1
History of the World
Ethic of Development in the Global Environment
Winter 2004
Shantelle Brumfield
Erin Thuston
2
Historically, the presence of religion lies in the hands of the Roman Empire. The
Romans had a religion of their own, to the Romans, religion was less a spiritual experience than
a contractual relationship between mankind and the forces which were believed to control
people's existence and well-being. This may explain their difficulty in taking to the idea of a
single, all-seeing, all-powerful god. As a result the Roman’s approach to religion was
systematic. Their religious practices were not based on any central belief, but on a mixture of
fragmented rituals, taboos, superstitions, and traditions, which collected over the years from a
number of sources. Through these influences of tradition the hierarchy of priest and priestesses
was created. While, the Roman priests were carefully chosen for the purpose of performing rites
on behalf of the state. The highest priests and priestesses of Rome were elected from the
Patrician class, and trained carefully for their jobs. Priests served at temples for Roman gods and
priestesses served at temples for goddesses. Consequently, the Roman religious practices lead to
corrupt influences in the political and militant world that surrounded. However, as an outcome
to these events there were private concerns in many families. Where the heads of the homes
began to oversaw the domestic rituals and prayers in the manner of public ceremonies. In which
circumstance the people's view of the world changed, individuals whose personal religious needs
remained unsatisfied turned increasingly during the first century AD to the mysteries, which
were of Greek origin, and to the cults of the east. This rise in concern of the Roman Empire
opened the western European world to division of religion into Judaism, Christianity and
Islamic.
Early History of Judaism
Circa 2000 BCE, the God of the ancient Israelites established a divine covenant with
Abraham, making him the patriarch of many nations. The term Abramic Religions is derived
from his name. These are the four religions which trace their roots back to Abraham: Judaism,
Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i World Faith. The book of Genesis describes the events
surrounding the lives of the three patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Theres is also Joseph,
who is recognized, as a fourth patriarch by Christians is not considered one by Jews. Moses was
the next leader of the ancient Israelites. He led his people out of captivity in Egypt, and received
the Law from God. After decades of wandering through wilderness, Joshua led the tribes into the
Promised Land, driving out the Canaanites through a series of military battles. The original tribal
organization was converted into a kingdom by Samuel; its first king was Saul. The second king,
David, established Jerusalem as the religious and political center. The third king, Solomon built
the first temple there.
Division into the Northern Kingdom of Israel and the Southern kingdom of Judah
occurred shortly after the death of Solomon in 922 BCE. Israel fell to Assyria in 722 BCE; Judah
fell to the Babylonians in 587 BCE. The temple was destroyed. Some Jews returned from
captivity under the Babylonians and started to restore the temple in 536 BCE. (Orthodox Jews
date the Babylonian exile from 422 to 352 BCE). Alexander the Great invaded the area in 332
BCE. From circa 300 to 63 BCE, Greek became the language of commerce, and Greek culture
had a major influence on Judaism. In 63 BCE, the Roman Empire took control of Judea and
Israel.
Four major, some minor, religious sects had formed by the 1st century CE: the Basusim,
Essenes, Pharisees and Sadducees. Many anticipated the arrival of the Messiah who would drive
the Roman invaders out and restore independence. Christianity was established initially as a
Jewish sect, centered in Jerusalem. Paul broke with this tradition and spread the religion to the
3
Gentiles (non-Jews). Many mini-revolts led to the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70
CE. The Jewish Christians were wiped out or scattered at this time. The movement started by
Paul flourished and quickly evolved into the religion of Christianity. Jews were scattered
throughout the world. Their religion was no longer centered in Jerusalem; Jews were restricted
from setting foot there. Judaism became decentralized and stopped seeking converts. The local
synagogue became the new center of Jewish life, and authority shifted from the centralized
priesthood to local scholars and teachers, giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism.
The period from the destruction of the temple onward gave rise to heavy persecution by
Christians throughout Europe and Russia. Many stories were spread, accusing Jews of ritual
murder, the desecration of the Catholic host and continuing responsibility for the execution of
Jesus. Unsubstantiated rumors continue to be circulated today. In the 1930s and 1940s, Adolph
Hitler and the German Nazi party drew on centuries of anti-Semitism. They organized the
Holocaust, the attempted extermination of all Jews in Europe. About 6 million were killed in one
of the world's greatest examples of religious and racial intolerance.
