WORDS OF LATIN AND GREEK ORIGIN IN THE SCIENTIFIC
PROSE STYLE (THE FIELD OF HISTORY)
Diplomová práca
LUCIA STRUHÁROVÁ
ŽILINSKÁ UNIVERZITA V ŽILINE
FAKULTA PRÍRODNÝCH VIED
Vedúci diplomovej práce : Mgr.Zdenka Kráľová, PhD.
Konzultant : PaedDr. Marta Kadorová
Komisia pre obhajoby : Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry
Stupeň odbornej kvalifikácie: magister
Dátum odovzdania práce: 2006-04-15
ŽILINA 2006
CONTENTS
Introduction……………………………………………………………………..4
1. AN OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE………………………………………………………………..6
1.1 Pre-history period………………………………………………………..6
1.2 Old English Period……………………………………………………….7
1.3 Middle English Period…………………………………………………...9
1.4 Modern English Period…………………………………………………11
2. THE INFLUENCE OF CLASSICAL LANGUAGES ON THE
ENGLISH VOCABULARY……………………………………………....15
2.1 New words of classical origin in English ...……………………………15
2.1.2 Affixes…………………………………………………………...15
2.1.3 Compounds ……………………………………………………..16
2.2 Greek and the Greek alphabet…………………………………………..17
2.2.1
Greek affixes …………………………………………………...17
2.2.2
Greek numerals…………………………………………………19
2.3 Latin and the Latin alphabet …………………………………………...21
2.3.1
Latin affixes ……………………………………………………21
2.3.2
Latin numerals …………………………………………………23
2.3.3
Latin abbrevations……………………………………………...24
2.4 Mythology and religion ………………………………………………..26
3. THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY………………………………………..29
3.1 Basic lexicological units of speech …………………………………….30
4. STYLE OF LANGUAGE……..…………………………………………..32
4.1 Functional styles ……………………………………………………….32
4.1.1
Scientific prose style……………………………………………34
4.2 Science …………………………………………………………………37
4.2.1
Medicine………………………………………………………...37
4.2.2
Botany ………………………………………………………….38
4.2.3
Zoology…………………………………………………………39
4.2.4
Astronomy………………………………………………………39
4.2.5
Pharmaceutics and Chemistry………………………………….40
5. INTERFERENCE OF GREEK AND LATIN IN THE FIELD OF
HISTORY………………………………………………….………………41
5.1 The investigation ……………………………………………………….41
5.1.2
Words from the period of Antiquity…………………………….45
5.1.2.1 Semantic aspect …………………………………………..45
5.1.2.2 Morphological aspect …………………………………….48
5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning ………………………………………….50
5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect ……………………………………...52
5.1.2.5 Etymological aspect ……………………………………...54
5.2 Interpretation of particular results ……………………………………...55
Conclusion ….………………..………………………………………………..57
Résumé………….…………………………..………………………………….59
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...61
Appendix ...…………………………………………………………………….63
Introduction
A language presents the highest form of communication and its value is obvious.
The history and wealth of different nations has remained in great works from such fields
as literature, history, art, music, science and many other spheres of human life.
English speaking countries had and still possess the great power in the world and
therefore English has spread to all the continents, especially in the last several hundred
years.
By reason that a language is a dynamic system, various languages have
influenced each other during their historical development. The English language is not
an exception. The greatest changes have been made in its vocabulary system that has
accepted a lot of new words from other languages. On the other hand, English has also
enriched word-stock of many different languages through English borrowings.
Two main languages that have played an important role within the English
language development are Greek and Latin. Consequently this work pays attention to
these classical languages and is divided into the following five main chapters:
1. An outline of the development of the English language
2. The influence of classical languages on the English vocabulary
3. The English vocabulary
4. Style of language
5. Interference of Greek and Latin in the field of history
The first chapter indicates the English language development with the emphasis
on Latin and Greek and their interference on the English vocabulary. As English has
absorbed words from these classical languages through all its existence and
development, there is applied the influence of classical languages, and partly of other
languages, from the very beginning i.e. from the times of the first civilisations to
today’s Modern period.
The following second chapter deals with classical affixes and bases as they also
helped the English language to extend. Moreover, several Latin abbreviations are
presented as they are extensively used in the written form of English.
The work continues with the composition of layers of the English vocabulary.
Because this chapter also deals with the problem of lexical units named words and
terms, the distinction between them is implied.
A list of functional styles and their descriptions, particularly of the scientific
prose style is presented in the fourth chapter. The examples of terms of Greek and Latin
origin are present within more fields of science.
The last fifth chapter deals with the main concern of this work - the study of
words of Latin and Greek origin in the scientific prose style in the field of history.
At first the investigative method will be applied for revealing the origin of English
words. Moreover, there will be implied several approaches for categorizing of words of
classical origin as comparative, etymological, morphological and lexicological. A
sample of words covering the ten pages will serve as a basis for futher statistics that will
be used to see the influence of Latin and Greek within the period of Antiquity. Its
particular results can be observed from corresponding graphs. Moreover, graphical
illustrations can also be found in the chapters 5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning and 5.1.2.4
Lexicological aspect.
1. An outline of the development of the English language
English, like other languages, has been shaped through many centuries. It has
been exposed to various changes during this long process. Any epoch of the language
development has gone along with variations in vocabulary, spelling or pronunciation.
Althought English belogs to the Indo-European family of languages this common
ancestor is not the only factor that influenced today’s form of English. Some language
changes have arisen as the direct result of the social situation, invasions, mixtures of
tribes, migrations, wars, contacts with different nations.
Apparently, the English language has been modified from one generation to
another. Then it is appropriate to look at English from the diachronical point of view
and begin with the historical development of the English language.
There exist several time divisions of the English language development.
According to Donald (1980, p.7) we recognize three main periods in the history of
English:
Old English Period
(450 - 1150)
Middle English Period
(1150 - 1500)
Modern English Period
(1500 - )
1.1 Pre-history period
Britain is an island, but this was not always true. It became one of the
world-wide islands only after the last ice age, around 5000 BC. Its name “comes from
the word “Petrani”, the Creco-Roman word for the inhabitants of Britain.” (McDowall,
1997, p.8)
Probably the first people living in Britain were humans that appeared about
250,000 BC - during the warmer period of the Ice Age.
Within following Stone and early Bronz Ages, non-Indo-European people
inhabited the British Isles. Firstly, groups of fishers, hunters, gatherers started to settle
down and occupied Britain. Later, around 3000 BC, Neolithic people came to Britain
from Europe (Iberian peninsula or North African coast) and started to implement their
way of life including various knowledges, techniques, ideas and methods. After several
hundred years, the cultural life of Neolithic Britons was enriched by the arrival of new
groups of people, called the “Beaker” people. They came to Britain after 2400 BC from
Europe and they brought single culture, language (probably Indo-European) and new
skills (bronze tools). As Britain attracted various human races more and more, the
language of these prehistoric inhabitants was completely wiped out and replaced by a
new language and culture. This happened at the time, when a new kind of
Indo-European settlers, important ancestors in the British history - technically advanced
Celts, came to Britain probably from central Europe or southern Russia, around 700 BC.
Similarly, the Romans began to conquest British Isles in the first century AD.
They brought reading together with writing skills to Britain and so Latin began to be
used in writing and speech. But it was only the language of rich landowners and
dwellers who spoke also Greek. Illiterate peasants still used Celtic language.
Later, German invaders from northern Europe conquered a great part of today’s
England and started to settle after AD 430. They were illiterate and came from three
powerful Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
1.2 Old English Period
(450 - 1150)
The period of Old English began in the fifth century AD when the Anglo-Saxons
invaded Britain. Before their arrival, various Latin words had enriched their language as a result of the Roman domination over Germany. Therefore when Angles and
Saxons came to England their vocabulary already included some borrowed words that
mostly referred to trade, warfare and agricultural products as e.g. : straet (street), ciese
(cheese), butere (butter), win (wine), cuppe (cup), pund (pound), copor (copper), pipor
(pepper). The name of the first tribe, the Angles, served as a basis, from which names
representing their language, Englisc, and their new home, Engla-land, were derived.
“The strength of Anglo-Saxon culture is obvious even today. Days of the week
were named after Germanic gods: Tig (Tuesday), Wodin (Wednesday), Thor
(Thursday), Frei (Friday).” (McDowall, 1997, p.11). Moreover, the Germans
established settlements and towns such as Birmingham, Nottingham or Southampton.
Also some of Anglo-Saxon names denoting kingdoms Essex, Sussex, East Anglia,
Middle Essex, Wessex still exist in the present days. The word aldermen, which was
used to refer to local officials, can also be found in the present English vocabulary.
During the Anglo-Saxon domination, the manorial system gently grew up and the
society started to be divided into classes.
The period from the sixth to the eight century had also visible influence on the
English vocabulary. Missionaries from Rome settled down in Canterbury and spread
their new faith, Christianity, through the country. Learning and culture flourished and
number of monasteries was set up. During this period new objects, concepts, ideas were
introduced by Christianity and so words from Latin and Greek came into English and
became quickly domesticated e. g.: altar, angel, anthem, apostle, bishop, candle,
church, clerk, devil, idol, martyr, mass, minster, monk, pope, priest, prophet, psalter,
rule, school, temple. Latin influenced not only the language of education and Church
but also everyday life beet, camel, cancer, cap, elephant, elm, fever, plant, plaster, sock,
spend, turn. It should be noted that number of “Latin words taken over by Old English
was relatively small, certainly smaller than that which was taken over from Latin by
many other European languages at that period.” (Vachek, 1991, p.98)
Moreover, it should not be forgotten that the Romans had in hands a great
power over large British areas for several hundred years. They provided words of
everyday living cytel (kettle), disc (dish), pyle (pillow) into the English vocabulary
during that period. Soon they established their own culture and their land, Roman
Britain, was represented by their towns. Some of these towns grew out of Celtic military
camps. Even today there exist some city names e.g. Doncaster, Chester, Leicester,
Gloucester, Winchester, Colchester that consist of the Latin term, castra (military
camp).
The British Celts were driven away and many of them became slaves of AngloSaxons. So they left extremly small number of words that were adopted to the English
vocabulary. There were very few Celtic borrowings as cradol (cradle), cross (cross),
cursian (curse), binn (bin).
The majority of words of the Celtic origin represent names of some cities York,
Downs, London, Leeds and rivers Exe, Esk, Avon, Evan, Thames, Dover, Stour,
Severn, Usk, Ux. Also names of kingdoms were derived from the Celtic language Kent,
Deira, Bernicia. Moreover, Latin terms colonia (settlement for retired soldiers), vicus
(village) or portus (port) were part in the Celtic place names as e.g. Colchester,
Norwich, Woolwich, Bridport, Devonport.
Towards the end of the eight century new invaders from Norway and Denmark,
called Vikings, had been attacking Britain several times. Nowaday capital city of
Ireland, Dublin, was founded by them. According to McDowall (1997, p.15) the word,
Vikings, probably meant either “pirates” or “the people of the sea inlets”.
Later they settled, lived together with the Anglo-Saxons and quickly accepted
Christianity. Their language, Old Norse, also marked English. Scandinavian words
were quickly domesticated, because of the close relationship between Old English and
Old Norse.
The political situation of those days caused that only a few of Scandinavian
loanwords penetrated into the English vocabulary. Many of first loan-words that were
absorbed by English dealt with military and legal fields such as battle, fellow, fleet,
husband, knife, law. But later, a huge amount of Scandidavian words was assimilated
into the everyday usage bag, cake, call, egg, gap, gate, happy, ill, leg, loose, low, raft,
raise, score, seat, skin, skill, sky, snub, take, thrust, ugly, want, weak, window, wing,
wrong. There should be noted that many Scandinavian borrowings are recognized
thanks to letters sk- at the beginning of words as for example skin, skill, skirt, sky.
Scandinavian place names Inverness, Woodthorp, Grimsby had its origin in Old Norse.
Also the personal pronoun they and the possessive pronoun their are adapted from
Scandinavian.
1.3 Middle English Period
(1150 - 1500)
The greatest event that played an important role not only in the British history
but also in the history of the English language development was the arrival of Norman
French and the Norman Conquest. These events marked the beginning of the new
Middle English Period. In 1066, Duke of Normandy defeated the Saxon army with its
leader Harold in the well-known Battle of Hastings. Soon, Duke William and his
people became representatives of the rulling class. Most of Anglo-Saxon lands passed to
the Norman barons and they started to occupy important posts in church, army,
government, law. These facts greatly affected the new period of the English language
history that followed.
Both languages, English and French were used simultaneosly, one by the upper
and one by the lower class. English was spoken by peasants, whereas Norman French
became the official language of Britain used by aristocracy, nobility. English and
French had only a slight influence on each other at the beginning of these times.
The French language was the official language of the administration for almost
three hundred years and its words penetrated into various spheres of human life. This
fact is obvious in a variety of words that stretched the English vocabulary at that times
e.g. allow, autumn, boil, change, cover, double, enjoy, enter, face, flower, joy, letter,
manner, nice, occupy, pale, plate, please, river, search, supper, sure, table, travel, use.
The earliest French borrowings were prisun (prison), castel (castle), were
(war). Later terms from administration and government administration, authority,
chancellor, council, country, court, crown, government, office, parliament, power, state
were added to the English vocabulary.
Various titles denoting nobilities baron, count, countess, duke , feudal, manor,
noble, peer, prince and words connected with art, architecture and entertainment arch,
beauty, cards, castle, cellar, chimney, colour, couch, curtain, dance, design, image,
lamp, leisure, paint, palace, pleasure, porch, sport, table, trump came into English from
the French language.
The sphere of military was enriched by words as aid, armour, arms, army,
battle, captain, company, defeat, dragoon, enemy, escape, force, lance, navy, officer,
peace, sergeant, siege, soldier, troops, vessel, victory.
New words appeared also in the religion abbey, archangel, Bible, clergy,
Creator, chapel, chaplain, charity, divine, glory, miracle, paradise, passion, pray,
preach, religion, sacrifice, saint, Saviour, service, Trinity, vice, Virgin, virtue
and also in the field of law accuse, acquit, attorney, case, court, crime, damage, false,
guilt, heir, interest, jury, justice, marriage, money, penalty, poverty, rent, session.
Normans maintained the class system that was partly developed by AngloSaxons. Feudal duties were established during the reign of Duke William.The term
feudalism has its origin in the french word feu that according to Scots Law meant “a
right to the use of land, houses, etc in return for payment of feu-duty, a fixed annual
payment.” <http:// www. onelook. com>
Considerable phenomenon is the usage of different terms when reffering to
domestic animals on the one hand and on the other hand to meal prepared from that
animals. The names of animals became from Old English that was used by peasants –
cows, sheep, swine, ox, calf, bear, deer – whereas meals were represented by words of
the French origin – mutton, beef, pork, veal, bacon, venison.
Later, English and French were mingled and spoken both at the same time. So
as French aristocrats learned and picked up some English words, uneducated classes
used borrowed words from French in the current speech. As people had the knowledge
of both these languages, they started to merge them into the one English language.
Therefore the English vocabulary was greatly enriched. Then it is hardly surprising to
come across synonyms such as e.g. begin (English origin) and commence (French
origin), conceal-hide, odour-smell, desire-wish, happiness-felicity.
There should be mentioned that Latin existed and represented mainly the
language of Church and schools, i.e. the language of educated people, at those days.
Famous universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were established. Latin was also used in
fields such as philosophy or science.
1.4 Modern English Period
(1500 - )
The period of Modern English started around the year 1500 and has lasted until
the present days. During this period, Renaissance, an important intellectual movement
from Italy began to spread. All aspects of everyday life started to recover slowly after
hard times and declensions in the population, plague “Black Death”, hundred years war
between France and England, starvation, high prices. The period of Renaissance can be
characterized “by the rapid advance of the sciences, a renewal of interest in the Greek
and Roman classics, the rise of nationalism, and by such events as the Protestant
Reformation, the invention of the printing press, and the discovery of the New
World.”(Donald, 1980, p.10)
It is evident that Latin and Greek loanwords penetrated into the English
vocabulary and into various branches of human life not only in the two previous
mentioned periods, but also in the period of Modern English.
Classical loans from such spheres as theatre, literature and rhetoric affected the
cultural life not only of the English people. “At that time, writers all over Europe try to
imitate, as closely as possible, the language and style of distinguished Latin authors.”
(Vachek, 1991, p.104). At this point it must be emphasized that the names of nearly all
literary genres and their related terms are of Greek (or Latin) origin e.g. amatory,
biography, bucolic, comedy, drama, elegy, encomium, novel, ode, oration,
encyclopedia, epic, epigram, epistolary, epitome, fable, fiction, poetry, prose, romance,
satire, tradegy. This is also the case with poetic and rhetorical terms as alliteration,
anacoluthon, anaphora, aposiopesis, apostrophe, ellipsis, euphony, hyperbole, irony,
metonymy, oxymoron, pleonasm, simile, synecdoche, zeugma and others.
The borrowings from classical languages as accomodation, anticipate,
apostrophe, contradictory, exact, explain, fact, monopoly, reliance, submerge can be
found in literary works of William Shakespeare or Thomas Moore.
Other fields that adopted terms from classical languages were politics, law and
other related fields censor, compete, confiscate, delict, negotiate, politics, proletarian.
Some loans that are hard to classify according to specific areas were absorbed
into the everyday English language aborigines, colony, comic, culminate, depopulate,
dialect, enthusiasm, epoch, erace, gradual, hesitate, immigrate, implicate, indignant,
intelligent, introduce, opponent, relaxation, relevant, peninsula, perforate, persist,
regulate, secure, sporadic and many others.
The rapid progress of various branches of science in the last hundred years has
caused the growing amount of Latin and Greek scientific terms in the English language
such as acid, analysis, antenna, appendix, atom, axis, contemplate, diagnosis, diagram,
exist, formula, function, maximum, method, minimum, nucleus, phenomenon, rabies,
radius, skeleton, species, spectrum, theory.
The new terms that expanded the English vocabulary were not only loanwords
from classical languages. Many terms were coined by various combinations of Latin
and Greek elements and words such e.g. encyclopaedia, protestant, telepathy,
telegraph, telescope were created. This process still continues, especially in the field of
several branches of science e.g. allergy, antibiotic, chromosome, cyclotron,
kleptomania, leukemia, orthopedic, protein, protoplasm, psychiatry, schizophrenia. The
combination of classical elements may be realized by combining the Greek roots only as
allergy, antibiotic, hormones, protein, stratosphere, telephone or new Latin terms are
produced by combination of only Latin roots facsimile, introvert, quantum, radioactive,
relativity. Composite words that contain the Latin together with the Greek root as e.g.
sociology, television, petroleum, claustrophobia, automobile are known as hybrids.
The English vocabulary was marked not only by Latin and Greek, but also
distinct languages and cultures touched the English language. Dutch, Italian, Spanish,
German, Portuguese, Slavonic and others influenced English gently, thanks to trade,
art, architecture, politics, music and many other spheres of human life.
Military and nautical terms represent e.g. (Italian) alarm, cartridge, colonel,
firm, pistol, squadron, (Spanish) armada, barricade, breeze, cannibal, cargo, embargo,
escapade, flotilla, (Dutch) bowline, buoy, cruise, deck, dock, keel, skipper, (French)
brigade, corps, marine, police, reconnaissance.
Also fields as architecture and art absorbed various words (Italian) balcony,
cupola, loggia, (Dutch) easel, landscape, sketch, (French) ballet, ensemble, essay,
genre.
Field of music was mainly influenced by the Italian language aria, bass, canto,
cello, concert, duet, finale, piano, replica, sonata, sonnet, solo, soprano, stanza, tenor,
violin. Many terms of the Italian origin penetrated into the English vocabulary through
French.
Some English terms denoting fashion and food also came from other languages
as (Italian) macaroni, pizza, vermicelli, (French) blouse, champagne, chemise, corsage,
cravat, menu, soup.
The discovery of the New World caused contacts with different new objects,
ideas, cultures, changed the style of living. Variety of words enriched the English
vocabulary and some of them became used in everyday life (Italian) canteen, barrack,
manage, pilot, (Spanish, Portuguesse) amok, banana, canoe, cafeteria, chocolate,
cigar, cocoa, maize, mandarin, mosquito, mulatto, negro, pilot, ranch, sherry, teak,
tobacco, tomato, (German) kindergarten, lebensraum, plunder, stroll, waltz, (French)
ball, café, coguette, cortege, detail, hotel, machine, moustache, picnic, progress,
restaurant, ticket.
Finance, commerce and industry adopted terms as (Italian) ducato, florin,
million, (German) cobalt, nickel, zinc.
Also Czech (robot), Russia (Lunik, sputnik, Soviet, steppe, vodka, troika), India
(bungalow, jungle, jute, khaki, loot, punch, pyjamas, yoga, thug) and American Indians
(moccasin, opossum, skunk, tomahawk, wigwam) borrowed its terms to English.
Everyday words as e.g. check, divan, pajamas, tiger came from the Persian language
and terms such as admiral, caravan ,cotton, sirup, sash, sofa from Arabic.
Moreover, the English language absorbed words from such languages as
Greenland Inuit (anorak), Hawaiian (hula), Finnish (sauna), Africaans (aardvark),
Chinese (kung fu), Japanese (kimono), Malay (ketchup), Australian Aboriginal (dingo),
Tahitian (tattoo), Maori (kiwi), West African (storey house).
The
considerable influence of Greek and Latin on the English language is evident from the
previous text. However, the impact of classical languages on the English vocabulary is
much greater. This fact can be observed in the following chapters.
2. The influence of classical languages on the English vocabulary
2.1 New words of classical origin in English
Greek and Latin belong to the Indo-European language family. Classical words
were absorbed into the English vocabulary either directly from Latin and Greek or by
way of French. But also many Greek terms were Latinized, it means they were adopted
to English through Latin. Moreover, the Greek language left lesser mark on the English
vocabulary than Latin.
The vocabulary is the most open part of the language system. From times of the
Old English to the Modern English period, the English vocabulary has been expanded
severalfold as a result of e.g. expansion over new lands, progress of culture and
literature as it is stated in the first chapter. Moreover, word formation processes and the
replacement of old words and meanings by new ones greatly enriched the English
language inspite the fact that many other words were lost and forgotten.
2.1.2 Affixes
One way how to form new words is by the word formation process called
affixation, in other words by adding affixes to the stem of a word. Affixes that are
attached to the beginning of a word are called prefixes. On the other hand affix forms
added to the end of a word are called suffixes.
The fact that learners of English may find the knowledge of classical affixes
beneficial is one of the reasons why this chapter also concentrates on this area. Almost
every prefix has its special meaning that can help us recognize the meaning of the whole
word, in spite we are unfamiliar with it. According to Krill (1990, p.59) some prefixes
“assume no special meaning. In such cases, the meaning of the root to which they
happened to be attached is intensified.” The recognition and classification of words into
particular word classes according to their suffixes can be another advantage. The ability
to recognize classical suffixes could also be helpful in various transformations of words
from nouns into verbs, verbs into adjectives and so on.
2.1.3 Compounds
Another word-building type that is together with conversion and affixation
among the most productive word formation processes, is so-called compounding.
Compounds were already represented by several classical examples in the chapter
1.4 Modern English Period, therefore the principle of compounding was outlined and it
is evident that “new words are produced by combining two or more stems”
(Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.104). According to Antrushina,
Afanasyeva and Morozova there exist three types of compounds. The first of them form
compounds that are combined without any linking elements as e.g. bedroom, bookcase,
film-goer, honey-moon, TV-set, T-shirt, wallpaper and are called neutral. Compounds
formed by a linking vowel or consonant such as Anglo-Saxon, handicap, spokesman
belong to the second group, called morphological compounds. The last type, syntactic
compounds, are combined by the aid of speech elements as articles, prepositions and
others, for example brother-in-law, good-for-nothing and so on.
The chapters above concentrated on two word formation processes, affixation
and compounding, in general and so the following chapters deal with Greek and Latin
affixes and bases in more detail in that they represent productive means of creation of
many English words.
2.2 Greek and the Greek alphabet
The Greeks present one of the civilizations that greatly influenced the English
language. They were wise and creative people that affected almost every sphere of their
life. The direct contact between English and Greek was developed mostly during the
period of Renaissance.
THE GREEK ALPHABET
The Greeks adapted the alphabet into their own language from their trade
partners called the Phoenicians.
Greek name



















