the following broad categories: caregiver’s parental skills, caregiver’s
attachment skills, socialisation of social, moral, cognitive and emotional skills. Themes that
emerged from these categories were identified.
4.3. Findings of the study
The findings of the study are drawn from interviews with two institutional administrators and
ten care givers who were responsible for direct socialisation of orphaned children in terms of
the Ministry of Labour and Social services in Zimbabwe, sixteen adolescent orphans and six
graduates from the institutions that had been discharged into the community.
4.4. Demographic data of respondents
The two institutional administrators that were interviewed were of opposite sex. One of the
administrators had a certificate in social work whilst the other had a certificate in religious
studies. Both were above the age of 40 years. One administrator is studying for a degree in
Sociology with the Zimbabwe Open University. Both administrators stay within the
institutions together with their families.
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Ten (10) caregivers, 8 females and 2 males participated in the study. Among the caregivers,
five (5) had 5 O-level subjects. Three caregivers had 5 O-level subjects with other certificates
in cutting and designing. Of the 10 caregivers, 2 had neither O- level certificates nor any
other certificate in skills. Six (6) caregivers were married and four were single. The married
caregivers were staying with their families in the institutional premises. All caregivers had no
qualifications related to socialization of children. The caregivers’ ages ranged from 25 years
to 42 years. Experience range was between 2 and 7 years.
The two FGDs (Focus Group Discussion) were made of 16 participants, with 8 orphans in
each group who were aged between 15 and 19 years and were doing form four and A-level in
the surrounding schools respectively. Of the 16 adolescent orphans, 8 were females and 8
were males. The consent to discuss with the orphans was sought from the Ministry of Labour
and Social Services, the administrators and the participants themselves. Administrators gave
consent for orphans above 18 years because they were still in the institution and were still
regarded as children. An assistant was sought to assist in sign language interpretation since
one of the adolescent orphans used sign language.
Six (6) graduates were interviewed; 3 females and 3 males. Two (2) were found at their work
place whilst the other three (3) were found at home and one(1) was interviewed at the
institution. The graduates’ age ranged from 24 years to 37 years. Of the graduates, 2 were
married and also working. The other graduates never married, but had children with different
partners. One of the graduates was HIV positive and was receiving antiretroviral drugs.
4.5. Findings on the methods of socialization.
The following information is the respondents’ answers pertaining to the question on
institutional socialization of orphans.
4.5.1. Findings pertaining to question 1 on how the process of socialization was viewed
in the institutions?
Administrators’ defined socialization of the orphan as the upbringing of the orphan until the
orphan was discharged. According to the administrators, some orphans stayed beyond the
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discharge age. The reasons for staying longer varied from failure to complete school to delay
of the orphan to establish him or herself in the community. Both administrators also certified
that caregivers are in charge of orphans’ socialization processes in the institution.
Ad 2 said
“… Socialisation is the upbringing of the orphaned child in an institution. The
institutional socialization ends at the age of 18 for orphans as it is the specified time
for graduating from the institution according to the Ministry of Labour and Social
services. However, institutions keep orphans above 18years, at the discretion of the
administrator, depending on the orphans situation and behaviour...”
Caregivers said socialisation was the grooming of an orphan until the orphan became an
adult. All caregivers concentrated on teaching survival skills like farming in the institution.
No caregiver mentioned the psychosocial skills. The caregivers complained of low
remuneration and indicated that the environment was poor; the work was difficult and that the
expectations by social welfare or administrators was too much.
Most orphans believed that socialisation referred to the training of children up to the age of
21 when the orphans would be able to fend for themselves.
One orphan from FGD 1 reported that “…socialisation is the parenting of a child by his or
her parents until the child becomes an adult, like when one gets married…”
Most orphans said they faced challenges in the institution when being socialised. Some
remarks passed by orphans included
...no one can replace your mother...”. “... We look after ourselves...” “... Caregivers’
main duties are to provide accommodation, food and clothes...” “... no one knows
what it is to be an orphan; no one recognises your skills e.g. footballer you are
always told its wrong...”, “...orphans are abused, looked down upon no empathy,
orphans do everything for themselves, no resources to start own business...”.
‘..Orphans fail to secure employment, poor technical skills e.g. with the computer...”
“...never exposed to indigenous programmes concerning youth...”. “...we feel like it’s
a challenge, we are always closed in like we are in a jail..
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Answering to the question on socialization, graduates indicated that socialisation was the
upbringing of the child by their parents until the child was 18 years or could fend for him or
herself. There were mixed reactions with some graduates saying institutional socialisation
was fine at least because an orphan would have a place to stay and be groomed. According to
one graduate, institutions offered jail like socialization as orphans felt they were treated
without respect.
4.5.2. Findings pertaining to question 2 on how institutional families’ positions, roles
and culture were developed, structured and used during the socialization of orphans in
the institutions?
The administrators indicated that the institutional family is established and structured by the
administrators who were responsible for the functioning of the institutional families. The
administrators said institutional families were made up of caregivers and orphans of varying
ages and both sexes. The number of orphans per family depended on the number of
caregivers and was twenty orphans per family during the study. Administrators agreed that
institutional families were run according to mission statements with a female or male
caregiver in charge of the family. Administrators went further and said there was no
particular culture to follow hence the use of Mission Statements. In the institutions, a workrelated hierarchy of managers, matrons, supervisors, clerks, caregivers and other institutional
employees exists and work according to the mission statement of the institution. The system
is used to receive, socialise and discharge orphans.
Ad 2 said
“...institutional families are established and structured by the administrators,
based on the number of caregivers available. The more caregivers are the less
number of orphans per institutional family. Caregivers come from different
backgrounds and are expected to parent orphans, from varying cultures and
backgrounds, because of this, a common ground on parenting is reached. The
common ground is established through the mission statement. Institutions’
mission statements are derived from Christian values, in other words the
parenting that takes place in institutions is Christian parenting where the Bible is
used...”
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The following were remarks from administrators
“...orphans are slotted in families ...”; “... the family is made up of orphans from 0 to
20 years…” “...orphans join institutions at any given age...”, “...caregivers are
responsible for orphans’ upkeep...”, “...administrators supervise caregivers and
socialisation processes of orphans...””...caregivers are guided by daily programmes
which are made by administrators...”
Responding on how institutional family, roles and positions are structured and established, all
caregivers agreed that administrators were responsible for establishing and structuring
institutional families. According to Cg 6
…institutional families are made of 20 orphans from both sexes, even though I have
orphans who are 21 and 23 years, I don’t know when the orphans will graduate. I
heard that the orphan was waiting to be established. However we follow daily
routines in family functioning...
In both institutions caregivers said the socialisation processes were not guided by any culture,
but instead by mission statements based on Christian values. Six caregivers (Cg1, 4, 5, 7, 9,
and 10) made references to Ndebele culture while Cg 2, 3 and 8 referred to Shona cultures
when socialising orphans.
Responding to how institutional families, roles and positions were established and structured,
adolescent orphans involved in the group discussions, said an institutional family was made
up of orphans of both sexes and ages. According to the orphans, institutional administrators
were responsible for establishing the institutional family with caregivers in charge of the
families; the caregivers cooked, washed and cleaned the houses. A few orphans said both
caregivers and administrators were responsible for the running of the institutional families.
According to orphans, the institutional culture is based on Christian values more than
Ndebele or Shona cultures. Other orphans were of the opinion that caregivers used their own
culture to socialise orphans after hearing the caregivers and administrators giving Ndebele or
Shona names to newly admitted young orphans.
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When asked about the institutional culture during socialization, an orphan in FGD 2 said,
…institutional socialisation processes are based on Christian principles; there is no
defined culture that orphans know. Institutional caregivers use their own cultures to
socialize us. Caregivers are like maids to the administrators, these caregivers are
responsible for the upkeep of the orphans but the administrators are in charge of the
families…
Responses from institutional graduates on how institutional families are structured and
established showed that graduates agreed to the notion that institutional families were made
up of the caregivers and the orphans of varying ages and sex, with caregivers in charge of the
family’s upkeep. According to the graduates, institutional administrators were in charge of
the families. Caregivers were responsible for washing, cleaning and cooking for the orphans.
All graduates agreed that there was no culture that guided institutions in socialising orphans
except for Christian values. Ndebele or Shona cultures were referred to when naming orphans
only.
4.5.3. Findings on how caregivers promote orphans’ attachment skills in the institution?
When asked about parenting in the institutions, both administrators agreed that there were no
individual parenting skills as caregivers undergo training on how to care for the orphans.
Parenting was based on mission statements, Christian values and training of caregivers. Ad 1
said;
“…whilst parenting is done by institutional caregivers, shortage of caregivers is a
challenge. This shortage in caregivers has seen the ministry reducing the minimum
age for caregivers from 30 years to 25 years. The caregivers are no longer required
to possess any other skills as before like dressmaking or gardening instead they are
looking at 5 O-levels only. Institutional parenting is affected by other caregivers
leaving institutions for greener pastures whilst others are leaving to join
indigenisation programs. The other problem is that young caregivers are not old
enough to parent orphans. The young caregivers also complain of too much work and
poor remunerations…”
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Answering to the question on the parenting skills that institutional caregivers used on
socialising orphans, seven (7) caregivers said parenting was based on Christian parenting and
mission statements whilst three (3) caregivers said there was no parenting but caregiving as
the name says.
Cg 10, said
…we are trained to look after the orphans and assist the orphans, but we are not
trained to parent orphans as a result we are more of workers, maids or employees,
that’s why I am saying the there is too much work compared to the salary…”“…most
decisions concerning orphans are made by the administrators. On the other hand
orphans regard us as government workers not parents, this makes it difficult to
replace an orphan’s mother…
.