The Zionist movement was a response within all Jewish traditions to centuries of
Christian persecution. Their initial goal was create a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The state of
Israel was formed on May 18, 1948. There are currently about 18 million Jews throughout the
world. They are mainly concentrated in North America (about 7 million) and Israel (about 4.5
million).
The history of Christianity is directly related to that of Judaism. It could be said that they
are of one tree with different branches. During the first six decades of the first century CE,
Judaism was composed of about two dozen competing groups: Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes,
Zealots, followers of John the Baptist, followers of Yeshua of Nazareth (Iesous in Greek, Iesus in
Latin, Jesus in English), and followers of other charismatic leaders. Though, all followed
common Jewish practices, such as observing dietary restrictions, worshiping at the Jerusalem
temple, sacrificing animals, etc.
Jesus Christ conducted a short ministry (one year, in the Galilee according to the
synoptic gospels; three years, mainly in Judea according to the Gospel of John). His teachings
closely matched those of Beit Hillel (the House of Hillel). Hillel was a great Jewish rabbi who
lived in the second half of the 1st century BCE one or two generations before Jesus birth.
Jesus was charged with what would be called "aggravated assault" under today's law, for
his attack on merchants in the Temple. This was apparently considered treason or insurrection by
the occupying Roman forces. (Crucifixion, when used on a non-slave such as Jesus, was
restricted to these two crimes.) He was executed by a detail of Roman soldiers, during the
springtime, sometime in the late 20's or early 30's CE. Most historians date the event in April of
either the year 30 or 33. According to the Gospels, his disciples initially returned to their
homeland of Galilee immediately following their leader's death.
Four decades later, in 70 CE the Roman Army attacked Jerusalem and destroyed the
central focus of Jewish life: the temple. This was an absolutely devastating blow at the time;
Jewish life was totally disrupted. Jews were no longer able to worship at the Temple. Out of this
disaster, emerged two main movements: rabbinical Judaism centered in local synagogues, and
the Christian movement.
There was great diversity within the Christian movement during the first few decades
after Jesus' execution. Some of Jesus' followers (and those who never met Jesus but who were
inspired by his teachings) settled in Jerusalem. Others spread across the known world, teaching
very different messages. "Even in the same geographical area and sometimes in the same cities,
4
different Christian teachers taught quite different gospels and had quite different views of who
Jesus was and what he did1.
During the latter part of the first century CE, there were three main groups within the
primitive Christian movement. They include Jewish Christian movement, Pauline Christianity,
and Gnostic Christianity.
Jewish Christian movement: Jesus disciples appear to have regrouped later in Jerusalem
under the leadership of James, one of Jesus' brothers. The group viewed themselves as a reform
movement within Judaism; they viewed Jesus as a prophet and rabbi, but not as a deity. They
organized a synagogue, worshiped and brought animals for ritual sacrifice at the Jerusalem
Temple. They observed the Jewish holy days, practiced circumcision of their male children,
followed kosher dietary laws, and practiced the teachings of Jesus as they interpreted them to be.
They are frequently referred to today as the Jewish Christians2. Many were killed, enslaved, or
scattered during the Roman attack on Jerusalem in 70 CE.
Pauline Christianity: Saul, a Jew from Tarsus, originally prosecuted the Jewish Christians
on behalf of the priests at the Jerusalem Temple. He experienced a powerful religious
conversion, after which, he departed for unknown places for three years. Later, having changed
his name to Paul, he became the single most active Christian missionary, from about 36 CE until
his execution by the Romans in the mid-60's. He created a new Christian movement, containing
elements from many forms of Paganism: Greek, Roman, Persian, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, etc.
He included the concept of Jesus as "The Word", as a god-man -- the savior of humanity, the
product of a virgin birth who was executed, resurrected and ascended into heaven. There are
dozens of points of similarity between the life of Jesus and that of Krishna, the god-man and
second member of the Hindu trinity. Paul abandoned most of the Laws of Moses and rejected
many of the Jewish behavioral rules that Jesus and his disciples had followed during his ministry.