’άλφα

βητα

γάμμα

δέλτα

’έψιλόν

ζητα
Greek name



alpha
beta















gamma


delta 


epsilon


zeta














νυ


ξι


’όμικρόν


πι


‘ρω


σιγμα


nu


xi


omicron


pi


rho


sigma
ταυ
tau

’ητα
eta


θητα
theta
 ’υψιλόν
upsilon

’ιωτα
iota
 φι
phi
 χι

 ψι
chi
 ’ωμέγα
omega
   κάππα
   λάμβδα

   μυ 
 kappa
 lambda

 mu



psi
2.2.1 Greek affixes
Several of Greek affixes are presented in the following charts. Each chart
contains either the list of prefixes or suffixes together with their meanings and
examples. Moreover, suffixes are divided into noun-, adjective- and verb – forming and
therefore lists in charts correspond to this classification.

Greek affixes and their meanings are quoted from English Words from Latin and
Greek Elements by M.A.Donald (1980). More examples of Greek affixes can be seen in
the appendix 1.
Greek prefixes
Before consonant
Before vowel
Meaning
Example
α’-
a-
an-
not, without
anarchism, atheist
anti-
ant-
against, opposite
antithesis,
antihistamine
δυς-
dys-
dys-
eu-
evhyper-
bad, disordered,
dyspepsia,
difficult
dyslexia, dysfunction
good,well
euphoric, euphemism
hyper-
above, excessive,
over
hyperactive,
hypersomy
hypersensitive
μετά
hypo-
hyp-
under, below
hypogeal, hypothesis
meta-
met-
after, beyond,
metabolism,
change
metaphysics
Greek suffixes
Adjective-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-al
pertaining to, like, belonging to,
hysterical, visual,
having the character of
abnormal
pertaining to, like, one concerned with
theologian, australian,
-an, -ian
academician
-ic, -tic
pertaining to, like
egoistic, geometric
-ics, -tics
art, science, study of
politics, genetics
-oid
like, having the shape of
adenoid, scleroid
-ous, -ious
full of, pertaining to, like
anonymous
Noun-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-archy
rule by
patriarchy, oligarchy
-ism
belief in, practice of, condition of
animalism,
spritualism
- ist
one who believes in, one engaged in
protagonist, specialist
-logy
science of, systematic study of
kynology, mycology
-t, -te
he who, that which
militant
-y, -ia
quality of, state of, act of
cheesy, leukemia
Verb-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-ize (-ise)
to make, to do something with,
specialize, criticize
to subject to
verbalize, sensitize
2.2.2 Greek numerals
As roots of English compounds may be represented by different word classes,
various words may also be produced by combining parts of Greek words representing
numerals with English ones. In that there exist a huge amount of such words and
because they do not belong to one particular area only, they are commonly used in
almost every branch of science. Therefore they can also be found in the scientific prose
style dealing with the field of history.
Greek
‘έν (μόνος)
Cardinal numeral
hen (monos)
English meaning
one, single
Base
hen-, mon-
Example
monarch
dyo
two
dy-
dyadic
τρεις
treis
three
tri-
triangle
τέσσαρες
tessares
four
tetr(a)-
tetrarchy
τέτταρες
tettares
four
tetr(a)-
tetraatomic
πέντε
pente
five
pent(a)-
pentagon
‘έξ
hex
six
hex(a)-
hexagon
‘επτά
hepta
seven
hept(a)-
heptathlon
’οκτώ
oktō
eight
oct(a)-
octave
’εννέα
ennea
nine
enne(a)-
ennead
δέκα
deka
ten
dec(a)-
decathlon
‘εκατόν
hekaton
hundred
hect-
hectare
χίλιοι
chilioi
thousand
kil(o)-
kilometer
Moreover, there are other Greek numerical bases that are parts of English
words. For instance, the Greek word ‘ήμισυς provides the root hemi- („half“) that
could be found in such words as hemisphere, hemistich, hemistrumectomy.
The following chapter concentrates on Latin and follows similar arrangement of
chapters as the previous one dealing with Greek. Besides Latin bases and affixes, Latin
abbreviations are presented as they are largely used in the English language.
2.3 Latin and the Latin alphabet
Latin was the language of the ancient Romans. They, unlike the Greeks, were
not devoloping their own cultural life, but they were absorbing Greek literary forms and
philosophical theories. Greek and Latin were in contact during various periods in the
past. Etruscans, ancestors of Romans, were already influenced by Greek culture and
language, because Greeks kept colonies in the southern Italy.
THE LATIN ALPHABET
The English alphabet used today is basically the same as that used by the
Romans in the past. The classic Latin alphabet consisted of 23 letters:
ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTVXYZ
a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q r s t u (v) x y z
It is obvious that some Latin words or their roots are still used in different
languages, even though Latin is the language that is no more spoken. The following text
deals with the English words formed with the help of the Latin affixes that are still in
common use in English.
2.3.1 Latin affixes
There should be stated that many of suffixes which appear in Greek are found
also in Latin. The following charts present some of Latin affixes and contain quotations
of affixes and their meanings from English Words from Latin and Greek Elements by
M.A.Donald (1980). A larger list of Latin suffixes is presented in the appendix 2.
Latin prefixes
Prefix
Meaning
Example
ab-, a-, abs-
away, from
abdicate, abduct, abjure
circum-
around
circumlocution,
circumstance, circumvent
dis-, di-, dif-
extra-, extro-
apart, in different directions,
disqualify, disable,
not
disantvantage, disagree
outside, beyond
extrovert, extranet,
extraction
in-, im-
post-
in, into, against
inside, imprint
not
immortal, involuntary
after, behind
postmortal, post-war,
post-modernism
sub-, sus-, suc-
under, up from under, secretely
subaqua, subjection
super-
above, over
super-ego, superimpose
Latin suffixes
Adjective-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-able, -ible
able to be, able to, tending to
eatable, permissible
-al, -ial, -eal
pertaining to, like, belonging to
medical, equal,
natural
having the character of
surreal, dictatorial
-ant, -ent, -ient
person who, that which
arrogant, participant, absent
-ary
pertaining to, connected with,
planetary, primary,
having the character of
obituary
-ive
tending to, inclined to
passive, imaginative
-ous, -ious, -eous
full of , having the character of, like gorgeous, numerous
Noun-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-ance, -ancy
quality of –ing, state of –ing
abundance, assistance
-ary, -arium
place for
antiquary, planetarium
-ate
office of, holder(s) of the office of
delegate, directorate
-ence, -ency
quality of –ing, state of –ing
absence, confidence
-ment
result of, means of, act of, state of
unemployment, excitement
-ion
act of, state of, result of
rebellion, production
-or
state of, result of
horror
one who does, that which does
adaptor, toreador, orator
Verb-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-ate
to make, to do something with
compensate, nitrate
to subject to, to take
translate, negotiate
-(i)fic
making, causing
pacific, specific
-igate, -egate
to make, to drive
congregate, delegate
2.3.2 Latin numerals
As well as Greek numerical bases occur in some English words the same is true
with Latin numerical roots as can be seen in the chart below. These words are widely
spread and cover large areas of human interest. Therefore they are used in
miscellaneous fields of science. The scienfific prose style, area of history, also includes
such kind of words.
Cardinal numeral
ūnus, -a, -um
English meaning
one
Base
un-
Example
unicycle
duo, -ae, -o
two
du-
duel
trēs, tria
three
tri-
triacontane
quattuor
four
quadr(u)-
quadrant
quīnque
five
quint-
quintan
sex
six
sext-
sextuple
septem
seven
sept(em)-
septempartite
octō
eight
oct-
octagon
novem
nine
novem-
November
decem
ten
decem-
December
centum
hundred
cent-
centena
mīlle
thousand
mill-
millennium
There exist several other Latin numerical bases found in English. For istance, the
Latin cardinal number sēmi that means „half“ can be found in such English words as
e.g. semicircle, semicoma, semiconductive, semicular or cardinal numbers prīmus
(“first”), secundus (“second”), tertius (“third”) are used in English words such as
primacy, primal, secondary, secondo, tertiary, tertio.
Similarly the Roman numerals can be found in a number of sciences and
beacause they are also extensively used in the field of history, the most common Roman
symbols are presented in the table below. Various numerical values are produced with
different combinations of such symbols.
I=1
X=10
C=100
V= 5
L=50
D=500
M=1000
2.3.3 Latin abbrevations
When the same words are used frequently in the written form it is effective to
use abbreviations. Latin abbreviations are used so largely that it is not hard to find them
also in the scientific prose style. Abbreviations that are presented in the charts below
could be find also in the field of history.
The following Latin phrases together with their corresponding abbreviations and
English meanings are quotated from English Words from Greek and Latin in English
Today by R.M. Krill (1990).
Several Latin abbreviations and expressions are still employed in formal
writings in English. The chart below presents a few of such Latin abbreviations.
Latin Phrase
Abbreviation
Meaning
circā
ca.
approximately, around
et cētera
etc.
and other things, and so forth
exemplī gratiā
e.g.
for example
id est
i.e.
that is
notā bene
n.b.
mark well
opere citātō
op.cit.
in the work cited
post scriptum
p.s.
written after
ut dictum
ut dict.
as directed
vidēlicet
viz.
that is to say, namely
The following chart contains several examples of academic titles that are in
common use within the English language.
Latin Phrase
Abbreviation
Meaning
Artium Baccalaureus
A.B.
Bachelor of Arts
Baccalaureus Artium
B.A
Bachelor of Arts
Artium Magister
A.M.
Master of Arts
Magister Artium
M.A.
Master of Arts
Scientiae Baccalaureus
Sc.B.
Bachelor of Science
Scientiae Magister
Sc.M.
Master of Science
Jūris Doctor
J.D.
Doctor of Law
Philosophiae Doctor
Ph.D.
Doctor of Philosophy
Abbreviations are also used as a reference to various aspects of time. This fact
has a very close relation to the field of medicine where we use abbreviations as an
indication when e.g. medication should be taken.
Latin Phrase
Abbreviation
Meaning
annō Doiminī
A.D.
in the year of the Lord
ante merīdiem
a.m.
before moon
post mēridiem
p.m.
after noon
bīs in diē
b.i.d
twice a day
quāque hōrā
q.h.
every hour
māne et nocte
m. et n.
morning and night
si opus sit
s.o.s.
if necessary
Moreover, symbols representing units of English money have their origin in
Latin as for e.g. symbol for the pound sterling - £ (libra), shilling - s. (solidus),
pence - d. (denarius).
As the 1st chapter shows the English vocabulary was enriched by various
languages and fields of human activity. One of the areas that had a notable influence on
English was mythology and religion. The following chapter provides several classical
words and phrases belonging to this field.
2.4 Mythology and religion
The lines below deal shortly with the history and religion of the Greeks and the
Romans as words that belong to the field of mythology and religion could also be found
in the field of history. It is evident that any kind of faith is somehow connected with the
history. In most cases religion or mythology together with history represent inseparable
parts, one is unimaginable without the other and that is the reason why this chapter is
included in this work.
“In the area of theology Hesiod’s Theogony (Race of the Gods) composed about
700 B.C., stands as the earliest Greek work devoted strictly to their gods, the
Olympians.” (Krill, 1990, p.208). Also Greek unforgettable legends present their
supernatural gods as e.g. Zeus (the sky god), Apollo (the sun god), Aphrodite (the
goddess of love), Athena (the goddess of wisdom) and others. At that times people
believed in omens, i.e. they tried to predict future by means of various phenomena.
Words such as ominous, abominate, augurs, auspicium, monster are connected with this
kind of foretelling.
Many words from the Greek mythology possess very interesting historical
meaning. The following examples can serve as an illustration:
Chimera was a fire-breathing creature that was a mixture of three animals. It had
lion’s had, goat’s body and dragon’s trail.
Herculean is the word derived from Hercules that was the strongest hero in the
Greek mythology. The goddess Hera believed that he would die in one of the acts which
she required from him.
Labyrinth was a construction with several complicated ways. King Minos
ordered to built this structure in an ambition to imprison the Minotaur (a monster - half
man, half bull) that would eat King’s enemies placed in the labyrinth.
Odyssey was the Greek hero who is also present in Homer’s poem. After the
Trojan War Odysseus had experienced adventures accompanied by the anger of the
gods. Finally he came back to his family.
Siren was a nymph (part woman, part bird) that used a magic singing to lure
sailors and destruct them. Even though Odysseus had heard the nymph’s song he
survived, because he had been bound to his ship.
Titanic is a word connected with the word Titans that had been rulers of the
universe. These children of Earth and Heaven had been in the war with Olympian gods
that finally defeated them.
The Romans conquered a large deal of the world including Greece and spread
their language throught the Italy to their provinces and colonies. Similarly the
introduction of Christianity was the instrument of the Latin extension. It reached
various parts of Europe and became the chief religion. As was stated earlier in the first
chapter a lot of Greek words and borrowings influenced Latin at that times - the basic
language of Roman Catholic Church.
Even today people are borrowing names of famous historical personalities from
Bible. For example, when someone is a traitor we refer to him as a Judas or a
misbeliever is called a doubting Thomas.
Classical words such as animism, baptism, canonical, catholic, censorship,
communion, creation, eulogy, evangelism, evolution, hierarchy, immortality,
incarnation, inspiration, liturgy, monastery, obscene, occult, parable, prophecy,
sacrament, schism, spirituality, synagogue belong to the area of religion and
spirutalism.
The following table presents several of Latin (Greek) mottoes from biblical or
classical literature that are used in areas of government and education even today. Such
phrases usually “contain an uplifing message or espouse a virtue, such as courage, hope,
justice, truth, wisdom or knowledge.” (Krill, 1990, p.242) Others concentrates mainly
on religion.
Latin / Greek Motto
Translation
Ad majōrem Deī glōriam
To the greater glory of God.
Deī sub nūmine viget
Under the providence of God it flourishes.
In Deō spērāmus
In God we trust.
Incipit vīta nova
A new life is beginning.
ПІΣТЕІ ТΗΝ ΑΡΕТΗΝ, ΕΝ ΔΕ
Courage is your faith, but knowledge
ТНΙ ΑРΕТΗΙ ТΗΝ ГΝΩΣΙΝ
in your courage.
Vēritās Christō et ecclēsiae
Truth to Christ and the church.
The chart above contains quotations of Latin and Greek mottoes and their
translations from English Words from Greek and Latin in English Today by R.M. Krill
(1990).
It was already stated that the vocabulary of the English language has undergone
many changes. It should also be mentioned that the English vocabulary does not
represent a homogeneous system but it can be classified into layers and so the following
chapter presents such a view on the English vocabulary.
3. The English vocabulary
Elements of the English vocabulary are interrelated, interconnected and
independent. However, according to some linguists it is hard to classify the vocabulary
precisely into a system. According to Galperin (1981, p.70) the vocabulary of the
English language is divided into:
1. the literary layer
2. the neutral layer
3. the colloquial layer
These layers, except one-neutral layer, are divided into subgroups that share a
common feature within a layer, called aspect. The common words of above mentioned
layers form so-called the standard English vocabulary. The scheme of the English
vocabulary can be seen in the appendix 3.
Antrushina, Afanasyeva and Morozova (2001, p.38) refer to words that are
classed under the Galperin’s literary layer as formal and on the other hand to words
belonging to the colloquial layer as informal words.
As various languages have affected English to such an extent that borrowed
words form a dominant element in the English vocabulary, it can be said that “ ‘current’
English is a mixture of words derived from different languages at different times.”
(Wright, Hope, 1996, p.204)
According to Wright and Hope the majority of words that are used today come
back to the period of Old English. From Old English and Old Norse words representing
various word classes penetrated into the English language, for instance articles (the),
prepositions (at, up), conjuctions (and), pronouns (they, their), verbs (take, want), nouns
(battle), adjectives (happy), adverbs (almost). From such languages as Latin, Old
French, French for example adjectives (different), verbs (allow, enter) and nouns (court,
mixture) were absorbed by the English vocabulary. It is evident that words that are most
commonly used and by help of which phrases are formed - are the oldest one. This
closed class of words can be found in all kinds of texts as they form an informal or
neutral stratum of the vocabulary. On the other hand, words that have their origin in Old
French, French and Latin tend to be used in more formal styles. Moreover, words
derived from Germanic languages i.e. Old English and Old Norse are much more
shorter than the classical or French ones to which we usually refer as “long” words.
This fact can be seen in the following examples: rise (German) – mount (French) –
ascend (Latin), ask – question – interrogate. It is obvious that German words are less
abstract than French ones and simirarly French words are less abstract than Latin ones.
3.1 Basic lexicological units of speech
The aim of this work is the investigation of classical terms in the scientific prose
style, therefore the text below concentrates on the difference between two grammatical
units, terms and words.
Words are studied in a branch of linguistics called Lexicology. Before the
distinction between words and terms will be outlined, it should be pointed out that there
is no precise and sufficient definition of a word. Moreover, linguists do not agree on
several problems dealing with terms, as can be seen in the following lines.
A word can be defined as “a speech unit used for the purposes of human
communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning,
susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic
unity.” (Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.10) So the word is a grammatical
unit that functions within the sentence or its part and convey one of its meanings, it
means the word is capable of getting the new meaning. On the other hand, a term is “a
word or a word-group which is specifically employed by a particular branch of science,
technology, trade or the arts to convey a concept peculiar to this particular acitivity.”
(Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.33) In other words it can be said that in
fact all terms are words that are used within one or more fields of science, but not all
words represent terms as e.g. if they are used in the colloquial speech. In that it is
evident that terms are mainly used in the scientific prose style, thus it can be said that
terms belong to the style of the scientific language. Also terms, unlike words, can be
substituted by other terms with more simplicity. Although terms belong to special
literary vocabulary of English, as can be obvious from the appendix 3., when they
become well-known to common people they enter the neutral stratum of the vocabulary.
At this point a question whether a term loses its terminological status or not arises.
Another problem is that some linguists claim that terms should be monosemantic, but in
fact there exist not only a large number of polysemantic terms, but also terms
synonymous in their meanings.
The next chapter concentrates on the functional styles of the English language,
as the style of scientific prose represent one of them. Moreover, there are also present
some fields of human acitivity where this type of style is used.
4. Style of language
The word style is used in a variety of senses for example the life style, the style
of behaviour, painting, dancing, living, speaking, writing. It is evident that all objects
that are classified under the same kind of style share some common features e.g.
healthy life-style, diplomatic style of behaviour etc. The word style is derived from the
Latin word stilus that was used in a completely different sense as it is used in English
nowadays.
A branch of general linguistics, Stylistics, deals with spoken and written styles of
language i.e. with certain types of texts. These types of texts are called functional styles
of language. “Stylistics means the study of style, with a suggestion, from the form of the
word, of a scientific or at least a methodical study.” (Turner, 1973, p.8) There exists a
great number of heterogenous definitons of the word style in Stylistics. But all these
definitions somehow suggest that style is some kind of an individual “language” that is
used by an individual author. For instance, Vachek (1991, p.125) writes “Style we
regard as individual, unifying character which is present in any work resulting from
intentional activity.” Also Seymour Chatman provides the most frequent definition of
style and claims that “Style is a product of individual choices and patterns of choices
(emphasis added) among linguistic possibilities.”(Galperin, 1981, p.12)
Another field of investigation in Stylistics is the study of special language means
called expressive means and stylistic devices dealing with the aesthetic function of
language, synonymous ways of expression, emotional colouring of ideas, individual
manner of author’s expression etc.
4.1 Functional styles
Functional styles represent mainly a part of the standard English literary
language. The development of writing caused that English literary language was
devided into several subsystems and every one of these obtained particular features and
distinctive style of writing. A functional style of language can be characterized as “a
system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication.”
(Galperin,1981, p.33)
There exist several divisions of functional styles in language. Galperin (1981,
p.33) distinguishes 5 types of functional styles:
1. The language of belles-lettres
2. The language of publicistic literature
3. The language of newspapers
4. The language of scientific prose
5. The language of official documents
Each of the above mentioned functional styles contains several substyles. These
substyles share common features within particular functional style and moreover within
particular substyle.
Functional styles
Division
Description of a FS
1.The belles-lettres A. The language of poetry aesthetico-cognitive function,
Style
B. Emotive prose
genuine lingustic features, huge
C. The language of the amount of words with more than
drama
one meaning, personal attitude
of the author, colloquial language,
individual selection of
language means and vocabulary
2. Publicistic style
A. Oratory and speeches deep influence on recipients,
B. The essay
persuasive, coherent, logical
C. Journalistic articles
structure of utterances, emotional
words, individual style
3.Newspaper style
A. Brief news items
B. Advertisements and
announcements
C. The headline
D. The editorial
4.The style of
A. The language of
official documents business documents
B. the language of legal
documents
C. of diplomacy
D. of military documents
informative , instructive and
influential character, individual
style - specific vocabulary
use of special system of clichés,
terms and set expressions, use
of abbreviations, conventional
symbols, contractions, use of
of words in their logical
dictionary meaning, greetings,
conventional phrases,
informative in character
The table above contains the classification of functional styles and the most
important features of each style. The next chapter deals with the scientific prose style in
more detail and so this type of functional style is not present in the table.
4.1.1 Scientific prose style
The aim of the scientific prose style is “to prove a hypothesis, to create new
concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between
different phenomena, etc.” (Galperin, 1981, p.307)
According to Galperin (1981, p.34) the scientific prose style can be devided into
the following three substyles:

The language style of humanitarian sciences

The language style of “exact” sciences

The language style of popular scientific prose
Galperin (1981, p.307) says that there are several main features that characterize
the scientific prose style:
1. logical sequence of utterances
The utterances are interdependent. Scientific prose style is the one in which
the utterances are arranged in such a logical way that is hardly found in any other
functional style.
2. use of terms
Every science possesses its own terminology. However, it is possible to
find the same terms in more than one science as a result of exchanging terms among
various branches of science. Also many scientific and technical terms used outside
a particular science acquire new meanings. This process is called de-terminization.
Terms used in the scientific prose style are concise and unambiguous. It should also
be stated that there is no other field that produces new words in such extent as an
area of science. These new words are called literary coinages or neologisms. The
words naming new concepts as a result of the development of the science are called
terminological coinages. As noted in previous chapters neologisms often consist of
Latin or Greek elements.
3. sentence – patterns can be divided into the following tree types:
a) postulatory
Every scientific work is based on facts that are known and therefore need
no proof.
b) argumentative
Writer’s ideas, arguments within sentences by the help of which he sum
up the result of his investigation.
c) formulative
Formulative sentence-patterns are author’s expressed ideas that represent
theories of a principle.
4. quotations and references
Any piece of the scientific prose contain quotations that fit into the
context. “A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech
and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further
speculation on the matter in hand.”(Galperin, 1981, p.186) Quotations are
accompanied by references to authors quoted or reffered to, titles of works, places
and years works were published etc.
5. foot – notes
Foot-notes are used when some idea is connected with the context but it is
not logical to use this idea in the context because it can interrupt coherence of the
text.
6. impersonality
The science “must be ‘invariant to all observers’ and experiments, not
experimenters, were the centre of interest.” (Turner, 1973, p.181) This is one of the
reasons why the impersonal style is implied by authors of scientific works. The
impersonality is emphasized by the use of passive constructions and frequent use of
verbs as suppose, assume, conclude, point out and others. Another indicator of
impersonality is an extensive use of abstract nouns that are formed from adjectives
or verbs. Since language of science concentrates on facts therefore it must be
unemotianal, objective, factual.
It should be pointed out that there are used so called supra-phrasal units, that is
units larger than a sentence, in all the types of functional styles. For instance, a
paragraph may serve as an example of such supra-phrasal unit. “A paragraph is
a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the
beginning and a break in the line at the end.” (Galperin, 1981, p.198) There are different
requirements for the usage of the paragraph in different functional styles.
The paragraph, as a linguistic category, can be charecterized by the use of
purely linguistic means as intonation, pauses, semantic ties, etc. When the paragraph is
built on logical principles, it is used as a logical category and so there must be
coherence and unity of ideas expressed. This is the case with the scientific prose style as
it is noticeable from the beginning of this chapter. The paragraph in the scientific prose
style usually has a topic sentence that indicates the main ideas within the paragraph.
Moreover, the scientific prose style could also be found in other functional styles
and their substyles. At this point it should be stated that there is some transformation of
the style of scientific prose as it is used for special purposes wanted to be achieved in
another functional style. Therefore it is possible to use scientific language in belleslettres style or in other functional styles.
From the chart in the chapter 3.2.1 Functional styles and from this chapter it is
obvious that there are some features shared within more functional styles. For instance,
logical sequence and connectivenes of utterances within paragraphs is important besides
the scientific prose style also in the publicistic style. Or another example is the usage of
non-emotinal words in both scientific prose style and the style of official documents.
4.2 Science
Many names representing particular branches of science have their origin in
Latin or Greek as for instance philosophy, chemistry, biology, medicine and they
together with many other worldwide known words form a group of international words.
This chapter deals with several fields of science that have been influenced by
classical languages to a large extent, as it is already known that Latin and Greek have
been important languages in the developing terminology of various sciences in the past
and even today.
The charts in each chapter below contain quotations of Latin, Greek and English
phrases, bases and meanings from English Words from Greek and Latin in English
Today by R.M. Krill (1990).
4.2.1 Medicine
One of the branches of science greatly influenced by classical languages is the
field of medicine. The fact that modern medical terminology contains a great number of
words of Latin and Greek origin is not surprising as many works dealing with medical
subjects dated to ancient times have survived to this day.
Some medical examples denoting external body parts are presented in both Latin
and Greek in the chart below.
Greek
English base
Latin
English base
Meaning
πρόσωπον
prosop-
faciēs
faci-
face
στόμα(τος)
stom(at)-
ōs, ōris
or-
mouth
χειλος
ch(e)il-
labium
labi-
lip
χείρ
ch(e)ir-
manus
manu-
hand
δάκτυλος
dactyl-
digitus
digit-
finger
κνήμη
cnem-
crūs, crūris
crur-
leg
γόνυ
gon(y)-
genu
genu-
knee
It is known that Latin universal technical names are given to specific medical
conditions or diseases in the field of medicine and therefore they are used all over the
world. The following table presents several of such examples.
Latin phrase
English phrase
anorexia nervōsa
nervous loss of appetite
maculae albidae
white spots
partus caesareus
Cesarean birth
angīna pectoris
pain of the chest
encephalītis neonātōrum
brain inflammation of new-borns
4.2.2 Botany
Many classical terms are also found in the field of botany. Scientists were
interested in plants and animals and their categorizing already in the antiquity. Since the
18th century Latin has become the basic language for assigning names to plants, animals
and other subjects connected with botany thanks to scientist Carolus Linnaeus that
followed Aristotle’s scientific classifications made in Greek.
The following table presents several scientific binomial names of some specific
trees and plants.
Latin name
English name
Aeschylus hippocastānum
horse chestnut
Citrus sineenis
orange
Liriodendron tulipfera
tulip tree
Mālus pumila
apple
Abiēs balsamea
balsam fir
Pīnus resinōsa
red pine
Cholorophytum comōsum
spider plant
Begonia semperflōrēns
wax begonia
Gladiōlus psittacinus
gladiola
Narcissus incomparābilis
daffodil
4.2.3 Zoology
As there were developed several divisions of plants and trees in the field of
botany, scientists established several classifications of animals and their related topics
also in the field of zoology. Today all animals, from the smallest to the largest one, are
identified with its binomial Latin names.
The table below contains several examples of simple Latin names as well as
scientific binomial terms denoting animals.
Latin name
English name
aquila
eagle
canis
dog
tīgris
tiger
ursus, ursa
bear
Equus caballus
domestic horse
Ailuropoda melanoleuca
giant panda
Delphīnus delphis
common dolphin
4.2.4 Astronomy
Modern technologies used today did not exist in ancient times and so several
speculations and theories about the Earth and universe were established by a number of
scientists and philosphers. Already “the Egyptians and Babylonians were quite active in
the study of the stars.” (Krill, 1990, p.229)
All planets’names of the solar system have their origin in classical languages in
that they were named after Greek or Roman gods as can be seen below.
English name
Latin
Venus
Venus, Veneris
Roman god of love and beauty
Mars
Mars, Martis
Roman god of war
Uranus
Uranus
Greek sky god, personification of “heaven”
Pluto
Pluto
Roman god of the underworld
Moreover terms denoting signs of the zodiac for instance Leo, Aries, Scorpius,
Taurus have their origin in classical languages as well as names of constellations and
stars such as e.g. Aquila, Cassiopeia, Draco, Orion, Pegasus, Vulpecula.
4.2.5 Pharmaceutics and Chemistry
“Just as thousands of words unique to medicine and other sciences have entered
the English language from Greek and Latin, so also is the case with chemistry and
pharmacy.” (Krill, 1990, p.234)
Symbols denoting chemical elements are derived not from English but from their
Latin names as it is obvious from the following chart.
Latin
Abbreviation
English
argentum
Ag
silver
ferrum
Fe
iron
hydrargyrum
Hg
mercury
plumbum
Pb
lead
stannum
Sn
tin
5. Interference of Greek and Latin in the field of history
Each language is a great and complex system and so it is studied from variuos
angles by many linguistic sciences. These branches of science help people to understand
a lot of possible questions about languages as for e.g. why there exist so many
languages in the world, how they are related or why some words we use in one language
are similar or even the same in the other one. Similarly, this work might help see the
richness of the English vocabulary in that various languages have influenced each other
to such an extent that even sometimes it is impossible to specify the origin of a
particular word.
As noted earlier words of classical origin can be found in various fields within
the English language so the field of history is not an exception to this fact. The very
term history that is used in various senses and contexts has its origin in Greek. What
does this word suggest? The statement that the history can be understood as a chain of
events might be sufficient enough. The history is present in books, magazines, media
and so it has become a part of the everyday human life, althought it might happen
unconsciously. Also the fact that modern people know more about the past than ever
before is undisputed. Within a minute we can see or learn about something that in fact
lasted for several hundred years. We can witness the great transformation from the first
civilisations, through wars, revolutions, economic, cultural, political changes and life to
a modern man.
People retain their past in the form of memoirs, experiences, photographs,
letters, various objects important for them. Alike the history of religion, nations,
cultures, customs, science etc. has retained in different forms. For instance, there
remained scarce books about history of almost everything through the use of “written
word”.
5.1 The investigation
Practical part of this work consists in finding out the foreign nature of English
words. This is also the major task of the linguistic science called Etymology that studies
the origin of words. The English book of history The Western Experience served as a
material for the exploration of classical origin of English words in this field.
We may distinguish the following historical periods:
Primeval Ages
-
3000 B.C.
Antiquity
3000 B.C.
-
500
Middle Ages
500
-
1492
Modern Times
1492
-
1918
Recent Epoch
1918
-
It must be said that words of classical origin occur in large numbers in English.
For the reason that this work is limited and there is not enough space for all such words
that occur in the above mention book, the list of words presented in the appendix 4.
contains words of Latin and Greek origin from the period of Antiquity only. Words
found in the appendix 4. are presented in their basic form but for illustration their
derivations can be seen in the chapters below within the morphological aspect. The
appendix 4. is available on CD-ROM that is attached to this work.
As words of Latin or Greek origin occur in all the historical periods the
following lines show several examples of words found in other four periods:
Primeval Ages
abandon
Latin (bannum) proclamation
calendar
Latin (calendae) first day of the month
domesticate
Latin (domus) house
excercise
Latin (arcere) to restrain
fashion
Latin (facere) to make
gorilla
Greek (gorillai) name given to wild, hairy people
Homo erectus
Latin (Hom rctus) upright man
Homo sapiens
Latin (Hom sapins) wise man
irrigate
Latin (irrigare) to water
mathematics
Greek (manthanein) to learn
territory
Latin (terra) earth, land
valid
Latin (valere) be strong
Middle Ages
aggressive
Latin (aggredi) to approach, attack
Byzantine
Latin (Byzantinus) art style, later in reference to the
complex, devious, and intriguing character of the royal
court of Constantinople
discussion
Latin (discutere) dash to pieces
effect
Latin (efficere) work out, accomplish
farmer
Latin (firmus) firm
period
Greek (periodos) cycle, circuit, period of time
philosopher
Greek (philosophia) love of knowledge, wisdom
protect
Latin (protectus) protect, cover in front
qualification
Latin (qualificare) attribute a quality to
rule
Latin (regula) straight stick, standard
sacred
Latin (sacrre) sacred
theme
Greek (tithenai) put down, place
Modern Times
activity
Latin (agere) to do, set in motion, drive, urge, chase
colonist
Latin (colere) to inhabit, cultivate, frequent, practice
change
Latin (cambire) exchange
expertise
Latin (experiri) try out
impact
Latin (impactus) to push against, to push into, dash against
missionary
Latin (mittere) to send
monarch
Greek (monarkhia) absolute rule, ruling of one
occupant
Latin (occupationem) a taking possession, business
product
Latin (productus) something produced
rival
Latin (rivalis) a rival
superstition
Latin (superstitionem) prophecy, soothsaying, excessive
fear of the gods
traditionally
Latin (traditus) deliver, hand over
Recent Epoch
appeal
Latin (appellare) to accost, address, appeal to, summon,
name
balance
Latin (bilanx) scale, having two pans
chapter
Latin (caput) head
decade
Greek (dekas) group of ten
destruction
Latin (destruere) tear down
figure
Latin (fingere) make, shape
legal
Latin (lex) law
million
Latin (mille) thousand
minister
Latin (ministeri) servant, priest's assistant
rapidly
Latin (rapidus) hasty, snatching
reform
Latin (reformare) to form again, change, alter
summary
Latin (summa) whole, gist
5.1.2 Words from the period of Antiquity
The following five chapters are arranged according to the approach that is used
for the analysis of words of the classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity.
There is a sample of English words of Latin or Greek origin present in each chapter.
5.1.2.1 Semantic aspect
Each word has its own one or more meanings althought there are some words in
English that denote similar or even the same things. Words used in any language can be
classified into various semantic fields according to their meaning and relationship
among objects they represent e.g. bread, butter, wine can be classified under the
semantic field named food. Consequently the first classification of words applied is
according to the semantics of words. Words of classical origin from the period of
Antiquity are placed into several semantic groups, which names are related to human
life and interest at those times (art, education, government, religion, science). It must
also be stated that many of words are hard to classify and therefore they are placed
among general words. And on the other hand several words may belong to more than
only one semantic field.
Words sharing common features are divided into the following semantic fields:
1. art
architecture, bust, collonnade, comedy, drama, inspiration, museum, picture,
portray, prologue, style, talent, theme
2. a change of status (words denoting a change of status)
collapse, conquer, consolidate, desert, destruction, enlarge, enclose, expanded,
explosion, intrusion, locate, modify
3. education
alphabet, Aristotle, cuneiform, diameter, docile, Horace, language, letter, pi (π),
scholar, Socrates
4. general words and words hard to classify
attempt, condition, control, decision, estimate, exclusive, included, level,
movement, normal, preserve, severe, sudden, transmit
5. geographical names and objects
Athens, Babylon, delta, Egypt, lake, Macedonia, Mediterranean, Mesopotamia,
mountain, Orient, Re, river, valley
6. government
administration, court, dynasty, empire, govern, judgement, legal, military,
occupation, official, politics, province, reign, rule, state
7. land
agriculture, area, country, farming, grain, nature, province, region, street,
territory, terrace
8. man’s products
bust, channel, chant, compass, discovery, fable, invention, monument, pyramid,
sphinx, survey, stele, story, tower, villa
9. metals and currency
bronze, coin, copper, drachma, florin, metal
10. names of people or gods
Achilles, Antigone, Aphrodite, Aristotle, Cleopatra, Epicurus, Horace, Lucius,
Julius, Pericles, Pindar, Socrates, Themistocles
11. numbers, measures and words connected with them
dual, dozen, inch, million, mile, meter, unique
12. words denoting people
citizen, collector, commoner, creator, Egyptian, expert, genius, historian, human,
invander, judge, slave, Macedonian, mother, noble, parent, Roman
13. qualities and features
beauty, character, feature, fertility, honor, identical, immense, original, parallel,
particular, patience, permanent, primitive, principal, special
14. relations
adultery, commitment, compete, discussion, dispute, divorce, enemy, incest,
jealous, offend, rivalry
15. religion
creation, Christian, demon, divine, miracle, monotheism, Nike, pray,
resurrection, salvation, spirit, temple, Venus
16. science
astrology, calendar, cure, diagnosis, diameter, geography, germ, mathematics,
medicine, mythology, planet, suffix, surgery, symptom, theory, Venus
17. words denoting “something written” or “someone who writes”
almanac, biography, catalog, chapter, chronicle, document, epigram, scribe,
script, sign, testament, text
18. time
almanac, chapter, chronicle, date, era, future, interval, Lunar, millenium, minute,
November, Paleolithic, period
5.1.2.2 Morphological aspect
Words found in the period of Antiquity belong to various word classes. As it was
stated earlier there is only the basic form of words applied in the appendix 4. and so this
chapter provides a list of words that are derived from them.
According to Yule (1985, p. 60) we disthinguish the following types of
morphemes:
free morphemes

ordinary words
bound morphemes

derivational
New words are produced by means of affixation and therefore often
belong to a different word class as the word they were derived from.