In response to the parental styles used in the institutions, one orphan from FGD 2 said
...there are no specific parenting styles; caregivers treat us the way they want like
telling us to make gardens for staff without being paid. Some caregivers are harsh,
some are good and some say we are spoiled we are a problem to them we should
accept that life has changed as we are now orphans...
Other remarks from the orphans were,
...Caregivers are okay...”,”... caregivers shout at us...”, “...institutional family is
good...everything in the institution is free...”, “...caregivers are always angry and
scolding us orphans...”, “...institutions use Christian , Ndebele or Shona grooming of
orphans...”,”...caregivers tell you that they are workers not our mothers or
fathers...”. “...orphans are given Ndebele names...”
Responses on parenting revealed that most orphans described the relationship as “a maid and
child relationship not mother-child relationship”
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Administrators were asked how institutional caregivers socialize orphans with attachment
skills. Both administrators were of the opinion that caregivers became “parents” to orphans.
Caregivers fed, bathed, changed and assisted the orphans in the day to day activities. Only
one administrator agreed to being involved in the attachment process even though the
attachment procedure was not explained. Administrators however said they enhanced
attachment skills when allocating orphans to the families. Issues like separation of natural
siblings was catered for as no siblings were separated unless if it was beyond the institutional
control, like the issue of failure to have another sibling accommodated in the same institution.
According to the administrator of one institution caregivers with a Christian background are
employed.
The following were remarks made by administrators
…the new comer is attached to another orphan …” No siblings are separated except
under unforeseen challenges like no accommodation for the other sibling especially
where a boy and girl siblings are involved...” “...we let orphans solve disputes on
their own...” “… We talk and counsel them if they display negative behaviours, like
fighting...” “...when there are signs of peer pressure, caregivers talk to orphans and
teach orphans on how to choose good behaviour from bad and negative behaviour
…” “…...we tell orphans to always do what pleases God.
Responding on how institutional caregivers socialised orphans with attachment skills,
caregivers agreed that they fed, bathed and washed clothes for orphans. Caregivers lamented
how difficult it was to promote attachment skills in orphans given the temporary relationship
caregivers have with orphans. Caregivers stated that it was difficult to promote attachment
skills in orphans; they could not carry any orphans on their back no matter how small because
orphans were many and others would feel jealousy; it was also too much work. These
caregivers however mentioned that in order to promote attachment skills, orphans who were
siblings were not separated when admitted in the institution. According to caregivers, orphans
had to accept that life had changed; they had to do it on their own as their parents could not
be replaced.
Cg 4 narrated an incident that happened with one orphan.
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… This orphan was attached to two mothers. He liked them both and mothers liked
him also. One day the first mother was caught stealing and was subsequently
discharged of her duties. Later the other mother got sick and died. It was
traumatic for him and no-one helped him much...
Other caregivers’ remarks were,
…orphans are too many to be attached to...” “...it is difficult to get attached to any
orphan...”, “... other orphans become jealousy if you carry one of them on your
back…”, “…life has changed…” Orphans should know that “…I am just a caregiver,
not their mother...”. “…we are civil servants...
When asked on how institutional caregivers socialised orphans with attachment skills, less
than a third of the orphans were of the opinion that they achieved attachment skills by helping
each other in doing daily chores, home work and sometimes playing games. However most of
the orphans said girl orphans were responsible for the attachment skills in other orphans,
from the way they cared for other orphans. Few orphans agreed that caregivers’ assistance
did not build attachment skills. One orphan from FGD 1 said;
“...we assist each other, we know what it is to be an orphan, this is why young
orphans are attached to our sisters than caregivers... sometimes caregivers scold
us as if we asked to be orphans...”.
When asked on how caregivers socialize orphans with attachment skills, 4 (four) graduates
namely Gr 1,3,5,6 agreed that caregivers did not socialise orphans with attachment skills but
the girl orphans socialised other orphans. Two (2) graduates said caregivers socialized
orphans with attachment skills but their duties were many and the caregiver/orphan ratio was
too high to foster attachment skills.
Gr 5 said;
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“... Caregivers are not that loving; they punish and let orphans fight each other,
instead of caregivers stopping the orphans from confronting each other they wait until
orphan’s fight, that’s not good at all...”
4.5.4. Findings on how caregivers socialize orphans with social skills in the institution.
In terms of socialisation of social skills, both administrators agreed that orphans attended
church in or outside the institutions. In their remarks administrators pointed out that
institutions used games, school, television and social gatherings to equip orphans with social
skills. One administrator claimed that games helped orphans to interact, entertain, and divert
them from negative thoughts and promoted positive behavior among orphans. The
administrators agreed that most orphan management was done by administrators like the type
of social gatherings to be attended, when and for how long. Older girl orphans were said to be
sisters to both young boys and girls and were expected to assist in daily chores because
caregivers’ responsibilities were many.
Caregivers reported that orphans were socialised with social skills through games, school,
television, social gatherings, social visits and group discussions. The caregivers said it was
difficult to participate in playing with the orphans because of their work schedule. Caregivers
complained a lot about the work load and the poor remunerations.
Cg 6 said, “... It is easy to let orphans play, they will not disturb me. We use those older
orphans to be play with the little orphans...”
Responding on how institutional caregivers socialised orphans with social skills, orphans
agreed that caregivers taught social skills through games even though caregivers did not play
with the orphans. According to the caregivers, socialisation of social skills was done through
social gatherings, where orphans attended graduates weddings.
According to orphans, administrators and caregivers participated in weddings. One orphan
from FGD1 said;
... Caregivers teach us through games, we are allowed to go out and meet our friends,
and attend church outside. We also hold sports galas and social gatherings. I think
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we learn a lot when we participate in these games and weddings, one learns how to
interact, talk and mingle with others...
Other orphans had this to say,
...we learn social skills through playing... school, television and through church...”. ...
one learns how to behave from church, that’s why we attend church, services both in
and out...” if one fails to behave will not have friends...” “... if you become a bully no
one wants to play with a bull...” ... we learn when we assist in graduates weddings...”
4.5.5. Findings on how caregivers socialize orphans with moral skills in the institution?
The administrators reported that orphans were being socialized with moral skills.
Socialization of moral skills was done through games, sending orphans to school and
allowing orphans to watch television. Watching of television was controlled by the
institutions and not by caregivers, as there were institutional timetables for watching
television. Ad 2 said
…Institutions hold group discussions on HIV and AIDS, STD’s (Sexually Transmitted
Diseases). Staff and visitors from church teach moral behaviour, respect elders,
seniors, parents and other siblings greet each other and people in the community.
There is a stipulated time table for daily programmes like study time which is from
7pm to 8:30 pm. Orphans are allowed to visit friends outside the institution and come
back by 6 pm…
Responding on how institutional caregivers socialised orphans with moral skills, caregivers
reported that they based training of moral skills on Christian values although it was difficult
because older orphans challenged and compared caregivers’ teachings with orphans’ parental
teachings. Caregivers said;
...some orphans don’t believe in the bible...” “... Orphans visit their friends or
church...” “...orphans should come back by 6pm whenever they visit...” “... Orphans
have a study time after school for example 7-8:30pm...” “... when orphans come back
they report to the caregiver...” “...orphans are reprimanded for any wrong doing...”.
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“...We talk and teach orphans and hold group discussions on morals, like talk about
HIV, AIDS, STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases) cause and implications...” “...No
dating in the institution...”. “...no intervention by caregivers unless desired...”,
“...orphans are taught to reach amicable understanding among themselves...”
“...orphans have a chance to be involved in a graduates wedding if we do have
one...” “...caregivers are allowed to punish...”, “...orphans are taught to respect
caregivers and seniors...
According to orphans moral skills were being taught through institutional rules and
regulations. Orphans reported that caregiver’s participation in the discussions depended with
the roaster. Orphans said they also learnt moral skills through games, school and social
gatherings and television and hold group discussions with caregivers or administrators on
HIV, AIDS and STDs.
4.5.6. Findings on how orphans are socialized with cognitive skills in the institution?
When responding to how orphans were socialised with cognitive skills, administrators agreed
that orphans in the school going age group were attending school, with preschool for the
young being done in one institution. Administrators said cognitive skills were taught through
reading and writing, games, media, friends and colleagues. Institutional administrators were
responsible for sending orphans to school, attending consultation days and assisting orphans
with home-work. Administrators agreed that when it came to decision making on issues
relating to orphans welfare and management, institutional caregivers did not make any
decisions. Decisions are however done by administrators and orphans. Those orphans who
are young and those who could not decide, most often administrators decided for them.
According to one administrator, this approach facilitated smooth running of the institution.
Responding on how caregivers socialised orphans with cognitive skills, caregivers reported
that cognitive skills were taught by sending orphans to school, orphans were assisted by
friends and colleagues in doing home-work as it was difficult to assist orphans in subjects
that the caregivers failed. The caregivers complained that administrators were the ones who
knew much about the orphans’ performance in school, as the caregivers themselves did not
attend consultation days. Besides that, other orphans were not interested in school. All
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orphans of school going age group had a chance to attend school; the young ones could start
with preschool. One caregiver (Cg 6) said;
... at least they go to school and get uniforms and books from the Government and
well wishers. This helps us to realise our objective. Teachers teach orphans, to
reason through different subjects but we work hand in hand with the schools..., …we
assist in doing home works, although it is difficult to do it on a one on one basis, we
group the orphans according to their classes and age, then use the hall to do the
home work. If they are in the house they assist each other…
Other comments from caregivers included
…we assist orphans as much as we can...” “...difficult to when you yourself failed the
subject...” “...other orphans are not interested with school...” “...remunerations are
not pleasing helping with homework adds the workload …
Orphans agreed that socialisation of cognitive skills, was achieved through sending orphans
to school, allowing orphans to do home-work with friends, classmates and or with other
orphans. According to orphans, orphans of all ages were attending school; with those orphans
who were less than 5 years attending preschool in one institution. One orphan from FGD 1
said;
...When you go to school you learn how to reason, so here we are being sent to
school of course one can be dull but the fact that you are at school you will never
be like an unlearned person who has never gone to school. Caregivers do help us
with home work even though caregivers have a lot of work...