Paul taught that God had unilaterally abrogated his covenants with the Jews and transferred them
to the Pauline Christian groups.
Paul went on a series of missionary journeys around the eastern Mediterranean and
attracted many Gentiles (e.g. non-Jews) to his movement. He was assisted by many co-workers,
both male and female. Paul organized churches in many of the areas' urban centers, in
competition with Greek Paganism, Mithraism, Mystery Religions, Judaism, competing Christian
movements, and other religions. His Epistles record how he and his movement were in continual
theological conflict with the Jewish Christian movement centered in Jerusalem, and with Gnostic
Christians. Paul ran afoul of the Roman Empire, was arrested, and was transported to Rome
where he was held under house arrest. He was executed there about 65 CE. Paul's churches
survived his death and flourished. Some of his letters to several of his church groups were later
accepted into the canon of the Christian Scriptures (New Testament).
Christian groups typically met in the homes of individual believers, much like home
churches do today. Leaders were both men and women. There was no central authority, no
standard style of organization at the local level, no dedicated church buildings or cathedrals. The
Greek words episkopos (bishop, overseer), presbuteros (elder, presbyter) and poimen (pastor,
1
A page of links to Jewish web sites is at: http://www.shamash.org
An index of class notes for a University of Alberta course called "Judaism in the Modern Age" is at:
http://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/363_Transp/363_list.html
2
5
shepherd) were originally synonymous terms which referred to the leader of a group of
believers3.
Gnostic Christianity: Gnosticism is a philosophical and religious movement with roots in
pre-Christian times. Gnostics combined elements taken from Asian, Babylonian, Egyptian,
Greek and Syrian pagan religions, from astrology, and from Judaism and Christianity. "Among
Gnostic Christians there were communities under the name of John and Thomas and many other
lesser and later disciples."6 They claimed to have secret knowledge about God, humanity, and the
rest of the universe of which the general population was unaware. They were/are noted for their:
Novel interpretations of the Bible, the world and the rest of the universe; Belief that the Jehovah
of the Hebrew Scripture (Old Testament) was a defective, inferior Creator-God, also known as
the Demiurge. He was viewed as fundamentally evil, jealous, rigid, lacking in compassion and
prone to committing genocide; Tolerance of different religious beliefs within and outside of
Gnosticism; Lack of discrimination against women. Some Gnostics formed separate
congregations. Others joined existing Pauline Christian groups. Still others were solitary
practitioners.
In addition to the above three main groups, there were many smaller religious
communities, which have been referred to as Matthean Christianity, Johannine Christianity, etc.
"Among Jews especially in the East there were Christian communities and literature under the
name of Peter and James that stood in opposition to Paul and John."6 Together produced over 80
gospels and hundreds of Epistles (letters). "Many of these other Gospels outside the New
Testament had very different views of Jesus, produced in communities that held widely different
understandings of Jesus."7
The three groups within the primitive Christian movement survived into the second
century. Though one died out and the other two expanded. The two remaining were Pauline
Christianity and Gnostic Christianity.
The Jewish Christian movement: The failure of the Bar Kochba revolt (132 - 135 CE)
was devastating for the Jewish people, including the Jewish Christians. Any Jews who remained
in Palestine in 135 CE were killed, enslaved or permanently driven from the land. The Jewish
Christian movement had a brief resurgence during the 2nd century CE, and then disappeared
from the pages of history.
Pauline Christianity continued to spread across the known world. It started to develop a
formal theology, a set of doctrines, and an unofficial canon of writings, which were later to
become the Christian Scriptures (New Testament). From the enormous supply of Christian
gospels and epistles (letters) they chose a few that roughly matched the theology of the
developing church. Admittance of the Gospel of John into the official canon had to overcome a
great deal of resistance; many in the church felt that it had too much Gnostic content. The canon
accepted: Four gospels, written by unknown authors, but attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke and
John.