inflectional
These morphemes indicate aspects of the grammatical function of
words (singular, plural, comparative, past tense and so on.)
It is worth to say that there occurs the past form of the verbs very frequently, but
it is not surprising as the investigation was made in the field of history and verbs denote
things that had happened in the past. The similar case is with the singular and plural
form of nouns.
Several examples are chosen for the illustration of all the forms of particular
basic words that can be found in the period of Antiquity. This fact is obvious from the
lines below.
Basic word
change
Derivational
Inflectional
morphemes
morphemes
exchange
(ex)changes, (ex)changed,
(ex)changing
Christ
Christian(ity), christen
Christians
connect
interconnected, connection connected, connections
constant
constantly, constancy
defeat
defeater, defeation,
defeating, defeated, defeats
defeated
defeations
Hellene
Hellenistic, (Pan)Hellenic
Hellenes
individual
individuality, individualism individuals, individualities
individualized, individually,
individualist(ic,ally)
loyal
(dis)loyalty, loyally,
loyalties
loyalist
military
militarism, militarily,
militia
militarization, militarist(ic),
militarized
rival
rivalry, unrivalled
rivals, rivalling, rivalled
slave
slavery, enslave(ment)
slaves
tyranny
tyrannical(ly),
tyrannized, tyrants
tyrannize, tyrant
5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning
Sometimes the meaning of words has remained the same from the past to the
present days and sometimes it has been changed completely. It is also the case with the
investigated words from the period of Antiquity. This chapter provides a couple of
words of classical origin for the illustration of both above mentioned possibilities.
From appendix 4. it is obvious that more words of classical origin remained their
original meanings to the present. Even some words used in English today do not mean
exactly the same as the words they are derived from, but their new meaning is
connected with their primary one logically, for example the English word advice meant
in my view in Latin.
Words with unchanged meaning:
ability
Latin (habilis) easy to manage, handy
complete
Latin (completus) fill
doubt
Latin (dubitare) hesitate, waver in opinion
fidelity
Latin (fidelitatem) faithfulness, adherence
Greek
Greek (Grakoi) a Greek
import
Latin (importare) bring in, convey
olive
Greek (elaia) olive
paradox
Greek (paradoxos) contrary to opinion
senior
Latin (senior) older
theory
Greek (theoria) contemplation, theory
Words with changed meaning:
adorn
Latin (ordo) order
amateur
Latin (amatorem) lover
calendar
Latin (calendae) first day of the month
era
Latin (aes) copper, money, bronze coin
falcon
Latin (falx) sickle
place
Greek (plateia) broad
prestige
Latin (præstigiæ) juggler's tricks
problem
Greek (proballein) propose
strategy
Greek (stratos) multitude, army, expedition, that which is
spread out
temenos
Greek (temenos) to cut
The following graph shows percentual presentation of English words that
retained their original Greek or Latin meaning to the present and on the other hand
words used in a completely different sense as the classical words they are derived from.
1 words with changed meaning
2 words with unchanged meaning
21%
79%
Fig. 1. Shift of meaning of English words
5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect
This chapter provides another point of view on words of classical origin. As it
can be seen in the appendix 4. there exist several English words that have their origin in
the same Latin or Greek word. The sample of words in the following table shows that
some English words derived from the same classical word denote completely different
things today. It should be stated this chapter does not concentrate on morphemes of
derivated English words.
The table below presents both the classical word and its meaning and English
words derived from the particular classical base (right column).
the classical word
caput
meaning
example of the English word
head
capital
chapter
chief
civis
townsman
city
civilization
finis
end
final
financial
fine
nasci
be born
nation
nature
ordo
order
adorn
ordain
order
ordinary
stare
to stand
constant
contrast
stage
state
tribus
one of the three political/
ethnic divisions of the
tribe
original Roman state
tribute
unus
one
unique
unit
videre
to see
envy
evident
revise
villa
country house
villa
villein
The major part of the graph below presents English words that are derived from
the common classical base. It means that there must be at least two English words that
are derived from the same Greek or Latin base. The other part of the graph is created by
such English words when there is only one English word derived from one classical
word.
1
words with common classical base
2
other words
18%
82%
Fig. 2. Common classical origin of English words
5.1.2.5 Etymological aspect
Words of classical origin did not appear all at the same time in the English
language and consequently the last approach consists in the grouping of words
according to the time words of Latin and Greek origin appeared and started to be used in
the English language. It should be stated that majority of words of classical origin
belonging to the period of Antiquity appeared in English in the period from the 11th to
the 19th century.
The lines below contain examples of such words that are arranged uplink
according to centuries.
13th century:
year
capital
1225
Latin ( caput) head
mayor
1297
Latin (major) large, great
Babylon
1362
Greek (Bab-ilani) the gate of the gods
genius
1390
Latin (gignere) beget, produce
prologue
1300
Greek (prologos) prologue of a play, speaker of a
14th century:
prologue
15th century:
column
1440
Latin (columna) pillar, top, summit
dynasty
1460
Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power
succumb
1489
Latin (succumbere) submit, sink down, lie under
anarchy
1539
Greek (anarkhia) lack of a leader
collect
1573
Latin (collectus) gather together 1573
1620
Latin (competere) strive in common, to come
16th century:
17th century:
compete
together, agree
series
1611
Latin (serere) to join, link, bind together, put
5.2 Interpretation of particular results
This chapter provides three interpretations of the words of classical origin. Each
point of view is accompanied by a particular graph for illustration.
The first analysis of words was made according to the ten pages chosen randomly
from the period of Antiquity. A further investigation showed that from all the words
covering the ten pages (3500) there is 2048 words of classical origin. In percentual
formulation it is 59 % that present words of Latin and Greek origin and 41%
representing words of other than the classical origin. The graphical illustration can be
seen in the graph below.
1 words of other than classical origin
2 words of Latin and Greek origin
1452
2048
Fig. 3. Amount of English words of classical origin according to the above
mentioned statistics
Later statistics was applied according to whether words of classical origin found
earlier were of Greek or Latin origin. It was found out that from all the words of
classical origin (2048) there are 311 words, that is 15% of Greek and the rest, that is
1737 (85%) of Latin origin. This fact can be observed in the following graph.
1 words of Greek origin
2 words of Latin origin
311
1737
Fig. 4. The proportion between the English words of Latin and Greek origin according
to the above mentioned statistics
As all the words of classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity are
present in the appendix 4., consequently the last graph illustrates the proportion between
the words of Latin and Greek origin applied in the above mentioned historical period.
1 words of Greek origin
2 words of Latin origin
23%
77%
Fig. 5. The proportion between the English words of Latin and Greek origin
according to appendix 4.
.
Conclusion
English belongs to the most widely used languages. This fact is not surprising as
the English language is the native language of such great nations as USA or Great
Britain. In the past English has been in contact with various languages but as the most
influential are considered classical languages i.e. Latin and Greek.
This work proves that the interference of Greek and Latin on the English
language has been enormous. Because we want to show that classical languages have
already been extending the Eglish vocabulary from the times of Old English, the work
starts with the brief description of the English language development. For illustration,
words of classical origin that penetrated into the English language in particular
historical periods are presented in each subchapter. As Latin and Greek are not the only
languages that helped the English vocabulary to expand there are also mentioned other
main influential languages.
The following second chapter deals with Greek and Latin in more detail. A list
of Greek and Latin affixes is presented as they are used frequently in everyday English.
Similarly a lot of English words consists of classical roots representing numerals and so
examples of such English words together with classical numerals and bases are applied
in this chapter. Moreover, there can be observed examples of Latin abbreviations as
they are known and used quite frequently in English. One subchapter is devoted to
Greek and Latin religion as we always come across allusions about faith of people and
mythology in the field of history.
The next third chapter pays attention to the structure of the English vocabulary.
The main concern of this chapter is to show the possible distinction between two lexical
units i.e. words and terms.
The last chapter of the theoretical part concentrates on functional styles and their
classification. The chart with functional styles together with their main features is
presented. As the purpose of this work is the field of scientific prose style there is the
special subchapter dealing with this type of functional style only. In that scientific prose
style is the “language” of science there are chosen several fields of science and
particular classical examples in the following subchapter.
The founding and consistent analysis of words of classical origin is the major
interest of the practical part. Because of limitations for this work we chose words of
Latin and Greek origin from the period of Antiquity. But for illustration there can be
found several examples of words belonging to other historical periods. There are
applied five approaches according to which the further analysis of words was made.
Each approach is presented in the special subchapter.
At first words are placed according to their semantics into the eighteen semantic
fields. As these words could also be used outside the group they are classified into it can
be stated that such words of classical origin cover large areas of human interests and
many of them are used in the everyday English.
The second approach provides several examples of words of Latin or Greek
origin together with all their forms they occur in the period of Antiquity. The most
frequent form of words is the past tense in that they describe historical events.
The following third aspect consists in classifying of English words according to
whether their present meanings differ from their original one or not. The fact that more
words have the same or similar meanings as the classical words they are derived from is
obvious from the particular graph.
The major task of the fourth approach was the research of English words that
have their origin in the same classical word. The number of such words is not very high
as it is also evident from the appendix 4.
The next etymological point of view shows several examples of words of Latin
and Greek origin together with the year they had occured in the English language.
From the following statistics it is obvious that words of classical origin cover a
great number of English words. Moreover, there is a greater number of words of Latin
origin than words of Greek origin in English. These facts can also be seen from
particular graphs that accompany this subchapter.
This work may serve as a helpful material for further study of Latin and Greek
within the English language. It could be a model for the investigation of classical words
in other areas than the field of history. Moreover, both teachers and students might
benefit from this work as they can enrich their English vocabulary. This work may also
extend the knowledge teachers and students have about Greek and Latin and finally
about English. Teachers could use the information given in the work during their
lessons. Also students would better understand the meaning of English words if they are
familiar with Latin and Greek affixes and bases.
Résumé
Anglický jazyk patrí k najpoužívanejším svetovým jazykom. Táto skutočnosť
nie je prekvapujúca, keďže angličtina je materský jazyk takých mocných krajín ako
USA alebo Veľká Británia. V minulosti sa anglický jazyk dostal do kontaktu s rôznymi
inými jazykmi, z ktorých za najvplyvnejšie sa považujú dva antické jazyky t.j. latinčina
a gréčtina.
Táto práca je dôkazom toho, že latinčina a gréčtina mala veľmi veľký vplyv na
anglickú slovnú zásobu. Keďže antické jazyky ovplyvňovali slovnú zásobu anglického
jazyka už v časoch Starej angličtiny, táto diplomová práca začína stručným historickým
vývojom anglického jazyka. V každej podkapitole sú pre ilustráciu uvedené slová
antického pôvodu, ktoré prenikali do angličtiny v jednotlivých obdobiach jej vývinu.
Taktiež je tu zmienených niekoľko ďalších významných jazykov, ktoré mali vplyv na
rozšírenie anglickej slovnej zásoby.
Nasledujúca druhá kapitola sa podrobnejšie zaoberá latinským a gréckym
jazykom. Sú tu uvedené predpony a prípony antického pôvodu, vzhľadom k faktu, že sa
bežne používajú v každodennej angličtine. Navyše, mnoho anglických slov je
utvorených z antického základu reprezentujúceho slovný druh číslovky. Preto sa v tejto
kapitole nachádzajú príklady takýchto anglických slov spolu s antickými číslovkami a
slovnými základmi. Podobným prípadom sú latinské skratky, ktoré sú tiež známe a
pomerne často vyskytujúce v angličtine. Keďže v oblasti histórie veľa krát narazíme na
zmienky o mytológii a viere človeka, jednu podkapitolu sme venovali antickému
náboženstvu.
V tretej kapitole sme sa zaoberali slovnou zásobou anglického jazyka a jej
štruktúrou. Hlavným cieľom tejto kapitoly je poukázanie na prípadný rozdiel medzi
dvomi lexikálnymi jednotkami t.j. slovami a termínmy.
Hlavnou problematikou poslednej kapitoly patriacej do teoretickej časti sú
Funkčné jazykové štýly a ich klasifikácia. Jednotlivé jazykové štýly sú usporiadané do
prehľadnej tabuľky, v ktorej sú naviac uvedené ich hlavné znaky. Keďže zámerom tejto
diplomovej práce je výskum v oblasti vedecko-odborného štýlu, jedna podkapitola sa
zaoberá výlučne týmto funkčným štýlom. Je zrejmé, že vedecko-odborný štýl je
hlavným “jazykovým prostriedkom” v oblasti vedy. Vzhľadom k tomuto faktu sa v tejto
kapitole nachádadza niekoľko vedeckých disciplín, v rámci ktorých sú uvedene príklady
latinských a gréckych slov.
Praktická časť tejto práce pozostávala z vyhľadávania a následnej analýzy slov
antického pôvodu. Keďže je táto práca obmedzená počtom strán, zamerali sme sa na
slová latinského a gréckeho pôvodu patriace do obdobia Staroveku. Pre ilustráciu sme
uviedli aj príklady slov antického pôvodu z iných historických období. Na analýzu
jednotlivých slov sme použili päť metód, z ktorých každá zodpovedá osobitnej kapitole.
Nájdené slová sme najprv rozdelili podľa ich významu do osemnástich
sémantických polí. Keďže roztriedené slová môžu byť použité aj mimo skupiny do
ktorej boli zaradené, prišli sme k záveru, že slová antického pôvodu pokrývajú širokú
oblasť ľudskej činnosti a záujmov. Taktiež v každodennej angličtine je možné nájsť
veľké množstvo slov latinského a gréckeho pôvodu.
Druhý prístup poskytuje vzorku slov antického pôvodu, ktoré sú uvedené v ich
základnom tvare a tiež vo všetkých ďalších tvaroch v akých sa nachádzajú v období
Staroveku. Najčastejšie používanou morfémou je minulý čas slovies, keďže sa
odvolávajú na udalosti, ktoré sa odohrali v minulosti.
Nesledujúce hľadisko spočíva v roztriedení anglických slov podľa toho, či sa ich
súčasný význam odlišuje od pôvodného. Z príslušného grafu je zrejmé, že väčšina
anglických slov má v súčasnosti taký istý alebo podobný význam ako slová z ktorých sú
odvodené.
Dominantnou úlohou štvrtej použitej metódy bolo vyhľadanie anglických slov,
ktoré vznikli z rovnakého antického základu. Z prílohy 4. je evidentné, že počet týchto
slov nie je veľmi vysoký.
Nasledovný etymologický aspekt poskytuje niekoľko príkladov slov latinského a
gréckeho pôvodu zároveň s rokmi ich výskytu v anglickom jazyku.
Fakt, že angličtina má veľké množstvo slov antického pôvodu vyplýva z
nasledovnej štatistiky. Z tejto kapitoly je zrejmé, že väčšina anglických slov má svoj
pôvod v latinčine. Konkrétne výsledky výskumu sú znázornené graficky.
Táto diplomová práca môže poslúžiť ako pomocný materiál pre ďalšie štúdium
latinčiny a gréčtiny v rámci anglického jazyka. Taktiež je možné použiť ju ako vzor pre
výskum antických slov v iných oblastiach ako je oblasť histórie. Učitelia aj žiaci by
mohli nájsť úžitok v tejto práci a obohatiť si svoju slovnú zásobu a tiež si rozšíriť svoje
doterajšie vedemosti o latinčine a gréčtine a nakoniec aj o angličtine. Učitelia môžu
používať informácie zahrnuté v práci počas svojich vyučovacích hodín a prednášok.
Navyše, znalosť latinských a gréckych prípon, predpôn a základov by mohla pomôcť
študentom k lepšiemu porozumeniu významu anglických slov.
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Appendix 1.
GREEK AFFIXES
Greek prefixes
Regural form
Before vowel
Meaning
Example
amphi-
amph-
both, around
amphitheatre,
amphibious
ana-
an-
back, again, up
anaesthesia, analogue
apo-
ap-
from, off
apologetic
cata-
cat-
down, against, very
catadioptre
dia-
di-
through, across,
diaglyph, diagonal,
between
diameter, diaphragm
ec-
ex-
out, out of
exaggerate, eccentric
en-, em-, el-
en-, -em,-el
in , into
encapsulate,
enarthrum
endo-, ento-
end-, ent-
within
endoscope
epi-
ep-
upon, to,
epicolic,
in addition to
epicentral
exo-, ecto-
exo-, -ecto
outside, external
exodus, exorcise
para-
par-
beside, disordered
parachromatopsia
peri-
peri-
around, near
perimeter
pro-
pro-
before, in front of
prognosis
pros-
pros-
toward, in addition to prostration
syn-, sym-, syl-, sy-, sys
with, together, alike symbiosis, sympathy
Greek suffixes
Noun-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-arch
one who rules
patriarch, monarch
-cracy
rule by, type of government
democracy
-crat
one who advocates or practices rule by
bureaucrat
-gram
thing written
autogram
-graph
writing, instrument for writing