Other orphans said,
...other mothers don’t help you they tell you that you are bothering them...” “...they
say we are not their children after all we are many so they cannot help us. Because
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of that we end up assisting each other with home works. The good thing is our
friends from outside can come and help us also...
4.5.7. Findings on how orphans are socialized with emotional skills in the institution?
When asked about how orphans were socialised with emotional skills, both administrators
claimed that socialisation of emotional skills was done through games, counseling, holding
group discussions on problematic issues although there were a number of challenges.
According to administrators caregivers did most of the counseling unless if the problem was
beyond their capability.
Ad 1 said;
“…the orphans often present with a number of challenges like regresses and start
talking about their parent’s death, orphans take long to accept the parent’s death,
orphans grieve over the loss or rejection by relatives, orphans grieve over loss of
identity and orphans take time to identify with an institution…with this in mind, it
becomes difficult for us to deal with the orphan, but we get help from child line agents
the staff comes and assist us…”
Responding to how institutional caregivers socialised institutional orphans with emotional
skills, most caregivers had no knowledge on how to equip orphans with emotional skills.
Other caregivers believed that they equip orphans through group discussions and games
although they failed to explain how games can be used to emotionally train a child like
through role play, as Cg 5 said, “...it’s difficult to teach emotional skills, we try and do it
through group discussions and games...”
When asked on how caregivers socialised orphans with emotional skills, most orphans did
not know how they were socialised with emotional skills. One orphan from FGD 1 said,
“...emotional skills are acquired through school and from watching television, but I think
administrators know better, they can tell you much on that ....please ask them...”
Responses on how institutional caregivers socialised orphans with social, moral, cognitive
and emotional skills revealed that institutional caregivers were not playing an active role in
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socializing orphans with survival skills such as social, moral, cognitive and emotional skills.
According to graduates, survival skills were acquired through participation by orphans in
games, church, social gatherings, television, sports and drama. Group discussions helped
inculcate moral skills. Institutional graduates reported that cognitive skills were acquired
through school and television. A few graduates (Gr 2 and Gr 3) referred to institutional
socialisation processes on cognitive skills as positive and agreed that in institutions unlike at
home every orphan had the chance to attend school. Graduates felt that cognitive skills were
learned faster and easily during school and social gatherings. Some of the comments were;
...during the games one is forced to reason and follow orders as a result you are
exposed to disciplinary and thinking processes...” “...through television a child learns
how to think...”, “....sometimes learning how to think depends with one’s
capability...” “... Friends can teach someone through helping with homework...”
4.5.8. Findings for question 4 on capabilities that institutional graduates were using to
cope in the community?
From the administrators some orphans were doing well whilst others were not. Those
who were not doing well were involved in prostitution, beer drinking, and failure to secure
employment. Other graduates were reported to be divorcees with others on antiretroviral
treatment for HIV and AIDS. Ad1 said;
…there are no follow-ups on how institutional graduates are coping in the community
except reasons which were recorded on discharge. Nevertheless we meet former
orphans when they visit the institutions. The reasons for such visits however vary
from seeking assistance when life is difficult to supporting institutions. However the
institution does not support orphans once they are discharged…
Ad 2 reported that most graduates fail to cope because of the poor relationships between
graduates and relatives. This administrator said
... It’s difficult to know, most graduates fail to settle with the relatives from the
original family. Graduates often complain of abuse by relatives and community, who
fail to pay for services provided by graduates. Female graduates often find problems
to settle in their marriages, with most girls failing to get married because of
stigmatization. Only those graduates who have academically excelled are wanted by
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relatives on discharge because they will help relatives with cash once they are
employed...
Responses from institutional caregivers on how graduates were coping in the community
following discharge from the institutions, showed that no institutional caregivers knew how
all graduates were performing in the community, they knew of a few graduates who were
doing well and those doing badly. Graduates doing well would come back to assist other
orphans in the institution whilst the graduates doing badly would come back for assistance.
The challenges in reintegrating graduates depended on whether the graduate excelled
academically or not, as said by Cg 6 that,
….A graduate that was not gifted in school was a problem as no one can change their
destiny. Most children who await discharge met tensions between relatives. Besides
tensions, relatives from extended families more often fought over the graduate.
Fighting might end up confusing the orphan on what to do, who to live with after
discharge. Orphans fail to be obedient to a relative because of other relatives who
insight hatred. Sometimes orphans remember or believe his or her mother’s death and
the person who caused it so he would rather start life afresh. Orphans were used to
getting life for free so they found it difficult to fend for themselves in the community…
Responses on how institutional graduates were coping in the community, most orphans were
no longer interested in institutional life; they felt in bondage. However, some orphans from
FGD 2 expressed positive coping mechanisms and their remarks were;
“... Its better outside, we can work for ourselves...” “... One can survive just like
other people outside...” “...one can get married...and start a family, other graduates
are happily married...’”...of cause other graduates aren’t doing well...””...would like
to start a project...””...will be reunited with our relatives...”
Some of the orphans from FGD1 did not agree with the other orphans to be discharged before
they finish school and establish themselves. Orphans however said there were challenges that
an orphan faced when being reintegrated into the community following discharge. Some of
the challenges were poor relationships with relatives as witnessed by loss of communication
during their stay at the institution. Most orphans complained of abuse in the community,
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problems with repossessing parents’ property from relatives, failure to be employed. They
felt they had no one to fall back on if the situation got tough like in marriages and lack of
knowledge to start projects as they did not participate in self help projects like their
counterparts who are in the community. One orphan from this group said;
“... we are not computer literate, and if you are a footballer, no team to play for. We
have no resources to start own business and no knowledge of indigenisation
programs being offered by the Ministry of youth...”
Graduates were asked to report on how they were coping in the community. They indicated
that they were not aware how other graduates were coping in the community settings. Gr
2 who was doing well said;
...I am enjoying myself; I am now happily married with two children. I own
“kombis” and do motor mechanics. My relatives now want me because I have
established myself. After passing O- level, I got a sponsor and did motor mechanics
with polytechnic and passed. I took my brother out of the institution and I continue
to assist my brothers and sisters in the institution whenever I can...
Some remarks made by the 2 graduates were, “...I am doing fine...”, “...life is a struggle, but
you keep on pressing on, am happy to make it ...”, “...a proud mother of two...” ”...God
blessed me with a good job and kids...”
Other graduates who included Gr 1,4,5 and 6 who had failed academically and had no other
survival means expressed these sentiments;
...life is difficult outside here, in the institutions you would get everything for
free...”, “...you can’t get any jobs outside here...”. “...the only money you get is
enough to buy beer...” “...no one wants to help someone...”. “...I have three
children from different fathers...”, “...marriage is difficult...”. “...No one wants to
help with the kids, even the institution which looked after you...”, “...I am on
ARVs...”, “...can’t fend for myself and my child...” “...can’t go back to school,
can’t send any one to school either...
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4.9. Emerging themes
Based on responses from the semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with
various groups namely; the institutional administrators, the caregivers, the orphans and
institutional graduate orphans that had been reintegrated into the community following
institutional socialization, three main themes that emerged were:
4.9.1. Perception of institutional socialization
This included the categories of knowledge perceptions about socialization, institutional
family structures and establishment, culture used in institutional socialization of orphans.
4.9.2. Parenting roles and responsibilities
These included categories of parenting roles and responsibilities in terms of
inculcating attachment, social, moral, cognitive emotional skills towards leading a
responsible life.
4.9.3. Socialisation and capacity development
These included categories of knowledge capacity, preparation and skills development by the
administrators and caregivers. It also included categories of cognitive, psychosocial,
attachment and moral skills development of orphans prior to discharge back into the
community.
4.10. Discussion of findings
The two institutional administrators were male and female and over 40 years of age. They
had the required qualifications although there could be room for enhancing both
administrative and social work skills. All the 10 caregivers interviewed had no qualifications
related to socialization of children. However they were mature adults aged between 25years
and 42 years although there were more females (8) than males (2) which created an
imbalance in instituting male and fatherly roles to the adolescents (Powell et al, 2004). The
age for the adolescent orphans who were involved in the group discussions ranged from 15 to
19 years and all of them were attending school which is an important socialization agent
(Goswami, 2002). There were other orphans who had passed the adolescent age group and
discharge age and were still in the institution because they were still pursuing their studies
and vocational training. Among the orphans that had been discharged into the community,
two were married and were working while four never married and one of them was on the
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anti retroviral therapy programme. This finding revealed both positive and negative effects of
institutional socialization, meaning that institutional socialization could have been inadequate
for those adolescents who were ill and had not settled well in the community. Powell et al
(2004) recommend that institutional socialization should be considered last when all other kin
systems are not available, meaning that where possible orphaned children should be brought
up within their kin systems.