3
Judaism 101 is an "online encyclopedia of Judaism, covering Jewish beliefs, people, places, things, language,
scripture, holidays, practices and customs." See: http://www.jewfaq.org
6
Click on Judaism is a project of the Reform Movement Commission on Synagogue Affiliation. It invites Jews in
during the 20s and 30s to explore liberal Judaism. See http://www.clickonjudaism.com/
6
Click on Judaism is a project of the Reform Movement Commission on Synagogue Affiliation. It invites Jews in
during the 20s and 30s to explore liberal Judaism. See http://www.clickonjudaism.com/
7
"Press Release: American Jewish Committee Publishes Synagogue Census," 2002-AUG-7, at:
http://www.ajc.org/InTheMedia/PressReleases.asp?did=602
6
Acts of the Apostles, apparently written by the same author who wrote Luke. Thirteen Pauline
Epistles -- letters which claim that they were written by Paul. Religious liberals accept that seven
were written by Paul, one may have been written by him, and 5 were by unknown authors -mostly from the second century many decades after Paul's death.
Gnostic Christianity consisted of many separate groups with no significant central
organization. Each group was under the leadership of a Gnostic teacher like Marcion, Valentinus,
and Carpocrates. These groups shared some core beliefs, but otherwise differed greatly from
each other. The Gnostic movement initially expanded, and at one point was the primary form of
Christianity in the eastern Mediterranean. However, due to programs of persecution and
execution by Pauline Christians, it later went into a steep decline, and ceased being a significant
force by the 6th century.
After the deaths of the Apostles, the Apostolic Fathers were looked upon for guidance.
They included a number of teachers and bishops: e.g. Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Origen,
Polycarp, and Tertullian. A hierarchical organizational structure called the "monarchial
episcopate" then developed in which the individual congregational leaders recognized the
authority of their area bishop in matters of doctrine and faith. There was no person or group who
could speak for the church as a whole. It was only in 325 CE that bishops from throughout the
Christian movement would be able to meet at the Council of Nicea and attempt to resolve
differences in Christian beliefs.
The Christian religion is built around an itinerant Jewish preacher, Yeshua Ben Joseph or
Yeshua Ben Nazareth. Later, Pauline Christians gave him the title Jesus Christ (Jesus is the
Greek version of Yeshua; Christ means Messiah, the anointed one - a title often given to the
King of Israel). Roman Catholics, Evangelical Christians, and Muslims believe that his mother,
Mary, was a virgin when he was conceived; her pregnancy was caused by the Holy Spirit, and
did not result from sexual intercourse. He was born in Palestine probably circa 4 to 7 BCE,
possibly in the fall. (Some believe that his birth occurred in the springtime, during the time that
the lambs were giving birth, when the shepherds were watching their flocks by night; others
believe that his birth date was in the fall.) He was raised by his Jewish family of origin in the city
of Nazareth in the Galilee. Jesus was the eldest child in the family, having four brothers and at
least two sisters. (Some believe that these are either step-siblings or cousins). At the time,
Palestine was very unstable politically. It had been under severe Roman oppression for decades.
Many Jews expected the imminent arrival in Galilee of a king, the Messiah, (Anointed One) who
would lead them to a military victory over the occupation forces and reign as king. This would
be followed by the Reign of God on earth. Zealots were actively promoting the overthrow of the
Romans.
At the age of about 30, circa 26 CE, he was baptized by John the Baptist, a relative of
Jesus, a Jewish prophet, and probably a member of the Essenes. The Essenes were the smallest
of the four main Jewish religious/political groups active in Jerusalem at the time; the others
being the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Zealots. Jesus became an itinerant preacher whose message
found an enthusiastic audience. He collected a group of followers during his ministry of which
about 10 are fully described in the Christian Scriptures (New Testament); about half were male,
and half female. The Bible says that there were 12 disciples at one time and 70 at another. It has
multiple lists of the twelve, but the names differ. Many Christians believe that he had exactly 12
disciples, and that women held a lower status among his followers.
The book of Acts in the Christian Scriptures (New Testament) relates that Jesus' disciples
elected Matthias to replace Judas who had died. Various Biblical passages said that he had
7
committed suicide or had died from an accident. Jesus' brother James was the group's leader.