barograph, autograph
-graphy
writing, art or science of writing
calligraphy
-ician
specialist in, practitioner of
-ite
one connected with, inhabitant of
physician, electrician
(also used to denote chemicals, minerals..) anthracite
-ma, -m, -me
result of
dilemma, stigma
-mania
madness about, passion for
bibliomania,
pyromania
-maniac
one having a madness or passion for
kleptomaniac
-meter
measure, instrument for measuring,
photometer,
number of feet in poetry
speedometer
-metry
art or science of measuring
geometry
-nomy
science of, system of laws
physiognomy
-phobia
abnormal fear of
homophobia,
pedophobia
- phobe
one who fears or hates
Anglophobe
-sis, -se, -sy, -sia
act of, state of, result of
synthesis, amnesia
-scope
instrument for viewing, to view
thermoscope,
rhinoscope
Appendix 2.
LATIN AFFIXES
Latin prefixes
Prefix
Meaning
Example
ad-, ac-
to, toward
adopt, admit, adhere
ambi-
both, around
ambient, ambiguity
ante-
before, in front of
antecedent, anteroom
con-, com-, co-
with, together, very
cooperate, cohabit
contra-, contro-
against
contrary, contradict
de-
down, of, thoroughly
deprecate, defrost
e-, ef-, ex-
out, from, completely
exacerbate, effective,
ex -wife
infra-
below, beneath
infralinear, infrapatellar
inter-
between, among
interaction, intercession
intra-, intro-
within
introduce, introvert
non-
not
noncomformity
ob-, oc-
toward, against, completely
obstruct, obdurability
per-
through, wrongly, completely
perambulate, perdition
pre-
before, in front of
preside, premature
pro-
forward, in front of, for
probation, prognosis
re-, red-
back, again
reactivate, realign
retro-
backward, behind
retrograde, retrospect
se-, sed-
aside, away
separate, secret
tra-, tran-, trans-
across, through
transcontinental
ultra
beyond, exceedingly
ultralight, ultraviolent
Latin suffixes
Adjective-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-acious
tending to, inclined to
audacious
-an, -ane, -ian
pertaining to, like, belonging to,
Lutheran, optician,
having the character of
suburban
-ar
pertaining to, like, belonging to,
triangular, popular,
having the character of
spectacular
-ate
possessing, being, characterized by passionate, affectionate
-ic, -tic
pertaining to, like
romantic , scenic, plastic
-id
tending to, inclined to
stupid, lurid
-il, -ile
pertaining to, like, belonging to,
sterile, fragile
having the character of
senile
-ile
able to be, able to, tending to
reptile
-ine
pertaining to, like, of
feminine
-itious
tending to, characterized by
repetitious
-u(lent), -(o)lent
full of, disposed to
malevolent, turbulent
-ory
tending to, serving for
illusory, advisory
-ose, -iose
full of
verbose
-ulous
tending to, inclined to
tremulous
-ous
tending to, inclined to
conspicious, poisonous
Noun-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-acity
quality of being inclined to
capacity
-acy
quality or state of being or having
adequacy, federacy
-i(mony)
quality of , state of
harmony
-(i)tude
quality of, state of
exactitude, latitude
-ity, -ety, -ty
quality of, state of
polarity, variety
-(u)lence, -(o)lence state or quality of being full of
violence, turbulence
-men
result of, means of, act of, state of
specimen
-ory ,-orium
place for
laboratory, observatory
-rix
she who does
testatrix
-ure
act of, result of
pleasure, posture
-y
quality of, state of, act of, result of affinity, sterility
Verb-forming suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-esce
to begin, to become
coalesce
-(i)fy, -(e)fy
to make
verify, specify, crucify
The diminutive suffix
In Latin a diminutive suffix was used to reflect smallness of an object.
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-cule, -(i)cle
little
folicule, clavicle
-el
little
vessel
-il(e)
little
chervil, codicil
-ol(e), -ule
little
capsule
Appendix 3.
THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY ACCORDING TO GALPERIN (1981, p.71)
Appendix 4.
WORDS OF CLASSICAL ORIGIN BELONGING TO THE PERIOD OF
ANTIQUITY (3200 B.C – 500)
abduct
ability
abolish
abrupt
absent
absolute
absorb
absurd
abstract
abundant
abyss
acanthus
accept
accelerate
accident
accompany
accomplish
account
accumulate
acquisition
accuracy
acquiesce
acquire
acropolis
act
actual
acute
add
address
adequate
adjust
administer
admire
adopt
adorn
adult
adultery
advance
adverse
advice
advocate
aegis
aesthete
affect
affirm
Latin (abducere) lead away
Latin (habilis) easy to manage, handy
Latin (abolescere) to die out, decay little by little
Latin (abruptus) broken off, precipitous, disconnected
Latin (absentem) be away
Latin (absolutus) to set free, make separate
Latin (absorbere) to swallow up
Latin (absurdus) out of tune, senseless
Latin (abstrahere) to drag away
Latin (abundantia) fullness
Greek (abyssos) bottomless
Greek (akanthos ) flower with thorns
Latin (acceptare) take or receive willingly
Latin (accelerare) quicken
Latin (accidentum) happen, fall out
Latin (companionem) bread fellow, messmate
Latin (accomplere) to fill up
Latin (computare) calculate
Latin (accumulare) to heap up in a mass
Latin (acquirere) get in addition
Latin (accuratus) prepared with care, exact
Latin (acquiescere) to have a rest
Latin (aequirere) gain, profit
Greek (akropolis) citadel
Latin (agere) to do
Latin (actualis) active
Latin (acutus) sharp, pointed
Latin (addere) add to, join
Latin (directus) straight, direct
Latin (æquus) level, even, just
Latin (adjuxtare) to bring near
Latin (administrare) serve, manage
Latin (admiratus) admire
Latin (adoptare) to choose
Latin (ordo) order
Latin (adultus) grow up, mature
Latin (adulterare) to corrupt
Latin (abante) from before
Latin (adversus) turned against, hostile
Latin (mi est visum) in my view
Latin (advocatus) to call
Greek (Aigis) the shield of Zeus or Athena
Greek (aisthanesthai) to perceive, to feel
Latin (affectre) to strive after, to affect, influence
Latin (affirmare) to make steady, strengthen, corroborate
affront
age
agent
aggression
agora
agriculture
aim
alien
allege
ally
alluvial
almanac
alphabet
altar
amateur
ambiguity
ambition
amenity
amnesty
amount
analogy
analysis
anarch
ancestor
anchor
ancient
angel
annex
annihilate
anonym
anthropomorphic
antique
anual
anxiety
apathy
apex
apostle
appeal
appear
appease
approach
appropriate
April
aqueduct
arbitrary
arch
archeology
archetype
architect
Latin (frons) forehead
Latin (aevum) lifetime, period of life
Latin (agere) to do
Latin (aggredi) to approach, attack
Greek (ageirein) to assemble
Latin (agri + cultura) cultivation of land
Latin (aestimare) appraise
Latin (alienus) of or belonging to another
Latin (allegare) to dispatch, cite
Latin (alligare) bind to
Latin (alluere) wash against
Greek (almenichiakon) calendar
Greek (alphabetos) Greek alpha and beta
Latin (altare) burnt offerings
Latin (amatorem) lover
Latin (ambiguus) having double meaning, shifting, changeable,
doubtful
Latin (ambitus)to go around
Latin (amoenus) pleasant
Greek (amnestia) oblivion
Latin (admontem) mountain
Greek (analogia) proportion
Greek (analyein) to break up
Greek (anarkhia) lack of a leader
Latin (antecedere) precede
Greek (ankyra) anchor, hook
Latin (ante) before
Greek (angelos) messenger
Latin (annexare) to bind to
Latin (annihilare) to reduce to nothing
Greek (anonymos) without a name
Greek (anthropos) human being
Latin (antquus) former, ancient
Latin (annus) year
Latin (anxietatem) anger
Greek (apathes) without feeling
Latin (apex) summit, peak, tip
Greek (apostellein) send away, send forth
Latin (appellare) to accost, address, appeal to, summon, name
Latin (apparere) to appear
Latin (pacem) peace
Latin (appropiare) go nearer
Latin (appropriatus) to make one's own
Latin (Aprilis) (month) of Venus
Latin (aquæductus) conveyance of water
Latin (arbitrarius) witness, judge
Latin (arcus) a bow, arch
Greek (archaiologia) archeology
Greek (archetypos) archetypal
Latin (architectus) architect
archive
archon
area
arena
aristocracy
arm
arrogance
art
article
artifice
ascetic
aspect
assemble
assert
assess
assign
assist
associate
assume
aster
astonish
astrology
astronomy
athlete
atmosphere
atom
atrium
atrocity
attempt
attend
attention
attitude
attract
attribute
audacity
audience
audit
aura
austere
authentic
author
authority
autocracy
automatic
autonomy
avenge
axis
balance
Greek (arche) rule, government
Greek (arkhon) ruler
Latin (area) flat piece of unoccupied land, open space
Latin (harena) place of combat
Greek (aristokratia) government, rule of the best
Latin (armata) to arm, act of arming
Latin (arrogantem) assuming, overbearing, insolent
Latin (ars) art
Latin (artus) joint, limb
Latin (artificium) of or belonging to art
Greek (askein) to exercise, train, to train for athletic competition,
practice
Latin (aspectus) seeing, looking, appearance
Latin (assimulare) to make like, think like, to gather together
Latin (serere) join, connect
Latin (taxare) to evaluate, estimate
Latin (assignare) to mark out, to allot by sign
Latin (assistere) assist, stand by
Latin (associatus) join with
Latin (assumere) to take up
Latin (aster) star
Latin (extonare) to thunder
Greek (astrologia) telling of the stars
Greek (astronomia) arranging, regulating of stars
Greek (athletes) contestant in the games
Greek (atmosphaera) the air of a locality
Greek (atomos) uncut
Latin (atrium) central court or main room of an ancient Roman
house
Latin (atrocitatem) cruelty
Latin (temptare) to try, test
Latin (attendere) give heed to, to stretch toward
Latin (attentus) to heed
Latin (aptitudinem) fit
Latin (trahere) to draw, pull
Latin (attributus) assign to
Latin (audacis) brave
Latin (audire) to hear
Latin (audire) to hear
Greek (aura) breath, breeze
Greek (austeros) bitter, harsh
Greek (authentes) one acting on one's own authority
Latin (auctor) enlarger, founder
Latin (auctor) enlarger, founder
Greek (autokrates) ruling by oneself
Greek (automatos) self-acting
Greek (autonomos) independent, living by one's own laws
Latin (vindicare) to claim, avenge, punish
Latin (axis) axle, pivot, axis of the earth or sky
Latin (bilanx) scale, having two pans
bankrupt
baptize
barbar
barber
barrage
base
beast
beauty
benefactor
benefit
besiege
bias
bible
bill
biography
biology
bishop
blasphemy
bound
branch
brave
brilliant
bronze
brute
bucolic
burlesque
bust
calamity
calculate
calendar
camera
camp
campaign
canal
cancel
candidate
canon
capacity
capital
captive
capture
career
cartography
castrate
catacomb
catalog
catastrophe
catholic
cause
cavalry
Latin (rupta) to break
Greek (baptizein) to immerse
Greek (barbaros) foreign, strange, ignorant
Latin (barba) beard
Latin (barra) bar, barrier
Latin (bassus) thick, stumpy, low
Latin (bestia) wild creature
Latin (bellus) fine, beautiful
Latin (benefactum) good deed
Latin (benefactum) good deed
Latin (sedere) sit
Greek (epikarsios) slanting, oblique
Greek (biblion) paper, scroll, the ordinary word for book
Latin (bulla) decree, seal, document, amulet for the neck
Greek (biographia) biograhpy
Greek (biologia) study of life
Greek (episkopos) watcher, overseer
Greek (blasphemein) to speak evil of
Latin (bodina) boundary, boundary marker
Latin (branca) a claw, paw
Latin (pravus) crooked, depraved
Latin (berillus) beryl, precious stone
Latin (bronzium) bronze
Latin (brutus) heavy, dull, stupid
Greek (boukolos) herdsman
Latin (burra) trifle, nonsense, flock of wool
Latin (bustum) funeral monument, tomb, funeral pyre
Latin (calamitatem) damage, disaster, adversity
Latin (calculus) reckoning, account, pebble used in counting
Latin (calendae) first day of the month
Greek (kamara) vaulted chamber
Latin (campus) open field
Latin (campus) a field
Latin (canna) reed
Latin (cancelli) grating, lattice
Latin (candidatus) white-robed
Greek (kanon) rule
Latin (capere) to take
Latin ( caput) head
Latin (captus) to take, hold, seize
Latin (captus) to take, hold, seize
Latin (carrus) chariot, car
Latin+ Greek (carta graphein) cartography
Latin (castrationem) to castrate, prune
Latin (catacumbae) the region of underground tombs
Greek (katalogos) a list, register
Greek (katastrephein) to overturn
Greek (katholikos) universal, general
Latin (causa) a cause, reason, judicial process, lawsuit
Latin (caballus) horse
cede
celebrate
celibacy
cell
cemetery
census
center
century
ceremony
certain
chain
challenge
chamber
champion
chance
change
channel
chant
chaos
chapter
character
chariot
charisma
charm
chaste
cheap
chief
chisel
chivalry
choir
choral
chronicle
chronology
church
circle
circuit
circulate
circumstance
circus
citadel
city
civivilian
claim
clan
class
clause
clergy
client
climate
Latin (cedere) to yield, to go, leave
Latin (celebratus) to frequent in great numbers, assemble to honor
Latin (cælebs) unmarried
Latin (cella) small room, hut
Greek (koiman) to put to sleep
Latin (censere) to appraise, value, judge
Greek (kentein) to prick
Latin (centum) hundred
Latin (cærimonia) awe, reverent rite
Latin (certus) determined, decide
Latin (catena) chain
Latin (calumnia) trickery
Latin (camera) a chamber, room
Latin (campus) field (of combat)
Latin (cadentem) to fall
Latin (cambire) exchange
Latin (canalis) groove, channel, waterpipe
Latin (canere) sing
Greek (khaos) abyss, that which gapes wide open, is vast and
empty
Latin (caput) head
Greek (kharax) pointed stake
Latin (carrum) chariot
Greek (charis) grace, beauty, kindness
Latin (canere) to sing
Latin (castus) pure, chaste
Latin (caupo) petty tradesman, huckster
Latin (caput) head
Latin (caesellum) to cut
Latin (caballus) a horse
Latin (chorus) choir
Latin (chorus) choir
Greek (chronika, biblia) (books of) annals
Greek (chronlogy) chronology
Greek (kyrios) ruler, lord
Latin (circulus) small ring
Latin (circuitus) a going around
Latin (circulare) to form a circle
Latin (circumstare) stand around
Greek (kirkos) a circle
Latin (civis) townsman
Latin (civis) townsman
Latin (civis) townsman
Latin (clamare) to cry out, shout
Latin (planta) offshoot
Latin (classis) political class
Latin (clausula) a closing, termination
Greek (kleros) lot, inheritance
Latin (cliens) follower, retainer
Greek (klinein) to slope, slope of the Earth from equator to pole
climax
clinic
close
coalition
coast
code
coerce
coherent
coin
coincide
coliseum
collaborate
collapse
collateral
collect
collision
colonnade
colony
color
colossal
column
combat
combine
comedy
comfort
command
commemorate
comment
commerce
commission
commit
commodity
common
communicate
company
comparative
comparison
compass
compassion
compel
compensate
compete
compilation
complete
complex
component
composite
Greek (klinein) to slope
Greek (klinikos) of the bed
Latin (claudere) to close, block up, put an end to, enclose, confine
Latin (coalitus) fellowship
Latin (costa) a rib
Latin (caudex) trunk of a tree, block of wood, book, set of statutes
Latin (coercere) to control, restrain
Latin (cohærentem) cohere
Latin (cuneus) a wedge
Latin (coincidere) to fall upon
Latin (colosseum) amphitheater of Vespasian at Rome
Latin (collaborare) work with
Latin (collapsus) fall together
Latin (collateralis) accompanying, side by side
Latin (collectus) gather together
Latin (collidere) strike together
Latin (columna) pillar
Latin (colere) to inhabit, cultivate, frequent, practice, tend, guard,
respect
Latin (colos) a covering, conceal
Greek (kolossos) giant
Latin (columna) pillar, top, summit
Latin (combattere) to beat, fight
Latin (combinatio) joining
Greek (komodios) singer in the revels
Latin (confortare) to strengthen much
Latin (commendare) to recommend
Latin (commemorare) to call to mind
Latin (comminisci) to contrive, devise
Latin (commercium) trade, trafficking
Latin (commissionem) delegation of business
Latin (committere) person to whom something is committed
Latin (commoditatems) fitness, adaptation
Latin (communis) in common, public, general, shared by all or
many
Latin (communis) in common, public, general, shared by all or
many
Latin (companio) bread fellow, messmate
Latin (comparare) make equal with, liken
Latin (comparare) make equal with, liken
Latin (compassare) to pace out
Latin (compati) to feel pity
Latin (compellere) to drive together
Latin (compensare) to weigh one thing (against another)
Latin (competere) strive in common, to come together, agree
Latin (compilare) to snatch together, plunder, heap
Latin (completus) fill
Latin (plectere) to plait
Latin (componere) to put together
Latin (compositus) to put together
compose
comprise
compromise
compulsion
compute
comrade
concentrate
concept
concern
conclude
concrete
concubine
condition
conduct
confederate
confer
confess
confidence
confiscate
conflict
confront
confuse
congenial
congregate
conglomerate
connect
conquer
conscience
consequence
consider
consist
consolidate
constant
constitution
construct
consult
consume
contact
contemporary
contempt
contend
contest
context
continent
continue
contradict
contrast
contribute
control
controversy
Latin (pausare) to cease, lay down
Latin (comprehendere) contain, involve
Latin (compromissus) to make a mutual promise
Latin (compellere) compel
Latin (computare) to count, sum up
Greek (kamara) vaulted chamber
Latin (centrum) centre
Latin (concipere) to take in
Latin (concernere) to sift, mix, as in a sieve
Latin (concludere) to shut up, enclose
Latin (concrescere) to grow together
Latin (concubina) to lie with
Latin (condicionem) agreement, situation
Latin (conductus) to lead or bring together
Latin (confoederatus) to unite by a league
Latin (conferre) to bring together, compare
Latin (confessus) to acknowledge
Latin (confidentem) to trust
Latin (confiscare) confiscate
Latin (conflictus) to strike together
Latin (confrontare) assign limits, adjoin
Latin (confundere) to pour together, to confuse
Latin (comgenialis) agreeable
Latin (congregare) to herd together
Latin (conglomeratus) to roll together, a ball
Latin (connectere) to fasten together
Latin (quaerere) seek
Latin (conscientia) knowledge within oneself, a moral sense
Latin (consequentem) to follow after
Latin (considerare) to observe, think about
Latin (consistere) to stand firm
Latin (consolidare) to make solid
Latin (stare) to stand
Latin (constitutus) to fix, establish
Latin (construere) pile up together, build
Latin (consulere) to deliberate, take counsel
Latin (consumptionem) a using up, wasting
Latin (contactus) a touching
Latin (contemporarius) with time
Latin (contemptus) scorn
Latin (contendere) to stretch out, strive after
Latin (contestari) to call to witness, bring action
Latin (contextus) a joining together
Latin (continentem) hold together
Latin (continuus) uninterrupted
Latin (contradicere) speak against
Latin (contrastare) to withstand
Latin (contribuere) bring in together, to grant
Latin(contrarotulare) check against a duplicate register
Latin (controversus) disputed, turned against
convene
convention
conversate
convert
convey
convict
copper
copy
core
corporate
corpus
correct
correspond
corrupt
cosmopolitan
cosmos
council
counsel
country
courage
course
court
courtesan
covenant
create
creature