The responses from the different groups of participants, namely, the institutional
administrators, the care-givers and the adolescents both in the institution and out of the
institution after graduating, resulted in the following thematic areas; perception of
institutional socialization, parenting roles and responsibilities and socialization and capacity
development.
4.10.1. Perception of institutional socialization
All the categories of participants perceived socialisation as a grooming process of orphaned
children until orphans leave the institution and are deemed ready to join the community.
Administrators didn’t agree with the rest of the participants that is caregivers, orphans and
graduates on who does the institutional socialization, with orphans and graduates stating that
they socialize themselves. Self socialisation by orphans results in poor socialisation of
survival capabilities as confirmed by most graduates failing to cope in the community. The
difference might be because administrators derived the meaning from the managerial point of
view whilst caregivers, orphans and graduates were in reality of what they were experiencing
in their daily lives. The view by caregivers, orphans and graduates that socialisation is done
by biological parents only is not in line with Maccoby (2007), who said that socialisation of a
child can be done by other people other than the biological parents. However Powel et al
(2004) state that socialisation can be done by relatives to the parent especially the mother.
The institutional socialisation is further compounded by the family structures, roles and
positions. The institutional family is large and made up of strangers as according to McCall
and Groak (2005), this hampers the relationships in the family unlike in the kinship system as
suggested by Powell et al (2004). The use by the institutional families to base the
socialization process on mission statements and Christian values without any cultural value,
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structure or parental roles is a cause for concern. The practice by institutions complicates the
participation of graduates into the community as there is need to socialize orphans in known
cultures which are familiar to them. The use of familiar cultures is an added advantage as
stated by Markus & Kitayama (2010), Shiraev & Levy (2001). The idea of kinship means the
orphans won’t lose their identity and is supported by Powell (2004) & Schneider (2006). The
problem with institutional orphans is that orphans will graduate and settle in environments
where other people are not oriented with mission statements. The results will be the failure by
graduates to cope in such environments because of different cultures used during
socialisation.
4.10.2. Parenting roles and responsibilities
The institutional caregivers did not meet the expected parenting roles and responsibilities of
socialization. This leads to failure to socialize orphans with the survival skills such as social,
moral, cognitive and emotional. The end result is failure by graduates to cope in the
community upon discharge. Institutional caregivers in this study were using parental skills
such as being responsive and demandingness and not parental styles as stated by Baumrind
(1991). The use of parenting skills might be emanating from the training caregivers get.
There is no consistency in the use of these skills as different caregivers use different skills
depending with how the caregivers were socialized by their parents. The use of different
skills of parenting are not supported by Serficik (2009) who claims that in parenting, it’s not
the skills which matters but the whole style should be considered. The issue of caregivers
regarding themselves as maids and being regarded as such by orphans and graduates means
that the attachment processes are compromised. Parenting skills and roles among caregivers
were not well defined as these were merely doing routine institutional care duties. This is
supported by MaCall & Groak (2005), Balkermans-Kranenburg & VAN Ijzendoom & Juffer
(2009), Powell et al (2004), Gunnar (2001).
Institutional caregivers are not adhering to the principles of attachment as indicated at
http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml (accessed on line 23 June
2011). This results in institutional caregivers’ failure to create attachment methods with
orphans. The failure means that orphans’ individual needs are not met as recorded by
Muhamedrahimov (2005). Lack of attachment might have negative impact in the way the
98
orphan will learn other survival skills like social, moral, cognitive and emotional which are
essential in establishing relationships when the orphan graduates, as indicated by Powell et al
(2004) who reported that institutional youths have greater social impairment which makes it
difficult for the orphans to build positive relationships when they graduate. Lack of parental
roles might be based on the parental training that institutional caregivers get as evidenced by
Save
the
Children
UK
(2006),
This
is
not
the
http://www.education.com/reference/article/four-parenting-styles/
parenting
accessed
described
on
line
by
06
February 2011, where parenting is said to start from preparation of pregnancy up until the
child becomes an adult. As a result there is need to explore the training of caregivers on the
developmental needs of a child.
4.10.3. Socialization and capacity development
The findings revealed that the administrators had the requisite knowledge to manage the
running of the institution and not to supervise caregivers and monitor the socialization
processes. At the same time caregivers were not knowledgeable to socialise orphans with the
life-long survival skills. On the same token, orphans were not prepared to be socialized by
caregivers, further complicating the already fragile relationship. Caregivers also lacked
related socialization knowledge and skills to impart on these orphans. This suggest a need for
in-service training for the care and employment of caregivers with appropriate knowledge
and skills in child socialisation. This leads to poor socialisation of the survival skills on
orphans by institutions and therefore limited cognitive, moral and emotional capacity to cope
with the real world. The result of which is failure by graduates to cope in the community
because of lack of survival skills like social, moral, cognitive and emotional skills.
The orphans who received help from individual caregivers might be the ones who excelled
academically. This showed the positive impact of involvement of caregivers on orphans as
suggested by Tiller et al (2006) and Santrock (2007).
Most graduates failed academically yet cognitive skills were being used to measure success
by graduates. This is not in line with Goleman (1995) and Goswami 2002) who suggest that
emotional skills better prepare the individual for success. The study findings partly confirmed
the results from the Russian study by UNICEF (2005) which said institutional graduates are
99
involved in prostitution and homelessness. The study showed that institutional graduates have
the potential of dependency from the social welfare (institutional syndrome) and poor coping
skills as recorded by Powell et al (2004) and Altshuler & Poertner (2002).
4.11. Summary
This section discussed findings from data gathered from the participants. The discussion was
guided by the research questions derived from the literature review. Findings from the study
further emphasised the position that, institutional family socialisation is not effective, lacks in
equipping the orphans satisfactorily with the survival skills which in this study were social,
moral, cognitive and emotional skills. The family members, especially caregivers who in this
study stood as surrogate mothers, were using the parental skills and not the styles. Cognitive
skills seem to be very important in coping in the community following discharge as one has
better chances of being employed than with the emotional skills. It seems, for effective
coping in the community, orphans need all the survival skills in this study, no one skill is
more important than the other. Orphans seem to be socialised by accident for those who do
well. The study showed that orphans depend on each other more than the caregivers and
administrators in the institution. Despite marked differences between failures and successful
graduates, the graduates showed that nature also plays part in the orphan’s development with
individual characteristics like resilience.
100
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0. Introduction
This chapter will cover summary of the methodology of the study, implications, conclusion
and recommendations.
5.1. Summary of the study
The study sought to determine the effects of institutional socialisation processes on survival
skills of orphans at Khayelihle and John Smale institutions, in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. A
qualitative case study design was used. Convenient sampling was used to select participants
for the study. The study was guided by the following research questions:
1) How was the process of socialization viewed in the institutions?
2) How were institutional families’ positions, roles and culture developed,
structured and used during the socialization of orphans in the
institutions?
3) How were parenting roles used to socialize orphans with the following
survival skills in the institutions, attachment, social, moral, cognitive
and emotional?
4) Which capabilities were institutional graduates using to cope in the
community?
A qualitative design guided the study and purposive sampling was used to select study
participants. The sample was made up of two institutional administrators, 10 caregivers, 16
adolescent orphans and 6 institutional graduate orphans that had been discharged back to the
community. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions
(FGDs) using semi-structured interview schedules and interview guides respectively.
101
Ethical considerations were met through seeking permission and informed consent from the
Ministry of Labour and Social Services, institutional administrators, caregivers, adolescent
orphans and institutional graduates. Administrators gave consent for adolescents in the
institutions.
Data were coded, categorized and analysed. The identified emerging themes were 1)
perception of institutional socialisation 2) parenting roles and responsibilities and 3)
socialisation and capacity development.
The findings showed that all the groups knew that socialization was about grooming the
orphans until they graduate from the socialization institution back to the community.
However it emerged during the study that orphans were not receiving adequate
socialization. Caregivers seemed to lack adequate parenting roles as well as the necessary
qualifications to care for orphans. Orphans themselves, as a result of inadequate caring skills,
were not receiving adequate education necessary to equip them with survival skills, like
social, moral, cognitive and emotional skills.
5.2. Implications
The study revealed lack of related skills by administrators and caregivers in socializing
orphans. Administrators managing institutions should probably hold related qualifications in
the developmental needs of orphans. Institutional socialization is not adequately preparing the
institutional orphans for adult life upon their graduation. Caregivers lacked adequate capacity
of socializing orphans and as a result no adequate socialization compared to their peers in the
community. The study suggests a need for research in Zimbabwe in order to strengthen and
or validate the findings of this study on institutional socialization of orphaned children.
5.3. Conclusion
The two institutional administrators were male and female and over 40 years of age. All the
10 caregivers interviewed were mature adults aged between 25years and 42 years although
there were more females (8) than males (2). The adolescent orphans who were involved in the
group discussions ranged from 15 to 19 years and all of them were attending school. Of the
102
six graduates who were interviewed, 2 graduates were using survival capabilities that were
learned in the institution whilst 4 graduates failed to establish and use the survival
capabilities. The salient finding of the study is that institutional socialisation of orphaned
children does not adequately equip orphans with life-long survival skills which were social,
moral, cognitive and emotional skills. All the findings from the four categories of the
respondents namely the two administrators , the 10 care-givers, the 16 orphans and 6
graduates unveiled gaps related to institutional socialisation resulting in poor outcomes in
terms of social, moral, cognitive and emotional skills. There were gaps in terms of
preparation of the caregivers for effectively discharging the parental roles to the orphans and
also gaps in terms of qualifications for social work such as the one of socializing orphans in
preparation for adult life. Orphans are therefore discharged into the community with
inadequate survival skills, social, moral, cognitive and emotional to cope as adults, upon
graduation.
