FV11A8900 Academic Writing in English
The Language of Academic Papers
When we talk about the language of academic writing, we are actually talking
about a style; a preference of certain words and phrases over others.
Below you will find some information about generic conventions that work well in
all forms of academic writing.
A. Formal grammar style
There are some non vocabulary-related recommendations for maintaining a
formal academic writing style.
1. Generally avoid contractions
 I’m  I am
 won’t  will not
 Export figures won’t improve…  Export figures will not
improve…
2. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms.
 not… any  no
 not… much  little
 not… many  few
 The analysis didn’t yield any new results The analysis yielded
no new results
 The government didn’t allocate much funding…  The
government allocated little funding…
 This problem doesn’t have many viable solutions  This problem
has few viable solutions
3. Limit the use of “run-on” expressions, such as and so forth and etc.
 These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc. 
These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and
other electronic devices.
4. Avoid addressing the reader as you (unless it is a textbook or
instructional material).
 You can see the results in Table 1. The results can be seen in
Table 1.
5. Avoid using direct questions. However, in some fields they are
common, while in others they are not.
 What can be done to lower the costs?  It is necessary to consider
how costs may be lowered.
Taken and adapted from the following sources:
Swales and Feak (1994) Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor
Bastalich, Wendy (2010) Academic Writing website. Unit for Teaching and Learning. University of South
Australia. http://www.unisa.edu.au/ltu/students/research/writing/academic (accessed 12.9.10)
FV11A8900 Academic Writing in English
The Language of Academic Papers
6. Place adverbs within the verb.
In academic writing adverbs are often split, or placed mid-position rather
than in the initial or final positions.
 Actually, very little is known about the species Very little is
actually known about species
7. Aim for an efficient use of words.
Use as many words as you need to express your point; try to use no more
than you really need.
 It may be difficult to make a decision about the method that we
should use.  Choosing the proper method may be difficult.
8. The use of I or we
 Check in several journals to determine what is appropriate in your
field.
9. Active and passive voice
This section is taken verbatim (that means copied word-for-word) from the
Academic Writing webpages of the Teaching and Learning Unit of the
University of South Australia. The direct URL can be found from the footer at
the bottom of each page.
Active voice places the actor of the sentence in the subject − the part of the
sentence in front of the verb. For example: ‘management implemented the
policy’; or ‘the results confirm an increase in violence’.
Passive voice places the actor of the sentence in the predicate (the part of the
sentence behind the verb), or leaves it out altogether. For example: ‘the policy
was implemented by management’, ‘the policy was implemented’; or ‘an
increase in violence is confirmed by the results’, ‘an increase in violence is
confirmed’.
Preference is for the active voice because it is more direct, concise and
accurate. However, there are times when the passive voice makes more
sense. Instances where passive voice is deemed more appropriate than
active voice may include:
1. for tact and diplomacy (where it would be inappropriate to mention the
actor);
2. if the actor is unimportant or unknown;
3. to add variety to the writing;
Taken and adapted from the following sources:
Swales and Feak (1994) Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor
Bastalich, Wendy (2010) Academic Writing website. Unit for Teaching and Learning. University of South
Australia. http://www.unisa.edu.au/ltu/students/research/writing/academic (accessed 12.9.10)
FV11A8900 Academic Writing in English
The Language of Academic Papers
4. in methods and results sections where the action is more important
than the actor, for example: ‘stress reactions were monitored in group
de-briefing sessions’ rather than ‘I monitored stress reactions in group
de-briefing sessions’;
5. to emphasise part of the sentence, for example: ‘a reform agenda
emerged from the change of government’ emphasises the agenda,
whereas ‘change of government led to a reform agenda’ emphasises
the change of government.
These guidelines are designed to help you maintain a scholarly an objective tone
in your writing.
B. The Vocabulary Shift
There are increasing challenges in describing academic writing style. However,
one distinctive feature is choosing the more formal alternative when selecting a
verb, noun or other part of speech. This is called the vocabulary shift and it tends
to be one of the more challenging aspects of academic writing.