credible
credit
creed
crime
crisis
criterion
critic
cross
crown
crucial
crucify
crude
cruel
cubicle
cult
cultivate
culture
cuneiform
cure
currency
cursive
custom
cycle
Latin (convenire) unite, be suitable, agree
Latin (convenire) come together
Latin (conversationem) act of living with
Latin (convertere) turn around, transform
Latin (conviare) to accompany on the way
Latin (convictus) life togehter
Greek (Kupros) Cyprus
Latin (copia) plenty, means
Latin (cor) heart
Latin (corpus) body
Latin (corpus) body
Latin (corrigere) make straight, put right
Latin (correspondere) correspond
Latin (corruptus) to destroy, spoil, bribe
Greek (kosmopolites) citizen of the world
Greek (kosmos) orderly arrangement
Latin (concilium) group of people, meeting
Latin (consilium) plan, opinion
Latin (contra) opposite
Latin (cor) heart, which remains a common metaphor for inner
strength
Latin (cursus) a running race or course
Latin (cortem) enclosed space
Latin (cortem) enclosed space
Latin (convenire) come together
Latin (creare) bring forth, make, produce
Latin (creatura) thing created
Latin (credibilis) that can be believed
Latin (credere) entrust, believe
Latin (credo) to believe, heart to put
Latin (cernere) to decide, to sift
Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judge
Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judge
Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judge
Latin (crux) cross
Latin (corona) crown, wreath, garland
Latin (crux) cross
Latin (crucifigere) to fasten to a cross
Latin (crudus) raw, rough
Latin (crudelis) cruel
Latin (cubare) to lie down, bend oneself
Latin (cultus) care, cultivation, worship
Latin (cultus) care, cultivation, worship, tended, cultivated
Latin (colere) inhabit, cultivate
Latin (cuneus) wedge
Latin (cura) care, concern, trouble
Latin (currentum) to run
Latin (cursus) a running
Latin (suescere) become accustomed
Greek (kyklos) circle, wheel
cylinder
cynic
dagger
danger
date
deacon
debt
decade
decapitate
decease
December
decision
declare
decline
decorate
decree
deduce
defeat
defect
define
degree
deliberate
delicate
delta
demagogue
demand
deme
democracy
demon
demonstrate
depart
depend
depict
deposit
depress
descend
description
desert
designate
despot
destiny
destroy
destruction
detect
determine
devastate
device
devil
devote
diadem
Greek (kylindein) to roll
Greek (kynikos) dog-like
Latin (daca) Dacian knife
Latin (dominus) lord, master
Greek (daktylos) date, finger, toe
Greek (diakonos) servant of the church, religious official
Latin (debere) owe
Greek (dekas) group of ten
Latin (decapitatus) cut off a head
Latin (decessus) death, departure
Latin (decem) ten
Latin (decisionem) decision, agreement
Latin (declarare) make clear
Latin (declinare) to bend from, inflect
Latin (decus) an ornament
Latin (decretum) to decree, decide, pronounce a decision
Latin (ducere) to lead
Latin (diffacere) undo, destroy
Latin (deficere) to fail, desert
Latin (definire) to limit, determine, explain
Latin (degredare) to step
Latin (deliberare) to consider carefully
Latin (delicatus) alluring, delightful, dainty, addicted to pleasure
Greek (daleth) tent door
Greek (demagogos) leader of the people
Latin (demandare) entrust, charge with a commission
Greek (demos) people, land
Greek (demokratia) rule for common people
Greek. (daimon) lesser god, guiding spirit, tutelary deity
Latin (demonstrare) to point out, show
Latin (departire) divide
Latin (dependere) hang down
Latin (depictus) to paint down
Latin (deponere) lay aside, put down, deposit
Latin (deprimere) press down
Latin (descendere) to climb down
Latin (describere) write down, transcribe, copy, sketch
Latin (deserere) forsake, to abandon
Latin (designare) mark out, devise
Greek (despotes) master of a household, lord, absolute ruler
Latin (destinare) make firm, establish
Latin (destruere) undo results of building
Latin (destruere) tear down
Latin (detectus) uncover, disclose
Latin (determinare) set limits to
Latin (devastare) lay waste completely
Latin (divisus) to divide
Greek (diabolos) accuser, slanderer
Latin (devotionem) dedicate by a vow
Greek (diadein) to bind across
diagnosis
diagonal
dialect
dialogue
diameter
diaspora
dictate
different
difficult
diffuse
digest
dignity
dilemma
diligent
dimension
diploma
direct
disaster
discipline
discover
discrete
discuss
disk
dismember
disparity
disperse
display
dispute
disrupt
distant
distinct
distort
distribute
disturb
diverse
divine
division
divorce
docile
doctrine
document
dogma
domain
dome
dominant
dominate
donate
doubt
doury
Greek (diagignoskein) discern, distinguish
Greek (diagonios) from angle to angle
Greek (dialegesthai) converse with each other
Greek (dialogos) speak across
Greek (diametros) diagonal of a circle
Greek (diaspeirein) to scatter about, disperse
Latin (dictare) say often, prescribe
Latin (differre) distinguish from
Latin (difficilis) not easy
Latin (diffundere) scatter, pour out
Latin (digerere) to separate, divide, arrange
Latin (dignus) worthy, proper, fitting
Greek (dilemma) double proposition
Latin (diligere) value highly, love, choose
Latin (dimetri) to measure out
Latin (diploma) official document conferring a privilege
Latin (directus) straight
Greek (dis- + astron) away, without stars
Latin (disciplina) instruction given to a disciple
Latin (discooperire) uncover
Latin (discernere) to separate, distinguish
Latin (discutere) dash to pieces
Greek (dikein) throw
Latin (membrum) limb, member of the body, part
Latin (disparitatem) inequality
Latin (dispergere) to disperse
Latin (displicare) to scatter
Latin (disputare) to discuss
Latin (disrumpere) break apart, split
Latin (distantem) standing apart, separate, distant
Latin (distinguere) define, orientate
Latin (distorquere) to twist different ways, distort
Latin (distribuere) deal out in portions
Latin (disturbare) throw into disorder
Latin (diversus) different in character or quality
Latin (divus) god
Latin (dividere) to divide
Latin (divertere) to separate, leave one's husband, turn aside
Latin (docere) teach
Latin (doctor) teacher
Latin (docere) to show, teach
Greek (dokein) to seem good, think
Latin (domus) house
Greek (doma) house, housetop
Latin (dominari) to dominate
Latin (dominari) to dominate
Latin (donum) gift
Latin (dubitare) hesitate, waver in opinion, to have to choose
between two things
Latin (durus) hard
dozen
drachma
drama
drastic
dual
duke
duplicate
duty
dynamic
dynasty
echo
eclipse
eclogue
economy
ecumenical
edict
educate
efface
effect
efficient
elaborate
elect
elegant
element
elevate
eliminate
elite
eloquent
emancipate
embryo
emergence
eminent
emotion
emperor
emphasis
empire
encounter
endow
endure
enemy
energy
enforce
engineer
enjoy
enlarge
enormous
enter
Latin (duodecim) twelve
Greek (drakhme) an Attic coin and weight, a handful
Greek (dran) to do, act, perform
Greek (dran) to do, act, perform
Latin (duo) two
Latin (ducere) to lead
Latin (duplicatus) to double
Latin (debitus) to owe
Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power
Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power
Greek (ekho) sound
Greek (ekleipein) to orsake a usual place, fail to appear, be
eclipsed
Greek (ekloge) selection
Greek (oikonomos) manager, steward
Greek (oikos) house, habitation
Latin (edicere) publish, proclaim
Latin (educatus) bring up, rear, educate
Latin (facies) face
Latin (efficere) work out, accomplish
Latin (efficere) to do, make
Latin (elaborare) work out, produce by labor
Latin (electionem) pick out, select
Latin (elegantem) choice, fine, tasteful
Latin (elementum) element
Latin (elevatus) lift up, raise
Latin (ex limine) off the threshold
Latin (eligere) choose
Latin (eloqui) speak out
Latin (emancipare) declare (someone) free, give up one's
authority over
Greek (embryon) young animal, fruit of the womb, that which
grows
Latin (mergere) dive, plunge
Latin (eminentem) stand out, project
Latin (emovere) move out, remove, agitate
Latin (imperare) to command
Greek (emphainein) to show, indicate
Latin (imperare) to command
Latin (incontra) in front of
Latin (dotare) bestow
Latin (indurare) make hard
Latin (inimicus) enemy, unfriendly
Greek (energos) active
Latin (fortis) strong
Latin (ingenium) ability
Latin (gaudere) rejoice
Latin (largus) abundant, copious, plentiful, liberal
Latin (enormis) irregular, extraordinary, very large
Latin (intra) within
enthusiasm
entitle
envoy
envy
ephor
epic
epicure
epigram
episode
epistle
epitome
epoch
equal
equator
equestrian
equivalent
era
erect
erosion
erupt
escape
eschatology
establish
estimate
ethics
ethnic
evacuate
evaluate
event
evident
evolve
exact
exaggerate
examine
example
excavate
exceed
excellent
except
excercise
excess
exclusive
execute
exegesis
exempt
exile
exist
exodus
exotic
expand
Greek (entheos) inspired, possessed by a god
Latin (intitulare) inscription title
Latin (inviare) send on one's way
Latin (invidere) envy, cast an evil eye upon
Greek (ephoros) overseer
Greek (epos) word, story, poem
Greek (Epicouros) Athenian philosopher
Greek (epigraphein) to write on, inscribe
Greek (epeisodion) addition
Latin (epistellein) send to
Greek (epitemnein) cut short, abridge
Greek (epekhein) to pause, take up a position
Latin (æquus) level, even, just
Latin (æquare) make equal, equate
Latin (equus) horse
Latin (aequivalere) to have equal power
Latin (aes) copper, money, bronze coin
Latin (erigere) raise or set up
Latin (erodere) gnaw away
Latin (erumpere) break out, burst forth
Latin (excappare) get out of one's cape
Greek (eskhatos) last, furthest, remote
Latin (stabilis) stable
Latin (aestimare) to value, estimate, assess
Greek (ethos) moral character
Greek (ethnos) band of people living together, nation, people
Latin (tradere) deliver, surrender
Latin (valere) be strong, be well, be of value
Latin (evenire) to come out, happen, result
Latin (videre) see
Latin (evolvere) unroll
Latin (exigere) to drive out, demand, measure
Latin (exaggeratus) heighten, amplify, magnify
Latin (exigere) weigh accurately
Latin (emere) take
Latin (excavatus) to hollow out
Latin (excedere) depart, go beyond
Latin (excellentem) elevated
Latin (exceptus) take out
Latin (arcere) to restrain
Latin (excedere) to depart, go beyond
Latin (excludere) isolate, exclude
Latin (executivus) throw, cut, shot
Greek (exegeisthai) explain, interpret
Latin (eximere) release, remove
Latin (exul) banished person
Latin (existere) stand forth, appear
Greek (exodus) a going out
Greek (exotikos) foreign, from the outside
Latin (expansum) to extend
expedient
expedite
expend
expense
experience
experiment
expert
expiate
explain
explicit
exploit
explore
explode
exponent
export
expose
expound
express
expulsion
exquisite
extend
external
extinct
extirpate
extort
extract
extraordinary
extravagant
extreme
exuberant
fable
face
facile
fact
faculty
fail
faith
falcon
family
fame
fanatic
fantasy
farm
fascinate
fatal
fate
favor
feature
federate
Latin (expedire) make fit or ready, prepare
Latin (expeditus) make fit or ready, prepare, free the feet from
fetters
Latin (expendere) pay out
Latin (expensa) disbursement
Latin (experientia) try
Latin (experiri) try out
Latin (experiri) try out
Latin (expiare) atone completely
Latin (explanationem) to make plain or clear, explain
Latin (explicitus) unfold, unravel, explain
Latin (explicitum) a thing settled, ended, displayed
Latin (explorare) investigate, search out
Latin (explodere) drive out by clapping
Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explain
Latin (exportare) carry away
Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explain
Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explain
Latin (expressare) represent, describe, to press out
Latin (expellere) drive out
Latin (exquisitus) carefully sought out
Latin (extendere) stretch out
Latin (externus) outside, outward
Latin (extinguere) quench, wipe out, obliterate
Latin (extirpare) root out
Latin (torquere) to twist
Latin (extractus) draw out
Latin (extraordinarius) out of order
Latin (extravagans) wander, special
Latin (extremus) outermost, utmost
Latin (exuberare) be abundant, grow luxuriously
Latin (fabula) story, play, fable, that which is told
Latin (facies) appearance, form, figure
Latin (facilis) easy
Latin (facere) do, make
Latin (facultatem) power, ability, wealth
Latin (fallere) deceive, be lacking or defective
Latin (fidere) to trust
Latin (falx) sickle
Latin (famulus) servant
Latin (fama) story, rumour
Latin (fanum) temple
Greek (phainesthai) appear, to imagine, have visions
Latin (firmus) firm
Latin (fascinare) bewitch, enchant
Latin (fatalis) ordained by fate
Latin (fatum) thing spoken (by the gods), one's destiny
Latin (favorem) good will or support
Latin (facere) make, do, perform
Latin (foedus) a league
ferment
fertile
fest
fiction
fidelity
figure
final
finance
fine
fiscal
fix
florin
flower
fluid
focus
foil
force
foreign
form
formidable
fortify
fortune
forum
founding
fragment
frenzy
frequent
friction
frieze
front
fruit
frustrate
fuel
function
fund
fundamental
fury
future
genealogy
general
genius
gentile
genuine
geocentric
geography
geometry
germ
gesture
gladiator
Latin (fervere) to boil, seethe
Latin (fertilis) rich, productive
Latin (festum) feast
Latin (fingere) to shape, form, devise, feign, to knead, form out
of clay
Latin (fidelitatem) faithfulness, adherence
Latin (fingere) make, shape
Latin (finis) end
Latin (finis) end
Latin (finis) end
Latin (fiscus) treasury, purse, basket made of twigs
Latin (fixus) to fix, fasten
Latin (florem) flower
Latin (florem) flower
Latin (fluere) to flow
Latin (focus) hearth, fireplace
Latin (fullo) one who cleans cloth, fuller
Latin (fortia) strong
Latin (foris) outside, out of doors
Latin (forma) mold, shape, beauty
Latin (formido) terror, dread
Latin (fortis) strong
Latin (fortuna) chance, luck
Latin (forum) marketplace
Latin (fundatus) a founding
Latin (frangere) break
Latin (phrenesia) delirious
Latin (frequentare) visit regularly
Latin (fricare) to rub
Latin (frisium) embroidered border
Latin (frontem) forehead, that which projects
Latin (fructus) fruit, produce, profit
Latin (frustratus) to deceive, disappoint, frustrate
Latin (focalia) right to demand material for making fire
Latin (fungi) to perform
Latin (fundus) bottom, piece of land
Latin (fundamentum) foundation
Latin (furia) violent passion, rage, madness
Latin (futurus) going to be, about to be
Greek (genealogia) genealogy
Latin (genus) race, kind
Latin (gignere) beget, produce
Latin (gens) race, clan
Latin (gignere) beget
Greek (geocentric) in the centre of earth
Greek (geographia) description of the earth's surface
Greek (geometria) measurement of earth or land, geometry
Latin (germen) sprout, bud
Latin (gestus) gesture, carriage, posture
Latin (gladius) sword
glory
glutton
gorgon
govern
grace
grade
grain
grammar
grand
grandiose
granite
grant
gravity
grief
griffin, gryphon
grocer
gulf
gymnasion
gymnasium
habit
harmony
hegemony
heir
helot
hero
hexameter
hierarchy
hieroglyph
history
homicide
homosexual
honor
horizon
horror
host
hostage
hostile
human
humiliate
hygiene
hymn
hypocrisy
hypothesis
hysteria
idea
identical
identity
idiot
idol
Latin (gloria) great praise or honor
Latin (gula) throat
Greek (gorgos) terrible
Greek (kubernan) steer or pilot, ship, direct
Latin (gratus) pleasing, agreeable
Latin (gradus) to walk, step, go
Latin (granum) seed
Greek (graphein) to draw or write
Latin (grandis) big, great, full-grown
Latin (grandis) big
Latin (granum) grain
Latin (credentem) to believe, to trust
Latin (gravis) heavy
Latin (gravis) weighty
Greek (gryps) curved, hook-nosed
Latin (grossus) coarse (of food), great, gross
Greek (kolpos) bay, gulf, bosom
Greek (gymnazein) to exercise or train, to train naked
Greek (gymnazein) to exercise or train, to train naked
Latin (habitus) condition, demeanor, appearance, dress
Greek (harmos) joint, harmony
Greek (hegeisthai) to lead
Latin (heres) heir, heiress
Greek (Heilotes) helots
Greek (heros) demi-god, defender, protector
Greek (hexametros) six meters
Greek (hierarches) high priest, leader of sacred rites
Greek (hieroglyphe) sacred carving
Greek (histor) learned man
Latin (homicidium) act of killing of a man
Greek (homos+sexus) same sex
Latin (honorem) honor, dignity, office, reputation
Greek (horizein) bound, limit, divide, separate
Latin (horrere) to bristle with fear, shudder
Latin (hostis) enemy, stranger
Latin (obses) hostage
Latin (hostis) enemy
Latin (humanus) human being
Latin (humilis) humble
Greek (hygies) healthy, living well
Greek (hymnos) song or ode in praise of gods or heroes
Greek (hypokrinesthai) play a part, pretend, answer
Greek (hypothesis) base, basis of an argument, supposition, a
placing under
Greek (hystera) womb
Greek. (idein) to see
Latin (identitas) identity, the same
Latin (identitas) identity, the same
Greek (idiotes) layman, person lacking professional skill
Greek (eidos) form
illusion
illustrate
imagine
imitate
immense
immutable
impact
imperative
imperial
impetus
implicit
import
impress
impulse
incest
inches
include
incorporate
increase
incredible
indicate
indispensable
individual
industry
infantry
inflate
influence
inform
infuriate
infusion
ingenious
inhabitant
inherit
initiate
innovate
inquire
inscription
insect
insist
inspirate
instance
institute
instruct
instrument
insult
intact
integer
intellect
Latin (illudere) mock at, to play with
Latin (illustrare) light up, embellish, distinguish
Latin (imaginari) imagine
Latin (imitatari) to copy, portray, imitate
Latin (immensus) immeasurable, boundless
Latin (immutabilis) unchangeable
Latin (impactus) to push against, to push into, dash against
Latin (imperare) to command
Latin (imperialis) of the empire or emperor
Latin (impetus) attack, assault, onset, impulse, violence, vigor,
force, passion
Latin (implicitus) prove, make out
Latin (importare) bring in, convey
Latin (imprimere) press in
Latin (impulsus) a push against, pressure, shock, incitement,
instigation
Latin (incestus) unchaste, impure
Latin (uncia) a twelfth part
Latin (includere) to close
Latin (incorporare) unite into one body
Latin (increscere) to grow
Latin (incredibilis) that cannot be believed
Latin (indicare) point out, show
Latin (indispensabilis) indivisible
Latin (individuus) indivisible
Latin (industria) diligence, to build
Latin (infantem) infant
Latin (inflare) blow into, puff up
Latin (influentem) to flow into
Latin (informationem) outline, concept, idea
Latin (in furia) in a fury
Latin (infundere) to pour into
Latin (ingenium) inborn talent
Latin (inhabitare) to live in
Latin (inhereditare) to appoint as heir
Latin (inire) to go into, enter upon, begin
Latin (innovatus) to renew or change
Latin (inquirere) inquire
Latin (inscriptus) to write on or in anything
Latin (insectum) animal with a notched or divided body, cut into
Latin (insistere) persist, dwell upon, stand upon
Latin (inspirare) inspire, inflame, blow into