5.4. Recommendations
1) From the findings it is recommended that the policy makers review policies that
promote kin-system to socialize orphans and /or ensure effective implementation
of family tailored institutional socialization where there are no extended family
members to take care of orphans.
2) There should also be extensive training of institutional caregivers to strengthen
their parenting roles and responsibilities.
3) There is need to develop an institutional socialization model that mimic ideal
socialization structures and roles strengthening family structures at institutions.
4) There is need for further research in institutions in Zimbabwe in order to
generate a theory that will guide a model in Zimbabwe.
103
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109
Appendix A
Request for permission to collect data from the institutions, in Bulawayo,Zimbabwe.
65197 Tshabalala Extension
Bulawayo.
Ministry of Labour and Social Services
P.O.Box 114
Bulawayo.
Sir or Madam
Re: Application to do a study.
My name is Brandina M Sharara, Mphil student with Zimbabwe Open University. I request to
carry out a study in your institutions. My research is on institutional socialisation of orphaned
children: A case study of selected institutions in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. The study
participants included institutional administrators, caregivers, adolescent orphans and
graduates. Semi-structured interviews were used. The research questions are as follows,
1) How was the process of socialization viewed in the institutions?
2) How were institutional families’ positions, roles and culture developed, structured and
used during the socialization of orphans in the institutions?
3) How were parenting roles used to socialize orphans with the following survival skills in
the institutions, attachment, social, moral, cognitive and emotional?
4) Which capabilities were institutional graduates using to cope in the community?
Find attached a confirmation letter from Zimbabwe Open University.
Thank you
Brandina M Sharara
Cell: 0772457220 Email: bhellah@gmail.com
110
APPENDIX B
CLEARANCE LETTER FROM THE MINISTRY OF LABOUR and SOCIAL
SERVICES
111
Appendix
C
Consent for a study on the institutional socialisation of orphaned children: A case study
of selected institutions in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.
Dear participant
My name is Brandina Mhondiwa Sharara; (PIN NUMBER- P 0935734 D) MPHIL IN
CHILD DEVELOPMENT (ZOU).I hereby request your cooperation during the interview
session that I will carry out with you in relation to the above. Please note that questions are
related to your attachment, sibling relations and peer relations, social, moral, cognitive and
emotional skills. Your answers, comments and recommendations will be used to improve the
welfare of orphans and the institutional socialisation processes.
The information will be held in confidence. The findings and recommendations will be
communicated to you through the administrator of your institution. Be advised that
participation is voluntary and that you are allowed to discontinue anytime if you choose to
participate.
Your cooperation is greatly appreciated. Thank you.
Brandina Sharara
N/B I certify that I have read the client information form to the participant and that he or she
has understood the nature and purpose of the study. She or he has been give opportunity to
ask questions which have been answered satisfactorily and that her or him consent to the
participation in the study.
Please confirm your choice by ticking one box
participant agrees to be interviewed
participant disagrees to be interviewed
112
APPENDIX D
Demographic questions in English, Ndebele and Shona languages.
English
How old are you?
Which level of education did you acquire?
What is your marital status?
How many years have you been in the institution?
How many orphans do you care for in your family?
What is your religion?
Ndebele
Uleminyaka emingaki?
Wafunda esikolo ukufika ngaphi?
Sowalobola yini ?
Usulesikhathi esinganani ukhona lapha?
Ulabantwana abangaki emulini yako?
Ukholwani,,insonto kumbe hatshi?
Shona
Une makore mangani?
Wakafunda chikoro kusvika papi?
Uripapi panyaya yekurorana?
Wawa neguwa yakadini uri panzvimbo ino?
Mune wana wangani mumhuri yauri?
Chitendero chako ndechipi?
113
APPENDIX E
ENGLISH INTERVIEW GUIDE
1) How was the process of socialization viewed in the institutions?
2) How were institutional families’ positions, roles and culture developed,
structured and used during the socialization of orphans in the
institutions?
3) How were parenting roles used to socialize orphans with the following
survival skills in the institutions, attachment, social, moral, cognitive
and emotional?
4) Which capabilities were institutional graduates using to cope in the
community?
114
APPENDIX F
IMIBUZO LENDEBELE
1) Kuma institutions umsebenzi wokulungisela ukhuphila emphakathini ubonakala unjani?
2) Imideni ekumainstitutions amasikoo, lezimiso ezithile kusetshenziswa njani ekulungiseleleni
izintandane ukuthi ziphile emphakathini?
3) Abantwana abakumainstituions bafundiswa njani amaokuziphilisa afana lokuzwana labanye,
ukulunga, lokuphathelane lemizwa eyehlukeneyo?
4) Ekuphumeni kwabo kumainstitutions abatwana laba baphila njani, njalo bayibona njani
impilo yephandle njalo bayunelisa na ukuphila emphakathini?
115
APPENDIX G
MIBVUNZO NECHISHONA
1) Nherera dzinorerwa sei mudzvimbo dzinochengeterwa nherera?
2) Mhuri dzinowakwa sei munochengeterwa nherera, izvi zvinosanganisa
mashandiro, marongerwo nemawakirwo emhuri nemarongero emagariro
netsika?
3) Wachengeti wenherera wanokudza mwana sei maererano
chekutanga) nehukama hwekunzwisisana newamwe pakurarama,
chechipiri kugara zvakanaka newamwe wanhu muhupenyu kana dzakura,
chechitatu kuzvibata,
chechina muhupenyu,
chechishanu kukwanisa kufunga zvinowaka,
chechitanhatu kukwanisa kuzvidzora?
4) Nherera dzinorarama sei munyika mumashure mekubuda madzinochegeterwa?
116
Appendix
H
INTERVIEW RESPONSES FROM AN ADMINISTRATOR
KEY
Bold
:
Interviewer
( )
:
Translation into English from Ndebele
{ }
:
Translation into English from Shona
[ ]
:
Coding range
****
:
greetings, introductions, confidentiality and consent.
CATEGORY
INTERVIEWS WITH ADMINISTRATORS
****
What is institutional socialization
[Institutional socialization is the upbringing of orphans in an
institution]. [This involves caring of orphans in the institution that is
providing for them an environment which is conducive for them to
grow]. [Like here we have caregivers who help look after the orphans.
Caregivers cook, clean and wash for the orphans. Caregivers are also
responsible for bathing young orphans. In-fact the caregivers are
trained to look after the orphans, and train them with survival skills].
Definition,
Socialization
process
Parental
responsibilities and
physical survival
skills
You said survival skills. What types of survival skills?
We teach them sewing, looking after rabbits, chickens and or pigs.
117
Physical survival
skills
How is an institutional family positions, roles and culture
established and guided during the process of socialisation?
[An institutional family is established basing on the institutional
structures and number of caregivers. The more caregivers you have
the less number of orphans per family]. [First caregivers are employed
by the institution so that we don’t have problems in reaching
institutional goals].
[Long back skills were important like sewing or gardening, when
employing a caregiver , age was ummm do I remember well aaaa
should have been 30years. Sorry I can’t remember but anyway it was
reduced to 25 years now. In fact age for caregivers has been reduced
so that we can take as many caregivers as we can]. The [problem is
these youngsters they can be employed today and disappear
tomorrow]. Maybe because of [poor renummerations]. [Each orphan
is slotted in the family according to age and sex. Orphans are admitted
at any age from 0 to 16 years as long as the orphans are still children
because our adult age starts from 18 years. Caregivers are in charge of
the socialization processes even though there are some problems with
that. Families are made of orphans of both sexes and ages ranging
between 0 to 20 years].
Family structures
Parenting standard
and objectives
change in parenting
standard
disadvantages of
young caregivers
challenges like
Poor remunerations
Family structure
I thought you socialize the orphans until 18years and you are
saying up to 20years, Why 20 years?
The orphans are still learning their courses or they are not yet
established so we cannot send them out.
Reasons for staying
longer
What type of problems were you talking about, when you talked
about caregivers?
Caregivers [come from different backgrounds, to care for orphans who
come from different backgrounds as a result the institution builds a
common ground of operation for both orphans and caregivers].
[Mission statement is used, as guidance to the socialization processes.
This helps create the same parenting skills].
Parenting structure
Advantages of
using Mission
statements
Hymm……….. so when they are in the families, what part do you
as an administrator play in their socialization
[I also make sure orphans participate in their development through
projects that are established at the institution]. We [take them out for
church]. I look for [schools where orphans can be enrolled. I follow
up on the fees payments and also on the reports and come back. I
support other caregivers when they face challenges. Besides I
supervise caregivers].
118
Socialization of
physical skills
Outside
environment
Parenting and
administrative roles
What type of challenges are you talking about?
Aaa – [these rights, orphans will complain that we are abusing them as
a result you do not force a child to participate. You only allow those
who are willing].
Socialization
challenges
What happens with those who are not willing.
[You talk to them, counsel them and let them see life from your angle.
It doesn’t matter how long it takes you will be patient with the orphan
until she or he starts participating].
Parenting roles in
counseling
Do you have any orphans who fail to participate until discharge.
[Oh yes silabo sibili (we have them) especially girls. They need a
different approach one girl took me like 6 months she didn’t want to
talk with staff, even other orphans she opened up very late. But since
she started talking she is now ok. She no longer sympathies with
herself. We are talking about orphans who are not willing to
participate?
Parenting roles and
challenges
Yes, why
No something had crossed my mind. Umsebenzi wamaorphans unzima
ngiyakutshela [(working with orphans is difficult, I tell you.)] Well if
they are not willing [they are arrogant until they are discharged no
wonder why they can’t fit in the society and they always come back
for assistance].