Verbs
English often has two (or more) choices to express an action or occurrence. The
choice is often between phrasal verbs (verb + particle) or prepositional verb (verb
+ preposition) and a single verb. In spoken language, the verb + preposition is
mostly used, but for written academic style, use a single verb wherever possible.
This is one of the most dramatic stylistic shifts from informal to formal style.
Compare:
According to some biologists, coming up with clear proof of the decreasing
numbers of frogs has been difficult.
According to some biologists, offering clear proof of the decreasing
numbers of frogs has been difficult.
Taken and adapted from the following sources:
Swales and Feak (1994) Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor
Bastalich, Wendy (2010) Academic Writing website. Unit for Teaching and Learning. University of South
Australia. http://www.unisa.edu.au/ltu/students/research/writing/academic (accessed 12.9.10)
FV11A8900 Academic Writing in English
The Language of Academic Papers
Task 1
Choose a verb from the box that reduces the informality of the sentence. Note
that you may need to add tense to the verb from the list. Write down any other
single verbs that you think could also work in the sentences.
review
maintain
develop
cause
eliminate
reach
determine
investigate
decrease
constitute
1. The six leading causes of death in the U.S. – coronary heart disease,
stroke, lung cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease – are mainly brought on by overeating, a lack of
exercise, and cigarette smoking. _____________________
2. Scientists are looking into innovative ways to combat AIDS.
________________
3. The purpose of this paper is to try to figure out what is lacking in our
current understanding of corrosion and corrosion protection in concrete.
________________
4. Researchers have recently come up with hybrid vehicles that use a fuelcell engine and a battery-assisted power train. ____________________
5. Rice and aquatic products make up a major part of the diet of the people
in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. ___________________
6. The use of touch-screen voting systems could get rid of many problems
associated with traditional paper-based ballots. _________________
7. Worldwide consumption of pesticides has gone up to 2.6 million metric
tons. _________________
8. Although labor unions in the U.S. have been able to keep up their
membership numbers over the last two decades, they have been losing
their political strength. _________________
9. the number of mature female green turtles that return to their primary
nesting beach has gone down from 1,280 ten years ago to 145 today.
__________________
Taken and adapted from the following sources:
Swales and Feak (1994) Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor
Bastalich, Wendy (2010) Academic Writing website. Unit for Teaching and Learning. University of South
Australia. http://www.unisa.edu.au/ltu/students/research/writing/academic (accessed 12.9.10)
FV11A8900 Academic Writing in English
The Language of Academic Papers
10. The U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency looks over nearly 25,000
export license applications to make sure that no equipment or materials
are sent to places where they could be used to make advanced weapons.
__________________
Task 2
Reduce the informality of the sentences by substituting a single, latinate verb
for the one in italics. In each case, try to find two or three possibilities and be
prepared to discuss them.
1. Researchers have come up with a number of models to describe the effect
of certain beverages on dental enamel erosion.
2. AIDS researchers have run into a variety of unexpected problems in their
efforts to develop a vaccine.
3. Recent studies on car scrapping have brought up the important question
as to whether CO₂ emissions can be significantly reduced.
4. Problems with this policy showed up soon after its implementation.
5. In the past five years many studies have looked at the effect of different
grassland management practices.
Nouns and other parts of speech
English has a very rich vocabulary derived from many languages (mainly from
Latin, French, Old Norse). Because of this, there may be more than one way to
express an idea. You should try to choose more formal variants to be more
precise. Again, in spoken language you will most likely hear more informal
language.
Task 3
Which of the two alternatives (in italics) would be more suitable for an academic
paper? Can you think of other alternatives?
1. Crash test dummies are really important for/integral part of automotive
crash tests.
2. In Hong Kong there is one cell phone for just about/nearly every two
people.
Taken and adapted from the following sources:
Swales and Feak (1994) Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor
Bastalich, Wendy (2010) Academic Writing website. Unit for Teaching and Learning. University of South
Australia. http://www.unisa.edu.au/ltu/students/research/writing/academic (accessed 12.9.10)
FV11A8900 Academic Writing in English
The Language of Academic Papers
3. There has been a lot of/considerable interest in how background sounds
such as music affect an individual’s ability to concentrate.