Latin (instantia) presence, earnestness, urgency, a standing near
Latin (institutionem) institution
Latin (instructus) arrange, inform, teach
Latin (instruere) arrange, furnish
Latin (insultare) to assail, to leap upon
Latin (intactus) untouched, uninjured
Latin (integer) whole
Latin (intellectus) intellect, concept, sense
intelligent
intensity
intercession
interest
interior
internal
interpret
interrupt
interval
intervene
intimate
intricate
intrigue
intrinsic
introduce
introspection
intrude
invade
invent
invest
investigate
invincible
invoke
iris
irony
irrigate
isolate
issue
isthmus
item
January
jealous
jewel
journal
judge
July
jury
justice
labor
labyrinth
lake
lamp
language
lapse
large
laurel
league
legal
legend
Latin (intelligentem) discerning
Latin (intendere) to stretch out, strain
Latin (intercessionem) a going between
Latin (interresse) to concern, make a difference, be of importance
Latin (interior) inner
Latin (intern) within, between
Latin (interpres) agent, translator
Latin (interruptus) break apart, break off
Latin (intervallum) space between palisades or ramparts
Latin (intervenire) to come between, interrupt
Latin (intimare) make known, announce
Latin (intricatus) entangled
Latin (intricare) entangle
Latin (intrinsecus) interior, internal
Latin (introductus) to lead in, bring in, to introduce
Latin (introspicere) to look into, look at
Latin (intrusus) to thrust, push
Latin (invadere) to invade
Latin (inventus) devise, discover, find
Latin (investire) to clothe in, cover, surround
Latin (vestigium) footprint, track
Latin (invincibilis) unconquerable
Latin (invocare) call upon, implore
Greek (iris) a lily, iris of the eye, messenger of the gods
Greek (eiron) dissemble
Latin (irrigare) to water
Latin (insula) island
Latin (exire) go out
Greek (isthmos) narrow neck of land
Latin (item) likewise, just so
Latin (Januarius (mensis)) (the month) of Janus
Greek (zelos) jealousy, enthusiasm
Latin (jocus) pastime, sport
Latin (diurnalis) daily
Latin (judicem) to judge
Latin (Julius) name of a Roman gens
Latin (jurata) an oath, an inquest
Latin (justus) upright, just
Latin (laborare) toil, pain
Greek (labyrinthos) maze, large building with intricate passages
Latin (lacus) pond, lake, basin, tank
Greek (lampein) to shine
Latin (lingua) tongue, speech, language
Latin (lapsus) a slipping and falling, flight (of time), falling into
error
Latin (largus) abundant, copious, plentiful
Latin (laurus) laurel tree
Latin (ligare) to bind
Latin (lex) law
Latin (legenda) legend, story, (things) to be read
legible
legion
legislate
leisure
lethargy
latrine
letter
level
lever
lexicography
liberate
library
limit
line
linear
linen
linguist
liquid
literal
literate
literature
liturgy
locate
logic
loyal
lubricate
lunar
luxury
lyceum
lyric
machine
magistrate
magnificent
majesty
major
manage
manifest
manipulate
manner
monogram
monotony
manual
manufacture
manuscript
marriage
marry
Latin (legere) to choose, gather, to read
Latin (legere) to choose, gather, to read
Latin (legis lator) proposer of a law
Latin (licere) be permitted
Greek (lethargos) forgetful, inactive through forgetfulness
Latin (lavatrina) washbasin, washroom
Latin (littera) letter of the alphabet
Latin (libra) balance, scales
Latin (levare) to raise
Greek (lexikographos) to write wordbook
Latin (liber) free
Latin (liber) book, paper, parchment, the inner bark of trees
Latin (limitem) a boundary, embankment between fields, border
Latin (linum) flax, linen
Latin (linea) string, line
Latin (linum) flax, linen
Latin (lingua) language, tongue
Latin (liquere) be fluid
Latin (lit(t)era) letter
Latin (lit(t)eratus) educated, learned, one who knows the letters
Latin (lit(t)era) letter
Greek (leitourgos) one who performs a public ceremony or
service, public servant
Latin (locus) place
Greek (logos) reason, idea, word
Latin (lex) law
Latin (lubricus) slippery
Latin (luna) moon
Latin (luxus) excess, extravagance, magnificence
Greek (lykeion) grove or garden with covered walks near Athens
where Aristotle taught
Greek (lyra) lyre
Greek (makhana) device, means
Latin (magister) chief, director
Latin (magnificus) magnificent
Latin (major) large, great
Latin (major) large, great
Latin (manus) hand
Latin (manifestus) caught in the act, plainly apprehensible, clear,
evident
Latin (manipulus) handful, sheaf
Latin (manus) hand
Greek (monogrammon) a character formed of several letters in
one design
Greek (monotonos) monotonous, of one tone
Latin (manus) hand
Latin (manufactura) hand work
Latin (manu scriptus) written by hand
Latin (maritatus) to wed, marry, give in marriage
Latin (maritus) married man, husband
martial
martyr
mass
massacre
master
material
mathematics
matron
mature
maximum
mayor
measure
mechanic
medal
mediate
medicine
medium
medieval
meditate
melancholy
member
memory
mental
mention
mercenary
merit
metal
metamorphosis
metaphor
meter
methaphysics
method
metropolis
migrate
mile
military
millenium
million
mineral
miniature
minimum
minister
minor
minute
miracle
mirror
missile
mission
mix
Latin (martialis) of Mars or war
Greek (martys) martyr, witness
Greek (maza) barley cake, lump, mass, ball
Latin (macellum) provisions store, butcher shop
Latin (magister) chief, head, director, teacher
Latin (materia) matter, stuff, wood, timber
Greek (manthanein) to learn
Latin (mater) mother
Latin (maturus) ripe, timely, early
Latin (maximus) greatest
Latin (major) large, great
Latin (mensura) a measuring, a thing to measure by
Greek (mekhanikos) an engineer, resourceful, inventive,
pertaining to machines
Latin (medialia) little halves
Latin (medius) middle
Latin (medicina) the medical art
Latin (medium) middle
Latin (medi(um)) middle age
Latin (meditatus) to meditate, to think over, consider
Greek (melankholia) sadness, black bile
Latin (membrum) limb, member of the body, part
Latin (memor) mindful
Latin (mens) mind
Latin (mention) calling to mind
Latin (merces) pay, reward, wages
Latin (meritum) desert, reward, merit
Greek (metallon) mine, ore, metal
Greek (metamorphoun) to transform
Greek (metapherein) transfer, carry over
Greek (metron) measure
Greek (ta meta ta physika) the (works) after the Physics
Greek (methodus) scientific inquiry, method of inquiry
Greek (metropolis) mother city
Latin (migrare) to move from one place to another
Latin (mille) thousand
Latin (miles) soldier
Latin (mlle annus) thousand years
Latin (mille) thousand
Latin (minerale) something mined
Latin (minium) red lead
Latin (minimum) smallest (thing)
Latin (ministeri) servant, priest's assistant
Latin (minor) lesser, smaller, junior
Latin (minuere) make small
Latin (mirus) wonderful
Latin (mirus) wonderful
Latin (missile) weapon that can be thrown
Latin (mittere) to send
Latin (mixtus) to mix
mobile
model
modern
modify
moment
monarch
money
monk
monogamy
monopoly
monotheist
monster
monument
moral
mortal
mortar
mosaic
motif, motive
motion
motto
mountain
move
multiple
mundane
muscle
muse
museum
music
mutilate
myrrh
mystery
mythhology
narration
nation
nature
navy
neglect
Neolithic
nerve
neutral
noble
nomad
normal
note
notion
notorious
November
Latin (movere) to move
Latin (modus) measure, standard
Latin (modus) measure
Latin (modus) measure, manner
Latin (momentum) movement, moving power, instant
Greek (monarkhia) absolute rule, ruling of one
Latin (Moneta) a title of the Roman goddess Juno, in or near
whose temple money was coined
Greek (monakhos) monk
Greek (monogamos) monogamous
Greek (monopolion) right of exclusive sale
Greek (monos+theos) believe in only one god
Latin (monstrum) monster, monstrosity, omen, portent, sign
Latin (monumentum) memorial
Latin (moralis) proper behavior of a person in society
Latin (mortalis) subject to death
Latin (mortarium) mortar, crushed drugs
Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song
Latin (movere) to move
Latin (movere) to move
Latin (muttire) to mutter
Latin (montanus) mountainous
Latin (movere) move, set in motion
Latin (multiplus) manifold
Latin (mundus) world
Latin (musculus) a muscle, little mouse
Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song
Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song
Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song
Latin (mutilatus) to cut or lop off
Greek (myrrha) was bitter
Greek (myein) to close, shut
Greek (muthologia) science of myths
Latin (narrare) to tell, relate, recount, explain, to make
acquainted with
Latin (nasci) be born
Latin (nasci) be born
Latin (navis) ship
Latin (neglegere) choose to gather pick up
Greek (neo+lithos) New Stone Age
Latin (nervus) sinew, tendon
Latin (neutralis) of neuter gender
Latin ((g)nobilis) well-known, famous, renowned, of superior
birth
Greek (nomos) pasture
Latin (normalis) made according to a carpenter's square
Latin (nota) letter, note, a mark, sign
Latin (notus) known
Latin (notus) known
Latin (novem) nine
nucleus
number
nurse
nurture
obedience
obelisk
obey
object
obligate
obol
obscene
obscure
observe
obtain
obverse
occasion
occupy
ocean
October
octopus
ode
offend
offer
office
oil
oligarchy
olive
omen
opera
operate
opinion
opponent
opportunity
opprobrium
opress
optimism
optimum
oracle
oral
oration
orbit
ordain
order
ordinary
organize
orgy
origin
ornament
Latin (nucula) little nut
Latin (numerus) a number, quantity
Latin (nutrix) wet nurse
Latin (nutrire) to nourish, suckle
Latin (oboediens) obey
Greek (obeliskos) a spit, pointed pillar, needle
Latin (oboedire) obey, pay attention to, give ear, listen to
Latin (obicere) to throw in the way, present, hinder
Latin (obligationem) an engaging or pledging, a binding
Greek (obolos) a spit, needle
Latin (obscenus) offensive, boding ill, inauspicious
Latin (obscurus) covered over, dark, obscure, indistinct
Latin (observare) watch over, guard, look to, attend to
Latin (obtinere) hold, take hold of, acquire
Latin (obvertere) to turn toward or against
Latin (occasum) fall down, go down
Latin (occupationem) a taking possession, business, employment
Greek (okeanos) the great river or sea surrounding the disk of the
Earth
Latin (octo) eight
Greek (oktopous) eight-footed
Greek (aeidein) sing
Latin (offendere) strike against, stumble, commit a fault,
displease
Latin (offerre) to present, bestow, bring before
Latin (officium) doing work
Greek (elaia) olive
Greek (oligarkhia) government by the few
Greek (elaia) olive
Latin (omen) omen
Latin (opus) a work
Latin (operari) to work, labour
Latin (opinari) think, judge, suppose, opine
Latin (opponere) oppose, object to, set against
Latin (opportunitatem) fitness, suitableness, favorable time
Latin (opprobare) to reproach, taunt
Latin (oppressus) to press against
Latin (optimus) the best
Latin (optimus) the best
Latin (oraculum) divine announcement, oracle
Latin (os) mouth, opening, face, entrance
Latin (orare) speak before a court or assembly, plead
Latin (orbita) wheel track, course, orbit
Latin (ordo) order
Latin (ordo) order, sequence
Latin (ordo) order
Latin (organum) instrument, organ
Greek (orgia) secret rites
Latin (oriri) arise
Latin (ornare) equip, adorn
orthodox
ostracism
oval
pacify
pagan
pain
palace
Paleolithic
palette
panache
panel
panic
panorama
pantheon
papa
paper
papyrus
parade
paradox
paragraph
parallel
paralyze
paranoia
parasite
parent
part
participate
particle
partisan
partner
passion
pasture
patient
patriarch
patrician
patricide
patriot
patron
pattern
pay
peace
peasant
pediment
penalty
penetrate
peninsula
people
percent
Greek (orthodoxos) having the right opinion
Greek (ostrakizein) to ostracize
Latin (ovum) egg
Latin (pacificus) peaceful, peace-making
Latin (pagus) rural district, district limited by markers
Greek (poine) punishment
Latin (palatium) palace
Greek (paleos+lithos) Old Stone Age
Latin (pala) spade, shoulder blade
Latin (pinnaculum) small wing, gable, peak
Latin (pannus) piece of cloth
Greek (Panikos) the god of woods and fields who was the source
of mysterious sounds that caused contagious, groundless fear in
herds and crowds, or in people in lonely spots
Greek (horan) to look, see
Greek (pantheion) all gods
Latin (papa) a child's word
Latin (papyrus) paper, paper made of papyrus stalks
Greek (papyros) any plant of the paper plant genus
Latin (parer) arrange, prepare, adorn
Greek (paradoxos) contrary to opinion
Greek (paragraphein) write by the side
Greek (parallelos) parallel
Greek (paralyein) disable, enfeeble
Greek (paranoos) mentally ill, insane
Greek (parasitos) person who eats at the table of another
Latin (parere) give birth
Latin (partem) part, piece, side, share
Latin (participare) participate
Latin (particula) little bit or part
Latin (partem) part, piece, side, share
Latin (partitionem) portion
Latin (passio) passion
Latin (pastus) to feed, graze
Latin (patientem) patient
Greek (patriarches) the leader of a family
Latin (patres conscripti) Roman senators, fathers
Latin (patricidium) to kill a father
Greek (patris) fatherland
Latin (patronus) a lord-master, protector
Latin (patronus) a lord-master, protector
Latin (pax) peace
Latin (pax) treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of war
Latin (pagus) country or rural district
Latin (pedamentum) vine-stalk, prop
Greek (poine) blood-money, fine, penalty, punishment
Latin (penetratus) to put or get into, enter into
Latin (pæninsula) almost an island
Latin (populus) people
Latin (per centum) by the hundred
perfect
perimeter
period
permament
perpendicular
persecute
persist
person
perspective
persuade
pessimism
phase
philippic
philosophy
phonetic
phrase
physics
pi
pictogram
pictograph
pictorial
picture
pinnacle
pious
pirate
placate
place
plague
plain
plan
plane
planet
plant
plantation
pleasant
plebeian
plunge
poem
point
poison
policy
polis
politics
pollute
polytheism
pomp
pontifex
pontoon
Latin (perfectus) completed
Greek (perimetros) circumference
Greek (periodos) way around rounded sentence, cycle, circuit,
period of time
Latin (permanere) remain through
Latin (perpendere) balance carefully
Latin (persecutionem) pursue, start a legal action
Latin (persistere) continue steadfastly
Latin (persona) human being, character in a drama, mask
Latin (perspicere) inspect, look through
Latin (persuadere) persuade
Latin (pessimus) worst, bottom-most
Greek (phasis) appearance (of a star), phase (of the moon)
Latin (orationes Philippicæ) speeches made by Cicero against
Marc Antony
Greek (philosophia) love of knowledge, wisdom
Greek (phonein) to sound with the voice
Greek (phrazein) to express, tell
Greek (physike) natural science
Greek (pi) Greek letter
Latin (pictus+gram) pictogram
Latin (pictus +graph) pictograph
Latin (pingere) to paint
Latin (pingere) to paint
Latin (pinnaculum) gable
Latin (pius) dutiful, kind, devout
Greek (peiran) to attack, make a hostile attempt on, try
Latin (placare) to calm, appease
Greek (plateia) broad
Latin (plaga) stroke, wound
Latin (planus) flat, even, level
Latin (planus) flat, even, level
Latin (plantum) flat surface
Greek (planasthai) to wander
Latin (planta) sole of the foot
Latin (plantare) to plant
Latin (placere) to be acceptable, be liked, be approved
Latin (plebs) Roman plebs
Latin (plumbum) lead
Greek (poein) to make or compose
Latin (pungere) prick, pierce
Latin (potare) to drink
Greek (apodexis) proof, declaration
Greek (polis) city
Greek (politika) politics
Latin (polluere) to soil, defile, contaminate
Greek (polytheos) polytheistic, of many gods
Greek (pempein) to send
Latin (pontifex) pontifex
Latin (pontonem) flat-bottomed boat
pope
popular
populace
port
portion
portray
pose
position
positive
possess
post
potent
power
practice
praetor
praise
pray
preach
prerogative
precedent
precious
predecessor
predict
prejudice
prelude
prepare
presence
preserve
press
pressure
prestige
pretense
prevalent
prevent
prey
price
priest
prime
primeval
primitive
prince
principal
principle
prior
prison
private
privilege
probable
problem
Greek (papas) patriarch, bishop, father
Latin (populus) people
Latin (populus) people
Latin (portus) port, harbor, entrance, passage
Latin (portionem) share, part
Latin (trahere) to draw forth, reveal, expose to drag
Latin (pausare) to halt, rest, pause
Latin (ponere) to lay down, put, place
Latin (positus) put, place
Latin (possidere) to possess
Latin (postis) post
Latin (potis) powerful, able, capable
Latin (potis) able, powerful
Greek (prattein) to do
Latin (prætor) one who goes before, a consul as leader of an
army
Latin (pretium) price
Latin (prex) prayer, request, entreaty
Latin (predicare) to proclaim publicly, announce
Latin (prærogere) ask before others
Latin (cedere) to yield, to go, leave
Latin (pretium) price
Latin (praedecessor) somebody who has departed before
Latin (prædicere) foretell, advise, give notice
Latin (præjudicium) prior judgment
Latin (præludere) to play beforehand for practice, preface
Latin (præparare) prepare
Latin (praesentare) make present
Latin (praeservare) guard beforehand
Latin (pressare) keep on pressing
Latin (pressura) action of pressing
Latin (præstigiæ) juggler's tricks
Latin (prætendere) stretch in front, put forward, allege
Latin (prævalentem) to be more able
Latin (prævenire) come before, anticipate, hinder
Latin (praeda) booty
Latin (pretium) reward, prize, value, worth
Latin (presbyter) presbyter, elder
Latin (primus) first
Latin (prim ævus) first age
Latin (primus) first
Latin (princeps) first, chief, prince
Latin (principalis) first in importance
Latin (princeps) first, chief, prince
Latin (prior) former, superior
Latin (prehendere) to take
Latin (privatus) isolated, not in public life, privare to deprive
Latin (privilegium) law applying to one person, privilege
Latin (probare) to try, to test
Greek (proballein) propose
proceed
process
proclaim
product
profess
proficient
profile
profound
prognosis
program
progress
project
proletariat
prologue
prolong
prominent
promiscuity
promise
prompt
proof
propaganda
property
prophecy
proportion
prospect
prosperity
prostitute
protect
protest
prototype
provide
province
provision
psychology
public
publish
pulley
pungent
punish
pupil
pure
purport
pursuit
pyramid
quaestor
qualify
quality
quantity
quarrel
quarry
Latin (procedere) go forward, advance
Latin (processus) procedere
Latin (proclamare) cry or call out
Latin (productus) something produced
Latin (professionem) public declaration
Latin (proficere) accomplish, make progress, be useful
Latin (filum) thread
Latin (profundus) deep, bottomless, vast, obscure, profound
Greek (progignoskein) come to know beforehand
Greek (prographein) to write publicly
Latin (progressus) progress
Latin (projectum) something thrown forth
Latin (proles) offspring, progeny
Greek (prologos) prologue of a play, speaker of a prologue
Latin (prolongare) to prolong, extend
Latin (prominere) jut or stand out
Latin(promiscuus) mixed, indiscriminate
Latin (promissum) a promise
Latin (promptus) brought forth, at hand, ready, quick
Latin (proba) a proof
Latin (propaganda) committee of cardinals
Latin (proprius) your own, particular, special