Socialization
challenges
Socialization
outcomes based on
individual
characteristics
So how often do these orphans come back?
[Not often but the orphans do come back maybe because we do not
offer help for graduates especially if you were difficult during your
stay here, that’s why we don’t see many of them].
No fall back on
institutions
Individual
characteristics
What is the institutional culture on which the institutional
socialization processes are based on?
[We don’t have a specific culture to follow but we sometimes use the
culture of our outside community and neighbours, to regulate our
socialization but it also creates confusion]. Our [socialization
processes are based on Christianity]. Institutions are made of social
119
No reference to a
specific culture
Christianity and
workers, administrators, caregivers, orphans and other personnel. We
are guided by laws concerning and protecting orphans, and vulnerable
children. We also use the [Mission Statement to guide us].
Mission statements
guides.
So how are institutional caregivers socializing orphans with
attachment skills?
[They are cared for by caregivers who are trained to look after
orphans. Caregivers become orphans parents]. [They feed , bath,
change and assist the orphans in the day to day activities. Caregivers
also do washing of clothes for the orphans].
Caregivers trained
parenting roles
How many caregivers and how many orphans do these caregivers
parent at any given time?
[The ratio is roughly 1 as to 20 orphans]. But when they are all on duty Parenting ratio
which usually is a Wednesday they are 3 to 20 orphans.
Parenting structures
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with social skills?
[We use games, games help them interact, entertain, and make them
divert from negative thoughts. Girls are sisters to both young boys and
girls. They do washing for them and sewing is done by the seam
mistress. Cooking is done by supervisors being helped by the girls. ]
Lack of parenting
roles from
caregivers
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with moral skills?
[Besides games, we use the Bible to teach orphans about moral skills
and issues. This is despite the fact that other orphans don’t believe in
the Bible.
Parenting roles
through reference to
Christianity
Why are some orphans aesthetists?
Maybe they [accuse God of not protecting the parent or parents from
death].
Uncompleted
grieving process
Shame, so how do you handle such a situation?
[We counsel them or seek the help of pastors, this works very well].
[Any way our children go to churches and schools, outside. We check
on them like departure time and arrival time]. [If they comeback we
teach them to report to caregivers].
120
Parenting role
Institutional
structures
Reporting system
So you follow up church timetables?
Yes even here, [they have study time 7 – 830 pm]. [Caregivers and
other surrounding mates come and help with school home work. Staff
with the compliment of Group visits from other churches teaches our
youth, to respect elders, seniours, parents and other siblings. We teach
them to respect and greet each other and other people in and around
the community].
Institutional
programme,
parental roles
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with cognitive skills?
[School heads support the orphans. The orphans are not chased away
even though the Government has failed to pay for their school fees].
Caregivers do not decide. [Children decide on their own]. [Those who
cannot decide, administrators decide for them. Caregivers hardly go to
the schools, for consultation but the administrators do on behalf of the
caregivers].
Cooperation
Orphans decide
Caregivers not
allowed to decide or
make consultations
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with emotional skills?
[It’s difficult to teach emotional skills, we try and do it through group
discussions and games].
Challenges in
socialization of
emotional skills
How are orphans coping in the community?
[Aaaaa we don’t know for sure how the graduates are coping, but
some graduates come to assist even though these graduates are few
compared to those graduates who come in need of assistance.
No follow up on
graduates
Socialization
outcomes
What challenges do you face when socializing orphans
[Self pity is the greatest challenge that orphans bring with them]. [Its
easy if you love children but social workers make it difficult
sometimes as they sit on you]. Sometimes it’s a hassle [everybody
wants to rule and control the orphan]. [Caregivers are few as a result
they rotate]. [The other problem is no relatives visit these children].
121
Challenges
Parental
characteristics
No demarcation on
parental
responsibilities
Institutional
structure
challenges
How do you deal with that
[We talk and counsel, we work together with child line they help us
counsel our children]. On the management we use the Mission
Statement.
parental role
administrative roles
What challenges does the institution face on reintegrating a
graduate into the community
My dear, the issue about this. [These child line people come and teach
them on children’s rights]. [As a result when you discharge them they
accuse relatives of abusing them even if it means to be corrected on
sweeping or making their bed]. [They feel they have been abused].
[Only those who have academically excelled are wanted by relatives
on discharge because they will help relatives with cash once they are
employed]. [An incident of one orphan who was discharged only to
come back with three kids and she wanted to live the kids at the
orphanage].
[One orphan settled well in the community]. [He is a businessman he
passed his school and did a course].
[Girl left to live with aunty, got a child no father should be on ARVs.
Boys are more disorganised also failed to pass are sometimes
employed and sometimes not]. [People do not want to adopt these
graduates especially if they didn’t excel academically]. [Very few
people are comfortable with adopting. Procedures are difficult they
give up on adopting.]
[If the child failed it’s an additional expense worse still it’s not their
child. Sometimes they don’t like the child because of the mother or
father. Relatives just take the child not willing. That’s the most
difficult challenge].
[Community also takes sides when the orphan comes to stay. Like
unoshushwa usaite basa { you are being abused, don’t do any work}.
[The other challenge is graduates complain of abuse at home]. [The
other challenge is when girls want to be married].
Nongovernmental
organizations and
Rights
Accuse relatives
abuse
cognitive skills
negative outcomes
positive outcomes
cognitive skills
negative outcomes
cognitive skills
standard for success
challenges with
adopting
challenges with
relatives
complications in
society
dourly
Ohhh that’s a tricky one but at least they get married. What
happens?
[We look for relatives and pastors and the person pays lobola]. We
prefer relatives who are not abusive.
culture
You mean abuse? What type of abuse.
Iyo [abuse] chaiyo yekuita basa, yekuita basa {real abuse, like
working}
AAH its true
122
Abuse
Laughter
its true we have one granny who phoned, asking us what [rights] are.
Because our child always told her she is abusing her.
Rights issues
Did you find out the problem
[Yes, the problem was when the granny told her to cook sadza and
meat after cleaning the yard and also wash plates]. [The graduate
accused the granny for not doing anything that day and abusing her].
Challenges
Performing house
hold chores
Accusations on
abuse
Who is abusing who sure?
Laughter yaah its tricky.
[It’s tricky for sure because here we give them duties so this child is
not used to doing all household chores on her own]. We use [division
of labour], which is proving not to be good training for our children.
Division of labour
Negative outcomes
How old is granny
[I don’t know. She must be old because she is her mother’s granny].
Parental roles of
grannies
So what became of that orphan with her rights.
[Aaa, she ran away from the granny. I meet her in town drunk and
with two kids. I understand she is not married and she is now positive.
I hope she is on ARVs. She has become a prostitute to support her
family].
Negative outcomes
Seems like you have those who end up being misfits in the
community what about those who do well
Yes, but a [good number are misfits] of course we have [others who
have done well got married and have their children.] [They come and
help us also]. [One graduate asked us to do his wedding cake and also
for other orphans to participate in his wedding].
Negative outcomes
Positive outcomes
Assistance
Role modeling
That’s good, so from your experience how many do well compared
to those who don’t.
Roughly we can say [out of 10 graduates. 2 will do good but 8 will
fail].
So any other problems
123
Large scale Ratio
1:4
Yes, [there is no attachment from relatives will never have visited, so
the child does not know them, only to know them after discharge].
No attachment with
relatives
I am almost closing the interview my last question before we close
is what is your say about the discharge age?
[Thank you for asking about that I would have told you that you forgot
to ask something important]. [You know we are supposed to
discharge them at 18 years] but [now it’s up to an institution’s
discretion because at 18 our child just like a child at home is still going
to school. Others will be doing their courses they haven’t established
themselves so to discharge them at 18 it’s not fair because these
relatives will be taking someone who is not established how still needs
supports and this makes them choose between the orphan and their
children. So I think the 21 years would be appropriate].
Thank you for your time and interview.
Thank you (shaking of hands)
bye
124
suggestion
Discharge age
inappropriate
Administrators
discretion
Administrator’s
suggestion
APPENDIX
I
INTERVIEW RESPONSES FROM A CAREGIVER
KEY
Bold
:
Interviewer
( )
:
Translation into English from Ndebele
{ }
:
Translation into English from Shona
[ ]
:
Coding range
****
:
greetings, introductions, confidentiality and consent.
CATERGORIES
Caregivers Interviews
****
What do you understand by socialization?
It is a [process of grooming a child until the child becomes an adult].
[This includes cooking, feeding, cleaning and washing for the orphan
when they are young], [because of pressure of work we don’t do this
always] but we [train girl orphans also through delegating some of the
duties].
definition
parental roles and
age limit
challenges in
performing duties
training of girl
orphans and
delegations
How are institutional families, roles culture established and
structured?
[Administrators are responsible with that]. [My work is to help with
the upkeep of the family].
lack of participation
in formation of
families
caregivers roles
How do orphans view you as their parent?
[For those who were admitted when they were young, and don’t know
their mothers its easy, they see me as their mother. But for those who
know their mothers its difficult. They complain , like you can’t be my
mother, as a result they don’t listen when you try and reprimand
them.. Whatever you tell them they don’t obey. Older orphans have a
125
age determines
view of parenting
tendency to tell us caregivers that siyizisenzi zekhahlulumende. [(We
are civil servants)].
roles
What do you mean when you say teaching orphans is difficult?
Older orphans have a tendency of comparing us with their parents.
