[M01] Meaning analysis
Being able to think clearly is the central component of critical thinking. In order to answer a question or
evaluate a claim, we have to know what the question or the claim means. In order to communicate precisely
and to avoid misunderstanding, we need to watch out for vagueness or ambiguity. Of course, there are
plenty of contexts where clarity and precision are unnecessary, or even undesirable. Many jokes and
poems, for example, exploit the ambiguity of language. Sometimes we might also offer vague promises in
order to give ourselves flexibility. But there are many situations where it is particularly important to be able
to think clearly and to analyze meaning:
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In dealing with many abstract issues, often the first task is to clarify the relevant key terms or
concepts. For example, to find out whether Asian values are incompatible with human rights, we
have to explain what exactly is meant by "Asian values" and "human rights".
The development of science involves the introduction of new scientific theories and concepts. We
need to give these concepts adequate definitions in order to know how they can be used in
scientific explanations and predictions.
Society requires rules and regulations for the coordination of behavior. A good set of rules should
be formulated clearly to avoid and resolve disputes, and so that people know what is expected of
them.
Good communication skills involve being able to convey messages with the right meaning, and
being able to understand the meaning of what has been said, or left unsaid.
[M02] Using and evaluating definitions
M02.1 Introduction
Lack of clarity in meaning can hinder good reasoning and obstruct effective communication. One way to
make meaning clearer is to use definitions. We might divide definitions into four kinds. Let us look at them
one by one.
M02.2 Reportive definition
A reportive definition is sometimes also known as a lexical definition. It reports the existing meaning of a
term. For example, the definition of "prime number" is any integer divisible only by 1 and itself. A
reportive definition should capture the correct usage of the term that is defined.
But how do we know what the correct meaning of a term is? Many people think that a dictionary is an
authoritative guide to reportive definitions. This is actually a misconception, for various reasons.
First, many words in the language are difficult, if not impossible to define. This includes for example color
words which we learn from examples. A dictionary might explain "red" as the color of ripe tomatoes, but
obviously this is not what "red" means. "Red" does not mean blue even if all tomatoes suddenly were to
become blue when they ripe. Explaining 'red' as 'a certain shade of color' is of course not enough to
distinguish the color red from other different colors.
Also, the main aim of a general dictionary is often to give enough indication of the main usage of a word so
that a speaker can use the word adequately in everyday life. Because of the limitation of space the
definitions might not capture adequately the exact meanings of words. For example, the Pocket Oxford
Dictionary of Current English defines "religion" as "belief in a superhuman controlling power." Suppose a
scientist discovers that there are evil but superhuman aliens on Mars who created us and control our
destiny. The scientist would then believe in the existence of a superhuman controlling power. But if this
scientist does not worship or submit to these beings, surely this does not mean she has a religion in the
usual sense of the term.
Finally, many technical words, such as "microwave", "hyper-inflation", and "a priori" are used in rather
specialized ways. The entries in a general language dictionary might not be accurate enough when it comes
to such terms. In such cases you should consult a special dictionary for the particular discipline in question.
M02.3 Stipulative definition / Precising definition
A stipulative definition is not used to explain the existing meaning of a term. It is used to assign a new
meaning to a term, whether or not the term has already got a meaning. If the stipulative definition is
accepted, then the term is used in the new way that is prescribed.
A precising definition might be regarded as a combination of reportive and stipulative definition. The aim
of a precising definition is to make the meaning of a term more precise for some purpose. For example, a
bus company might want to give discounts to old people. But simply declaring that old people can get
discounts will lead to many disputes since it is not clear how old should one be in order to be an old person.
So one might define "old person" to mean any person of age 65 or above. This is of course one among
many possible definitions of "old".
Or consider a situation where two people are arguing whether animals such as birds or apes possess
language. To resolve this dispute, we need to be more precise as to what is meant by "language". If by
"language" we refer to any system of communication, then obviously birds and other animals do make use
of languages. On the other hand, "language" might be used in a different sense, requiring a combinatorial
syntax and semantics, allowing a user of the language to communicate information about non-existent
objects or situations remote in time and space from the location of discourse. Used in such a way, the
communication system of some animals might not qualify as a language. This example illustrates the use of
precising definitions to resolve disputes that involve some key concepts whose meanings might not be clear
enough.
M02.4 Persuasive definition
A persuasive definition is any definition that attaches an emotive, positive or derogatory meaning to a term
where it has none. For example, someone against abortion might offer the definition of "abortion" as the
murder of an innocent person during pregnancy. This definition carries a negative connotation, as the term
"murder" suggests that abortion is wrongful killing, and it also assumes that the aborted fetus is already a
person. Such a definition is surely not appropriate in a fair debate on the moral legitimacy of abortion, even
though it might be useful as a rhetorical tool.
M02.5 Evaluating definitions
The criteria for evaluating definitions depends on the kind of definition we are considering. With reportive
definitions, it is important that the definition provided correctly captures the usage of the term that is
defined. In particular, this means that the definition should be neither too wide (or too broad) nor too
narrow.
In giving a stipulative definition, since we are introducing a new meaning, the question of whether the
definition is too broad or too narrow does not arise. But it is important that the definition should avoid
circularity (using the word in the definition), inconsistency (contradicting itself), and obscurity (being
unclear).
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Exercises
Evaluate the following definitions. For each definition, state whether it is inconsistent,
circular, persuasive, too obscure, too narrow, too wide, or without defects, and then
explain why.
1) A gun is any device that shoots a projectile.
2) Physics is the systematic study of objects, processes and properties that are
physical in nature.
3) "Girl" refers to any young female human being.
4) Philosophy is the light that shines upon the dark corners of knowledge.
5) A religion is a fairy tale used for indoctrinating the uneducated.
6) To discriminate a person is to treat that person wrongly without good justification.
7) A cat is a small soft-furred four-legged domesticated animal.
8) To swim is to propel the body through water with limbs, fins, or tail.