4. We got/obtained encouraging results using structural bamboo rather than
timber.
5. Consumer interest in electronic billing and payment is getting
bigger/increasing.
Of course, when you are offered two alternatives, the more academic choice is
fairly clear. It is more difficult to make good language choices on your own.
Task 4
Look at the following sentences and change the words in italics to a more formal
style. You may need to make other changes as well so that the sentence is still
grammatical.
1. The competition faced by U.S. growers from imports of Mexican fresh
vegetables has gotten more intense.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Many urban areas do not have enough land to build new public schools.
_________________________________________________________
3. Allergic reactions to local dental anesthesia do not happen very often.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. The doors on these ferries were made bigger to make it easier to load and
unload vehicles.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Task 5
Increase the formality of each sentence.
1. You can use this model to check out the effects of several parameter
changes.
2. OK, what are the reasons that coffee prices have fallen? There’re a lot of
possibilities.
Taken and adapted from the following sources:
Swales and Feak (1994) Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor
Bastalich, Wendy (2010) Academic Writing website. Unit for Teaching and Learning. University of South
Australia. http://www.unisa.edu.au/ltu/students/research/writing/academic (accessed 12.9.10)
FV11A8900 Academic Writing in English
The Language of Academic Papers
3. You can see the difference between these two ways of designing
underground subway stations clearly.
4. Recent research has shown that the arms are used commonly for
protection during a fall to the ground.
5. So far there hasn’t been any comprehensive study looking into the role of
smiling in getting the initial trust of individuals.
6. There are some studies that have concluded that bamboo could be used
by builders more widely that it is now as a construction material.
7. These special tax laws have been enacted in six states: Illinois, Iowa,
Ohio, etc.
8. There isn’t very much research on the use of oil palm shell as coarse
aggregate in the production of concrete.
NOW…Task 6
a) Read through a page of your reference article and look for the things
mentioned in the article above. Are there specific words and/or that are
repeated? Are there any new expressions?
b) If you bought the recommended textbook for the course, then take a look
at section 3.2 Academic vocabulary (pp179-183). There you can find
more examples of formal nouns, verbs and adjectives.
If you don’t have the book (or even if you did have the book), take a look
at the following websites:
Academic Writing in English
http://sana.tkk.fi/awe/style/vocabulary/index.html
Here, you can work on academic (formal) vocabulary
http://sana.tkk.fi/awe/style/sentence/index.html
This part of the website gives you more detailed information on what you
read above. It also has exercises you can try at the end if you wish.
Taken and adapted from the following sources:
Swales and Feak (1994) Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor
Bastalich, Wendy (2010) Academic Writing website. Unit for Teaching and Learning. University of South
Australia. http://www.unisa.edu.au/ltu/students/research/writing/academic (accessed 12.9.10)
FV11A8900 Academic Writing in English
The Language of Academic Papers
Homework:
1) Vocabulary Shift review:
a. Go to the following URL:
http://sana.tkk.fi/awe/style/vocabulary/exercises/index.html
b. Choose one exercise per section (minimum) – the estimated time for each
exercise can be found at the right.
VERBS
Finding unsuitable informal verbs
15 min.
Recognising formal verbs
5 min.
Selecting the most formal verb
20 min.
ADJECTIVES
Recognising formal adjectives
5 min.
Selecting the most formal adjective
10 min.
ADVERBS
Recognising formal adverbs
2) Forming the passive (optional)
If you’ve forgotten how to form the passive, go through the explanations at the
following website: http://sana.tkk.fi/awe/grammar/passive/index.html
Taken and adapted from the following sources:
Swales and Feak (1994) Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor
Bastalich, Wendy (2010) Academic Writing website. Unit for Teaching and Learning. University of South
Australia. http://www.unisa.edu.au/ltu/students/research/writing/academic (accessed 12.9.10)
15 min.