Umunye uthe umama wakhe wephekha ncono. [(His mother was a
better cook). That is boring if you think you have done and cooked
well)].
Comparison by
orphans
Umuntu ogcine abantwana ulwakha njani uthando phakathi kwakhe le
ntandane. (How do institutional caregivers socialize orphans with
attachment skills)?
It is [difficult to promote attachment as children are many. Caregivers
claimed that it is difficult to create any bonding with the orphans] as
[one does not know whether they will be employed until the orphan
graduates]. One caregiver narrated one issue that happened to one
orphan.
[“… he (orphan) was attached to two mothers. He liked them and
mothers liked him also. One day the first mother was caught stealing
and was subsequently discharged of her duties. Later the other mother
got sick and died. It was traumatic for him and no-one helped him
much...”].
Challenges of
socialisation
limits of future
expectations
You can change and feed them as need arises. But sometimes
umsebenzi umengi [( the work is too much)] [you end up assigning
older orphans to do some of the duties]. [It's easy to be attached with
young ones. I think young ones receive better treatment than older
ones].
Socialization
challenges
delegation of
duties.
Advantage of
young orphans
Why?
[Culturally young ones are a bit innocent] they need care isn’t it.
negative outcomes
Advantage of
young orphans
I don’t know maybe you are right,
of course, I am right. You can imagine older ones can tell you ukuthi
uyisisebenzi sa Hulumende.[(you are a civil servant)] That’s not right.
Disadvantages of
age
[The other thing is siblings from one family are not separated, they are
accommodated in one family]. [New comers are attached to their
seniours. That is the child is given to a friend. He will make friends;
he will be taught how to survive. Dos and don’ts are explained].
Promotion of
attachment skills
Delegation of
responsibilities
126
Do caregivers carry orphans on their back at times?
[No, that is difficult as every child would want to be carried also].
[They are many]. [Others will be jealousy, besides there is no time for
that] , [we will spoil them no one will do that when I am off duty.
Other caregivers don’t, so I can’t be seen doing that].
Attachment skills
challenged
ratio
challenges
disadvantages
comparison
Which culture do institutional caregivers use or refer to when
socializing orphans?
There is no specific culture the caregivers can refer to anything ,
Ndebele, or Shona culture but most they use the Bible. Institutions are
also guided by the mission statements.
lack of culture
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with social skills?
Umkhulisa njani umtwana oyintandane, ukuhlalisana labanye nxa
esekhulile?
It’s easy to [teach social skills through games]. [Games teach orphans
to interact, talk, communicate, complain or express themselves. Games
also teach them how to react to others, learn to play in turns. Through
games they learn that bullies have no friends. Umuntu ngumuntu
ngabantu, (you are because I am). We also use [older siblings as role
models] be it with negative behavior or positive behavior. [We use the
examples to teach them if you are going to be like this one you will
end up like this. From young we teach them to greet elders or their
seniours. We also use the bible to preach to them]. [Orphans are given
chances to participate in a graduate’s wedding. We allow them to play
to entertain ,divert their thinking , and to while up time]. [If they are
not occupied they are a problem they disturb me. Games teach them to
talk, interact, communicate, complain, I can say games teach them to
express themselves].
No caregivers
participation
Games, orphans as
role models
Caregivers
participate
Graduates as role
models
challenges
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with moral skills?
Umfundisa njani umthetho wokuphilisana labanye kusukela emcane
aze akhule?
Moral skills are also taught [through games although other orphans
No participation
don’t play with others these orphans have difficult characters which are from caregivers
difficult to please]. [Teaching them is a challenge and we use the bible Parenting
127
to achieve that. The only problem is when the orphans don’t believe in
the bible it will take you time to convince the orphan to accept in using
the bible].
challenges
[We hold youth Sundays. Whereby we sit down both boys and girls.
Advisor gives topics for discussion on things that they want to know
about life. Can you give me an example HIV & AIDSs, behavioural
change, peer pressure, responsibility, chores. Talk about dating, they
are not allowed to date as they regard each other as brothers and
sisters. They have different roster for chores]. [Orphans are encouraged
to watch God channel. [We prefer to admit young orphans it’s easy to
train them when they are still young. Older orphans are stubborn they
have a tendency to reason and demand explanations of which
sometimes you don’t have. The other challenge is others are not
Christians from birth]. [Orphans are allowed to go to church or visit
friends as long as they come back by 6pm. Once they are back they
report to the caregiver. If any problems like shouting at each other they
are reprimanded].
Institutional
programme
Division of labour
institutional
programme
disadvantage of age
institutional
programme
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with cognitive skills?
Umfundisa njani ukuthi azicabangele izinto ezilengqondo ngasosonke
isikhathi nxa esekhulile?
Siya sebenzisa I Bible, lilako konke okwemuteto. [(we use the bible it
covers all the laws)]. [Besides they also go to school at least that’s
better, Government and well wishers help us achieve that]. We assist
with homework. Although sometimes [it's difficult to help them in a
subject that the caregiver failed]. [We group them according to their
age groups and do the home work with them in the hall. Friends can
come from outside to assist. Orphans can assist themselves, older ones
can help young ones with homework]. [Other orphans are not
interested in school making it difficult].
Parenting roles
Schools role
Parenting roles
challenges
attachment skills
challenges
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with emotional skills?
Umfundisa njani ukuthi akwanise ukwehlukanisa imizwa yakhe
ngesikhati esifaneleyo lokuzehlisa nxa Kufanele?
Ama emotions yiwo ama feelings yini? (Are emotions the same as
feelings?) yeee kuyafanana (it's the same)
[ahh I don’t know much] but [I think, playing football and other social
gatherings help the orphans learn emotional skills. During games
orphans are excited when they win and frustrated when they don’t as a
result they lean different emotional states which will help them when
they grow up].
128
Lack of knowledge
Lack of caregivers
participation
What challenges do you meet when socializing orphans?
oh sure I mean it’s such a hassle. [They sympathise with themselves
they expect you to do everything for them because they are orphans.
Even if you tell them that one day they will have to leave this place
and leave on their own they act like wale ngozi.(they act as if they are
possessed by evil spirits. They are difficult to control and penetrate.
Orphans often regress and start thinking about their parents. Some
don’t grieve over their parents only but over the loss and rejection by
relatives some grieve over loss of identity. Orphans take time to
identify with the institution, during that time expect any behaviour if
you are a caregiver].
Socialization
challenges
.
What do you do for orphans to identify with the institution?
We [comfort them], [what else can we do]. When I wanted to [punish
one orphan who was in grade four then for not greeting elders, I asked
her what she want to be punished or greet the elders. She preferred to
be punished instead of greeting].
The [work is too much when you compare with the pay if at least pay
can be increased. We have problems with material resources].
Parental role
Dead end
challenges
socialization
challenges
How are orphans coping in the community following discharge.
[No one really knows how orphans are coping,] but [we often see the
graduates when they come here] [some orphans who excelled in school
are doing well as they tend to supply us with our needs] whilst [some
are not, they come back looking for assistance showing that life is
difficult for them].
No follow ups
visits
positive outcome
negative outcome
What challenges do you face when reintegrating graduates into the
community?
[Those orphans who are gifted who have never had problems usually
excel in school so they can establish themselves. Problems are with
those who are not gifted you cannot change their destiny]. [Most
children await discharge meet tensions between relatives. Besides
tensions , relatives from extended family more often fight over the
129
Individual
characteristics
challenges
graduate. Fighting might end up confusing the orphan on what to do,
who to live with after discharge. Orphans fail to be obedient to a
relative because of other relatives who insight hatred. Sometimes
orphans remember or believe his or her mother’s death and the person
who caused it so he would rather start life afresh].
What is your say with discharge age of orphans?
[Discharge age is not appropriate as children will still be at school. It’s
okay for those who have found work or are getting married]. [They are
free to go].
Mismatch
Choice
What happens when the orphan wants to get married?.
The institution looks for the relatives and the pastor to facilitate
payment of the lobola.
Culture
Do the orphans stay or maintain the marriage?.
[Others do, but others fail just like anybody else]. [Reasons vary from
cheating partners to financial problems].
I am closing the interview is there anything else you want to say?
Haa no I have said everything I needed to say
Thank you bye
Bye
handshake
130
Outcomes
challenges
APPENDIX
J
INTERVIEW RESPONSES FROM ADOLESCENT ORPHANS IN A FOCUS GROUP
DISCUSSION
KEY
Bold
:
Interviewer
( )
:
Translation into English from Ndebele
{ }
:
Translation into English from Shona
[ ]
:
Coding range
****
:
greetings, introductions, confidentiality and consent.
Focus group discussion
****
What do you understand by institutional socialization?
Institutional socialization is the upbringing of the child in an
institution.
definition of
socialisation
What do you mean when you say upbringing?
When I say upbringing I mean, aaaa, I mean taking care of the orphan
until the orphan grows up.
socialization
definition
I am still not clear on the upbringing that takes care and how is the
care done.
Parents do the care, but here we have caregivers who look after us.
differences
in parental roles
How do you view institutional caregivers as your “parents”
[Institutional parents are ok] (baright sibili, bayasincina kuhle) Kodwa
sometimes omama laba baya thethisa njengani uncelile ukhuthi abazali
wako bafe. hakuright
Caregivers
behaviour
jeers and laughter clapping hands also came in.
yaa lapho uyakhuluma sibili
[ (but sometimes they scold us as if we asked for our parents to die
that’s not right)]
Caregivers
characteristics
Akumelanga umama ehlale ezondile ngoba abantwana bezamesaba. [(
Negative role
131
we don’t want these mother to be angry always we will end up afraid.)]
modeling
How are institutional families, roles and culture structured and
established?