Greek (prophetia) gift of interpreting the will of the gods
Latin (proportionem) comparative relation, analogy
Latin (prospectus) view, outlook
Latin (prosperitatem) good fortune
Latin (prostituere) to expose to prostitution, expose publicly
Latin (protectus) protect, cover in front
Latin (protestari) declare publicly, testify, protest
Greek (prototypon) a first or primitive form
Latin (providere) look ahead, prepare, supply
Latin (provincia) territory under Roman domination
Latin (providere) look ahead
Greek (psykhe+logia) study of soul
Latin (populus) people
Latin (publicus) public
Greek (polos) pivot, axis
Latin (pungere) to prick, pierce, sting
Latin (poena) penalty
Latin (pupilla) little girl-doll, orphan, ward, minor
Latin (purus) pure, innocent
Latin (portare) to carry
Latin (prosequi) follow up
Greek (pyramis) pyramid
Latin (quaerere) to inquire
Latin (qualificare) attribute a quality to
Latin (qualis) of what sort
Latin (quam) how, how much
Latin (queri) to complain, lament
Latin (quadrare) to square
quarter
quotate
radical
radius
rage
rapacious
rapid
ratify
ratio
ray
real
reality
realm
reason
rebel
receipt
receive
receptacle
recite
recognize
record
recover
recruit
rectangle
redeem
redemption
reflect
reform
refuge
refute
regent
regime
region
regular
regulate
reign
reject
relapse
relation
relevant
reliance
relief
religion
reminiscence
remorse
remote
reparate
repeat
report
Latin (quartus) fourth
Latin (quotare) to number
Latin (radix) root
Latin (radius) staff, spoke of a wheel, beam of light
Latin (rabies) madness, rage, fury
Latin (rapere) seize
Latin (rapidus) hasty, snatching
Latin (ratus) fixed, valid
Latin (ratio) reckoning, calculation, business affair, procedure,
reason
Latin (radius) ray, spoke, staff, rod
Latin (res) matter, thing
Latin (realis) real existence
Latin (regimen) system of government, rule
Lation (ratus) to reckon, think
Latin (rebellare) to rebel, wage war against
Latin (recipere) to receive
Latin (recipere) to receive
Latin (recipere) to hold, contain
Latin (recitare) read aloud, repeat from memory
Latin (cognoscere) know
Latin (recordare) bring back to the heart
Latin (recuperare) to recover
Latin (crescere) to grow
Latin (rectangulum) a triangle having a right angle
Latin (redimere) to redeem, buy back
Latin (redimere) to redeem, buy back
Latin (reflexionem) a reflection, a bending back
Latin (reformare) to form again, change, alter
Latin (refugium) place to flee back to
Latin (refutare) drive back, repress, repel, rebut
Latin (regens) ruler, governor
Latin (regimen) rule, guidance, government
Latin (regere) to rule
Latin (regula) rule
Latin (regula) rule
Latin (regnum) kingship, dominion, rule, realm
Latin (reicere) to throw back
Latin (relabi) slip back
Latin (relationem) a bringing back, restoring
Latin (relevare) to raise, alleviate
Latin (religare) fasten, bind fast
Latin (relevare) to raise, lighten
Latin (religio(n)) obligation, reverence
Latin (reminisci) remember, recall to mind
Latin (remordere) to vex, disturb, to bite back
Latin (remotus) afair off, remote
Latin (reparare) restore
Latin (repetitus) do or say again
Latin (reportare) carry back
represent
republic
repudiate
reputate
require
requisite
resemble
resent
reside
resist
resolve
resource
respect
response
responsible
restore
restitution
restrict
result
resurrect
retribution
reveal
revenue
reverence
revise
revive
revolt
revolution
rhetoric
rhytm
ridicule
rigor
rite
rival
river
roll
romance
rostrum
rotate
royal
ruin
rule
rural
rustic
sacred
sacrifice
saint
salary
Latin (praeesse) be in front of
Latin (respublica) public interest, the state
Latin (repudium) divorce, rejection
Latin (reputatus) reflect upon, reckon
Latin (requirere) ask,seek to know, seek in return
Latin (requirere) ask,seek to know, seek in return
Latin (simulare) to copy
Latin (sentire) perceive, feel
Latin (residere) to remain behind, rest
Latin (resistere) to resist, to stand back, withstand
Latin (solvere) to loosen, dissolve, untie
Latin (surgere) to rise
Latin (respectus) regard, act of looking back at one
Latin (responsum) answer
Latin (respondere) to respond
Latin (restaurare) repair, rebuild, renew
Latin (restitutus) restore, rebuild, replace
Latin (restringere) restrict, bind fast, restrain
Latin (resultare) spring back, reverberate
Latin (resurgere) rise again
Latin (tributum) tribute, a thing contributed or paid
Latin (revelare) reveal, uncover, disclose
Latin (revenire) return, come back
Latin (revereri) to revere
Latin (revisere) look at again, visit again
Latin (revivere) to live again
Latin (revolvitare) to overturn, overthrow
Latin (revolution) to revolve turn, roll back
Greek (rhetor) orator
Greek (rhythmos) measured flow or movement, rhythm
Latin (ridere) to laugh
Latin (rigidus) hard, stiff, rough, severe
Latin (ritus) religious observance or ceremony, custom, usage
Latin (rivalis) a rival
Latin (ripa) river bank, shore
Latin (rotula) small wheel
Latin (Roma) Rome
Latin (rostrum) name of the platform stand for public speakers in
the Forum in ancient Rome
Latin (rotare) revolve, roll
Latin (rex) king
Latin (ruere) to fall, headlong, collapse
Latin (regula) straight stick, standard
Latin (rus) open land, country
Latin (rus) open land, country
Latin (sacrre) sacred
Latin (sacra) sacred rites
Latin (sanctus) holy, consecrated
Latin (salarium) salary, stipend, oldier's allowance for the
purchase of salt
salvation
sample
sandal
sanitation
sarcophagus
satire
satisfy
save
scandal
scarce
scene
sceptic
scheme
schism
scholar
school
science
scope
scribe
script
sculpture
season
seclude
second
secret
sect
section
secure
seduce
segment
select
senate
senior
sense
sentiment
sepulcher
serene
serf
series
serious
sermon
service
set
several
severe
sexagesimal
sex
siege
Latin (salvare) save
Latin (exemplum) a sample
Greek (sandalion) sandal
Latin (sanus) healthy, sane
Greek (sarkophagos) limestone used for coffins, flesh-eating
Latin (satira) satire, poetic medley
Latin (satisfacere) satisfy
Latin (salvus) safe
Greek (skandalon) stumbling block, trap with a springing device
Latin (excerpere) pluck out
Greek (skene) scene, stage, tent or booth
Greek (skeptesthai) to reflect, look, view
Greek (skhema) figure, appearance, the nature of a thing
Greek (skhizein) to split
Greek (skhole) school, lecture, discussion, leisure, spare time
Greek (skhole) school, lecture, discussion, leisure, spare time
Latin (scire) to know, to separate one thing from another, to
distinguish
Greek (skopein) to look
Latin (scribere) write
Latin (scribere) write
Latin (scalpere) to carve, cut
Latin (serere) to sow
Latin (secludere) shut off, confine
Latin (sequi) follow
Latin (secretus) set apart, withdrawn, hidden
Latin (secta) manner, mode, following, school of thought
Latin (secare) to cut
Latin (securus) without care, safe
Latin (seducere) lead away, lead astray
Latin (secare) to cut
Latin (selectus)hoose out, select
Latin (senex) old man, old
Latin (senior) older
Latin (sensus) perception, feeling, undertaking, meaning
Latin (sentire) to feel
Latin (sepulcrum) grave, tomb
Latin (serenitatem) clearness, serenity
Latin (servum) slave
Latin (serere) to join, link, bind together, put
Latin (serius) weighty, important, grave
Latin (sermonem) discourse, speech, talk, a stringing together of
words
Latin (servus) slave
Latin (secta) a following
Latin (separe) to separate
Latin (severus) stern, strict, serious
Latin (sexaginta) sixty
Latin (sexus) state of being either male or female, gender
Latin (sedere) sit
sign
significant
silent
simplify
sincere
single
site
situation
slave
society
soldier
solemn
solid
solon
solve
sophist
sorcery
sound
source
space
special
spectacle
speculate
spend
sphere
sphinx
spiral
spirit
splendid
sponsor
sporadic
square
stable
stadium
stage
state
stagnate
station
statistics
statue
stele
stimulate
stoa
stoicism
stop
story
strait
strategem
strategy
Latin (signum) mark, sign, token image, seal
Latin (significans) meaning, force, energy
Latin (silere) silent
Latin (simplex) single
Latin (sincerus) honest
Latin (singulus) one, individual, separate
Latin (sinere) to leave, allow put
Latin (situatus) to locate
Latin (Slavic) slave
Latin (socius) companion
Latin (solidus) a Roman gold coin
Latin (sollemnis) formal, ceremonial, traditional
Latin (solidus) firm, whole, entire
Greek (Solon) name of early lawgiver of Athens
Latin (solvere) to loosen, untie, solve, dissolve
Greek (sophos) wise, clever
Latin (sors) lot, fate, fortune
Latin (sonus) sound
Latin (surgere) to rise
Latin (spatium) room, area, distance, stretch of time
Latin (species) kind
Latin (spectare) to view, watch
Latin (specere) to look at, view
Latin (expendere) to weigh out money, pay down
Greek (sphaira) globe, ball
Greek (Sphinx) the strangler
Greek (speira) coil, twist, wreath
Latin (spiritus) of breathing, of the spirit
Latin (splendere) be bright, shine
Latin (sponsus) give assurance, promise solemnly
Greek (spora) a sowing
Latin (quattuor) four
Latin (stabilis) steadfast, firm
Latin (stadium) stadium
Latin (stare) to stand
Latin (stare) to stand
Latin (stagnatum) standing water
Latin (stationem) a standing, post, job, position
Latin (stare) to stand
Latin (stare) to stand
Greek (stele) standing block, slab
Latin (stimulus) goad, stake
Greek (stoa) colonnade, corridor
Greek (stoikos) pertaining to a member of or the teachings of the
school founded by Zeno
Latin (stuppare) to stop or stuff with tow or oakum
Latin (historia) picture, story
Latin (stringere) bind or draw tight
Greek (strategein) to be a general, command
Greek (stratos) multitude, army, expedition, that which is spread
street
stress
structure
studio
study
stupendous
style
subdue
subordinate
subsist
substance
subtle
suburb
success
succumb
sudden
suffer
suffix
suit
sum
summit
superb
superstition
supply
support
suppose
suppress
supreme
sure
surgery
surplus
survey
survive
syllable
symbol
sympathy
symptom
synagogue
synchronism
synonym
system
tactics
talent
tangible
tarsus
task
tavern
out
Latin (sternere) pave, throw down
Latin (stringere) draw tight
Latin (struere) to construct
Latin (studere) be diligent
Latin (studere) be diligent
Latin (stupendus) be stunned
Latin (stilus) stake, instrument for writing
Latin (subducere) draw, lead away, withdraw
Latin (subordinatus) placed in a lower order, made subject
Latin (subsistere) stand still or firm
Latin (substans) stand firm, be under or present
Latin (subtilis) fine, thin, delicate, finely woven
Latin (suburbium) an outlying part of a city
Latin (succedere) come after
Latin (succumbere) submit, sink down, lie under
Latin (subire) come up, go secretly
Latin (sufferire) to bear, undergo, endure, carry or put under
Latin (suffixus) fastened
Latin (secutus) to attend, follow
Latin (summa) whole, gist
Latin (summus) highest
Latin (superbus) grand, proud, sumptuous
Latin (superstitionem) prophecy, soothsaying, excessive fear of
the gods
Latin (supplere) fill up, complete
Latin (supportare) bear up
Latin (supponere) put or place under
Latin (supprimere) press down, stop, check, stifle
Latin (supremus) highest
Latin (securus) free from care, untroubled, heedless, safe secure
Greek (kheirourgos) working or done by hand
Latin (superplus) excess, surplus
Latin (supervidere) oversee
Latin (supervivere) live beyond
Greek (syllabe) a syllable, several sounds or letters taken together
Greek (sumbolon) mark
Greek (sympathes) having a fellow feeling, affected by like
feelings
Greek (sympiptein) to befall
Greek (synagein) to gather, assemble
Greek (synchronos) quality of being synchronous
Greek (synonymon) word having the same sense as another
Greek (histanai) set up to, cause to stand
Greek (taktike techne) art of arrangement
Greek (talanton) balance, weight, sum
Latin (tangere) to touch
Greek (tarsos) ankle, sole of the foot, rim of the eyelid
Latin (tasca) a duty
Latin (taberna) shop, inn, tavern, hut, shed
tax
technique
technology
teleology
temenos
temperature
temple
tempo
temporary
tempt
tenacious
tenant
tendency
tense
term
terrace
terrain
territory
terror
terse
test
Testament
testimony
tetrarch
text
theater
theme
theogony
theorem
theory
tholos
throne
title
toga
tolerate
tomb
tone
topography
torch
total
toxic
tower
trace
tradition
traffic
tragedy
traitor
tranquil
transact
Latin (taxare) evaluate, estimate, assess, handle, censure, charge
Greek (tekhne) art, skill, craft, method, system
Greek (tekhnologia) systematic treatment
Greek (teleologia) teleology
Greek (temenos) to cut
Latin (temperare) to moderate
Latin (templum) sacred place, place for worship
Latin (tempus) time
Latin (tempus) time, season
Latin (temptare) to feel, try out, attempt to influence, test
Latin (tenax) tough, holding fast
Latin (tenere) hold, keep
Latin (tendere) tend, be inclined to
Latin (tendere) to stretch
Latin (terminus) end, boundary line
Latin (terra) earth, land
Latin (terra) earth, land
Latin (terra) earth, land
Latin (terrere) fill with fear, frighten
Latin (tersus) wiped off, clean, neat
Latin (testum) earthen pot
Latin (testis) witness
Latin (testimonium) evidence, proof, testimony
Greek (tetrarkhes) leader of four companies, tetrarch
Latin (textus) texture, context
Greek (theatron) theater, place for viewing
Greek (tithenai) put down, place
Greek (theogonia) generation or birth of the gods
Greek (theorein) to consider
Greek (theoria) contemplation, theory
Greek (tholos) round building with a conical roof
Greek (thronos) elevated seat, chair, throne
Latin (intitulare) inscription title
Latin (toga) cloak or mantle
Latin (tolerans) to bear, endure, tolerate
Greek (tymbos) burial mound, grave, tomb
Greek (tonos) vocal pitch, raising of voice, accent, key in music
Greek (topographos) describing a place
Latin (torquere) to twist
Latin (totus) all, whole, entire
Greek (toxicon) poison (for use on arrows)
Greek (tyrsis) castle, building
Latin (tractus) track, course, a drawing out
Latin (traditus) deliver, hand over
Latin (transfricare) to rub across
Greek (tragodia) a dramatic poem or play in formal language and
having an unhappy resolution
Latin (tradere) deliver, surrender
Latin (tranquillus) tranquil
Latin (transactus) accomplish, drive or carry through
transcend
transit
translate
transmit
transport
treasure
treat
triangle
tribe
tribune
tribute
trilogy
trinity
trireme
triumph
triumvir
trouble
tumult
turbulent
turmoil
turn
tutor
type
typical
tyranny
ultimate
unify
unique
unit
universe
universal
urban
usual
uterus
utility
utopia
vacant
vacillation
vague
valerian
valid
valley
value
vapor
variety
vegetarianism
vegetation
Latin (transcendere) climb over or beyond, surmount
Latin (transition) a going across or over
Latin (translatus) translate
Latin (transmittere) send across
Latin (transportare) carry across
Greek (thesauros) store, treasure, treasure house
Latin (tractare) manage, handle, deal with, drag about
Latin (triangulum) triangle
Latin (tribus) one of the three political/ethnic divisions of the
original Roman state
Latin (tribus) one of the three political/ethnic divisions of the
original Roman state
Latin (tributum) tribute, a thing contributed or paid
Greek (trilogia) series of three related tragedies performed at
Athens at the festival of Dionysus
Latin (trinus) threefold, triple
Latin (triremis) ancient ship with three rows of oars
Greek (thriambos) hymn to Dionysus
Latin (tres viri) three men
Latin (turbidare) to trouble, make turbid
Latin (tumultus) commotion, disturbance
Latin (turba) turmoil, crowd
Latin (trimodia) vessel containing three modii
Latin (tornus) turning lathe
Latin (tutorem) guardian, watcher
Greek (typtein) to strike, beat
Greek (typos) impression
Greek (turannos) tyrant
Latin (ultimus) last, final
Latin (unificare) make one
Latin (unus) one
Latin (unitatem) oneness, sameness, agreement
Latin (universum) the universe
Latin (universus) all together, whole, entire
Latin (urbs) city
Latin (usus) custom
Latin (uterus) womb, belly
Latin (utilis) usable
Greek (outopos) nowhere
Latin (vacare) to be empty
Latin (vacillare) sway to and fro
Latin (vagus) wandering, rambling, vacillating, vague
Latin (Valerius) the personal name
Latin (valere) be strong
Latin (vallis) valley
Latin (valere) be strong, be well, be of value
Latin (vaporem) exhalation, steam, heat
Latin (varius) various
Latin (vegere) to be alive, active, to quicken
Latin (vegetare) to grow, to enliven
vehicle
venerate
vengeance
venial
venture
vernal
verse
version
vertical
vessel
veteran
veto
vicar
vicious
victim
victory
view
vigor
villa
villein
vindicate
vindictive
violent
virgin
virile
virtue
virulent
vision
visit
vital
vivid
vocabulary
vocal
voice
voluntary
vote
voyage
vulgar
vulgate
vulnerable
wall
zeal
Latin (vehere) to carry
Latin (venus) beauty, love, desire
Latin (vindicare) to set free, claim, avenge
Latin (venia) forgiveness, indulgence, pardon
Latin (aventura) a thing about to happen
Latin (ver) spring
Latin (versus) verse, line of writing
Latin (versionem) a turning
Latin (vertex) highest point
Latin (vascellum) small vase or urn, a ship
Latin (vetus) old
Latin (veto) I forbid
Latin (vicis) turn, change, exchange, substitution
Latin (vitiosus) faulty, defective, corrupt
Latin (victima) person or animal killed as a sacrifice
Latin (victoria) victory
Latin (videre) see
Latin (vigere) be lively, flourish, thrive
Latin (villa) country house
Latin (villa) country house
Latin (vindicare) to set free, lay claim to, assert, avenge
Latin (vindicta) revenge
Latin (violentus) vehement, forcible
Latin (virginem) maiden, unwedded girl or woman
Latin (virilis) of a man, manly
Latin (vir) man
Latin (virus) poison
Latin (videre) to see
Latin (visitare) to go to see, come to inspect
Latin (vita) life
Latin (vivus) alive
Latin (vocabulum) word, name, noun
Latin (vox) voice
Latin (vocem) voice, sound, utterance, cry, call, speech, sentence,
language, word
Latin (voluntas) will
Latin (votum) a vow, wish, promise, dedication
Latin (via) road, journey, travel
Latin (vulgus) the common people, multitude, crowd, throng
Latin (vulgus) the common people
Latin (vulnus) wound
Latin (vallus) stake, palisade
Greek (zelos) zeal, ardour, jealousy, eager rivalry
Poďakovanie
Moja vďaka patrí mojej konzultantke PaedDr. Marte Kadorovej, ktorej cenné
rady a inštrukcie mi boli veľkou pomocou.
Acknowledgement
My gratitude belongs to my consultant PaedDr. Marta Kadorová, whose
valuable pieces of advice and instructions were very helpful for me.
Čestné vyhlásenie
Čestne prehlasujem, že problematiku diplomovej práce som riešila a napísala
samostatne na základe preštudovaného materiálu a použité zdroje som na príslušných
miestach uviedla.
Declaration of originality
I, the undersigned, solemnly declare that this diploma work is the result of my
own independent research and was written solely by me using the literature and sources
listed in the Bibliography.
Žilina, 12. apríl 2006
…………………………………
Lucia Struhárová