[We don’t really know, the procedure] but [what we know is when an
orphan comes he or she is given a family where he or she stays with
other orphans] under the care of [one caregiver who is responsible for
the upkeep of that family].
Lack of knowledge
Institutional
structure
Caregivers
responsibilities
Which culture do institutional caregivers use or refer to when
socialising you the orphans?
[There is no specific culture the caregivers can refer to anything ,
Ndebele, or Shona culture but most they use the Bible].
no specific culture
How do institutional caregivers socialize orphans with attachment
skills?
Ummmm no.
Unsure of the
answer
Eeee what is it, you seem not to understand, I mean is there that
mother-child bonding between you and the caregivers?
[ Haa no, there is no love between us and the caregivers. That’s why
we told you they scold us]. We help each other with [home work
sometimes we play games from which we learn how to interact and if
need be when to say sorry]
No caregiver
attachment
orphans attachment
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
you the orphans with social skills?
[They teach us through games, we are allowed to go out and meet our
friends, and attend church outside. We also hold sports galas]. [I think
we learn a lot when we participate].
Caregivers not
involved
Orphans
participation
When you say they teach you through games, what do you mean?
The caregivers let us play at least our own games without them
interfering.
Caregivers not
involved
How do you learn that if you can explain ncasisa (explain)
I am saying [one learns how to interact, talk and mingle with others]
Learning process
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
you the orphans with moral skills?
132
[still through playing one learns how to behave]. [If one fails to behave
uzasweli abangani. If u becomes a bully no one wants to play with a
bully].
Caregivers not
participating
Link between the
skills.
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
you the orphans with cognitive skills?
When u go to [school u learn how to reason so here we are being sent
to school of course one can be dull but the fact that you go to school
you will never be like an unlearned person who has never gone to
school].
Cognitive skills
through school
[Some caregivers also help us with home work].
Kodwa abanye abanenge abomama they don’t. vele they tell u ukhuthi
u a bothering them.
[( other mothers don’t help you they tell you that you are bothering
them)]
Some caregivers
participate but the
majority don’t
interjection
[yaa mom vanobva vati hauzi mwana wavo after all takawanda so
havakwanise kubatsira tese.[ {[they say we are not their children] [after
all we are many so they cannot help us}] Because of that we [end up
assisting each other with home works]. [The good thing is our friends
from outside can come and help us also].
No mother –child
bonding
Large ratio
Orphans assist each
other with school
work
Institutional
structure
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
you the orphans with emotional skills.
Mom emotional khuyini [(what is emotional skills mom)]
Lack of knowledge
Ukhuwa ngubuntu othobikileyo, ukhukwanisa ukhuhlala labanye,
ukhukuluma khuhle labanye, uhkuzwela abanye. The emotions are
the feelings which enable you to interact with other people.
Aaa lokho singathi siyakhufunda futhi nca sihlangene labanye bona
omama hayi ukhuthi bayenza njani ukhuthi wasifundise ncakhonoko.
Liwabuze
[{I think we learn it through games just like other skills, I don’t know
133
Lack of knowledge
how our mothers do it, you can ask them?}]
How are institutional graduates coping in the community?
[If one passes its fine you work for yourself] [like others who come to
see us here they were once here but now they are working they assist
us]. But abanye kuyawabhedhela[(life is difficult for other graduates)].
Any questions ….. if there are no questions can I take this
opportunity to thank you for your participation
Thank you
Clapping of hands and whistling
134
Cognitive skills
measure success
positive outcomes
Role modeling
Negative outcomes
APPENDIX
K
INTERVIEW RESPONSES FROM AN INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE
KEY
Bold
:
Interviewer
( )
:
Translation into English from Ndebele
{ }
:
Translation into English from Shona
[ ]
:
Coding range
****
:
greetings, introductions, confidentiality and consent.
Graduates interviews
*****
What is socialization?
[socialization is the upbringing of the child,] its only that [for orphans]
its [in the institution until the orphan graduates], [with caregivers
caring for you]. [They cook, clean, and wash for orphans. Caregivers
sometimes bath young orphans but most of the time is the other girl
orphans who bath, clean carry these young orphans girl orphans also
ion for these orphans].
Definition of
Socialization
method
Parental
responsibility
How are institutional families, roles and culture structured and
established?
[Institutional families are made by administrators and caregivers. The
institutional family consists of boys and girls from young ones to old
ones].
[Institutional family is made of up to 20 orphans]. [Caregivers are incharge of the institutional families. The caregivers cook, clean and bath
young orphans as well as wash clothes for young orphans].
Institutional family
Structure
Institutional family
ratio
Caregivers parental
roles
Which culture do institutional caregivers use or refer to when
socialising orphans?
[There is no specific culture the caregivers can refer to anything,
no specific culture.
Ndebele, or Shona culture][ but most they use the Bible].[The
Christian values
institutions are mostly guided by the institutions objectives and mission Mission statements
statements].
135
How do institutional caregivers socialize orphans with attachment
skills?
This is the [responsibility of caregivers they are the ones who are
supposed to take care of orphans from the day the orphan arrives at the
institution. There is too much work for caregivers, caregivers cook,
clean and wash for the young orphans and are not always available
when need arises like bathing the young orphans] [girl orphans take
care mostly for the young orphans].
.
Caregivers
responsibilities
Duties delegated
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with social skills?
[This is usually done through games, church social gatherings, sports
and drama. An orphan learns a lot on how to interact, communicate
and negotiate with other children, elders, or caregivers by so doing you
will be equipped socially].
Socializing method
Lack of caregivers
participation.
How are the games arranged and who does the plan of play?
[Young orphans play on their own whilst older orphans play alone.
This is because we play different games, which young ones might not
like].
Different games for
different age groups
Do the games involve caregivers?
[Aaaaa no, no not at all]. [Caregivers will be busy doing their work. If
the caregivers come and play who will do the work they are paid for?
No one].
Lack of
participation by
caregivers.
Caregivers
regarded as
employees
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with emotional skills?
[Moral skills are socialized through teachings from caregivers] and
[through games, and social gatherings. Caregivers teach us on how to
behave be it within the institution or when among other people. We are
also taught about HIV and AIDS by caregivers].
Caregivers
participation
Other methods of
socialization of
moral skills
Moral skills from
caregivers
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with cognitive skills?
[Every orphan has a chance of going to school]. [It’s unfortunate some
136
Schools and
fail and some pass that’s life]. [I think every skill is learned faster and
easily during the social gatherings, I don’t know but that’s what I
think]. [During the games one is forced to reason and follow orders as
a result you are exposed to thinking].
Cognitive learning
Outcomes of
socialization of
cognitive skills
Personal view
Relationship of
social, moral and
cognitive skills
Which role do the institutional caregivers play when socializing
orphans with social skills?
[I don’t think I really experienced any games which taught me
emotional skills. What I would say is emotional skills must be taught
from the institutional caregivers behavior, and orphans observe and
learn]. However a situation where [institutional caregivers do not show
empathy towards each other or orphans leaves a lot to be desired. This
will make orphans learn not to care about other peoples’ feelings].
Suggestion on
socialization of
emotional skills
caregivers negative
role modeling on
emotional skills
How are you as an institutional graduate coping in the
community?
[ Life is good]. [It has got its challenges but I am coping]. [God guides
my feet]. Although [I don’t forget where I belong, the institution]. I
[sometimes visit them] [they made my cake for the wedding. I always
go back to talk to young ones in the institution][ (ngiwaphathele)
something anything that I know it’s of use in the institution] (take
some goodies for them).
positive outcome
reality orientation
Christian
orientation
Sense of belonging
Ability to visit
Role modeling
Offer assistance
How did you manage to be like this?
[What I learnt is that life is not easy when parents die] but it was more
difficult when no relative wanted to stay with us we were moved out of
the parents house]. [I was grade seven being the first born in a family
of four]. [I saw that yaa I had to be strong the only thing I prayed for
was that our relatives, my father’s brothers would not sell the house. so
when I went to the institution I didn’t waste time when others were
enjoying themselves [I stuck with my books and I passed so I did my
course and now I am employed] [I have taken my brother out and I am
staying with him he goes to school. I run my business and I own
another house. I have two cars all because I don’t want to waste time. I
am happily married , I look after my family. I want them to enjoy
every moment I am with them. I don’t want to die of aids like my
parents so I am satisfied with my wife].
If you were in charge of an institution how would you manage
institutional socialization of orphans?
137
Reality orientation
Self determination
Broken kinship
relations
Disadvantages of
being young
Insight of the
situation
Individual
characteristics
Excelled in
cognitive skills
Positive outcomes
[I would focus on the emotional development because it kills the
person inside and no one knows what’s happening to you. Especially if
parents die when you are older like ten years. You know how your
parents were and how they treated and fend for you].[ As u come to the
institution it becomes difficult. Also u know that you don’t belong here
but because of circumstances and the fact that you are young you agree
to anything you have no say in how people treat you]. [Caregivers
should not blame children on the misfortune. The other thing is there
should be caregivers who understand the psychological part of the
human development with positive personalities themselves the
government should not higher caregivers because there is no one] I
prefer a situation where caregivers are few but they know what they
are doing. If possible let [psychologists be involved] in these
institutions also.
I have reached the end of the interview, is there anything else you
would want to say
No
Thank you will let you know how the research went.
Bye
Bye
138
Importance of
emotional skills
Life changing
situations
Caregivers should
be equipped with
psychological
understanding
Involvement of
psychologists