Simon Peter was an important contributor to the movement. They continued spreading Jesus'
teachings to fellow Jews from their center in Jerusalem. They were called Nazarenes (Nostrim in
Greek) by the Jews, and Christians (Christianoi in Greek) by the Gentiles (non-Jews). They were
organized in communities that shared wealth and possessions. They regarded themselves as a
reform movement within Judaism; they still required their male members to be circumcised and
for all to follow the Jewish laws regarding ritual and diet. Some went on missionary journeys to
Jewish settlements in cities throughout the Roman Empire.
There were many points of conflict between the Jewish Christians and Pauline
Christianity. In 70 CE, the Romans destroyed the temple and the rest of Jerusalem. Many Jews
were killed; others fled Palestine. After an unsuccessful Jewish uprising in the 130's, the Roman
Army drove the Jews from Palestine. The Nazoreans were thus dispersed throughout the Roman
Empire. This severely weakened the movement. They had a brief resurgence during the 2nd
century CE, but then disappeared. Many were probably absorbed by the mainline Pauline
Christian movement which grew out of the churches established by Paul and his coworkers.
This interval extended from about 100 to 170 CE, when the Apostolic Fathers had
replaced the apostles. They included a number of teachers and bishops: e.g. Clement of
Alexandria, Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, and Tertullian. Early in this era, the church evolved into
a more formal organization, the monarchial episcopate, in which bishops were recognized as
having authority over the leaders of the individual congregations. The bishops decided matters of
belief and practice within their jurisdiction.
During the Anti-Nicene Era (about 170 to 325 CE) many religious movements were
active in the Roman Empire: Christianity, Greek Pagan religion, Judaism, Mithraism, Roman
Pagan religion, various secret mystery religions, etc. Religious tolerance was widespread
throughout the empire, but it was only enjoyed by those adults who had fulfilled their civic
duties. Many points of conflict developed between the Roman authorities and the growing
Christian movement. As part of one's civic duty, each adult was expected to sponsor a sacrifice
in the Roman temple once per year. Many Christians refused to do this because it would force
them to acknowledge the legitimacy of Pagan Gods. Adults were expected to acknowledge
Caesar as the Son of God and Savior. Many Christians would not submit to this either. Christians
ignored some Roman laws. For example the state refused to recognize marriages between a free
person and a slave, Christians allowed such marriages. A small minority of Christians were so
keen on hastening the end of the world and the arrival of the Kingdom of God that they set fires
to encourage the second coming of Jesus. Some Roman authorities labeled the entire Christian
movement as a bunch of arsonists. Incorrect rumors spread that Christians engaged in orgies
during their communal means and made human sacrifices of infants. As a result of these
conflicts, Christians were intermittently persecuted in various parts of the Empire.
Around 313 CE: The years of Christian persecution came to an end. Emperor Constantine
(289-337 CE) issued the Edict of Milan which formally established freedom and toleration for all
religions, including Christianity. Contrary to many people's beliefs, Christianity was not made
the official religion of the Roman Empire until late in that century5.
The period of time from 325 to about 590 CE is often referred to as the "post-Nicene"
era. This interval takes its name from the church Council of Nicea, which was held in 325 CE.
5
Zipple.com bill themselves as "The Jewish MEGA-Site" with considerable justification. It is a wide-ranging Jewish
web site with a broad list of topics. See: http://www.zipple.com/
8
There was no single individual who spoke for the entire church; no one person had the authority
to decide matters of belief and practice. Such matters could only be determined by councils at
which all available bishops would debate and attempt to resolve their differences. The first such
meeting was the Council of Nicea in Asia Minor (now Turkey). 318 bishops out of the
approximately 1,800 Christian bishops then in existence attended. Most came from the eastern
half of the Empire5. Bishops attempted to resolve a major uncertainty facing the early church:
the relationship between Jesus and God. The church recognized the Hebrew Scriptures (Old
Testament) which described God in strictly monotheistic terms. But there were references in the
Gospels (particularly John) which stated that Jesus is Lord. Two conflicting theories about the
deity of Jesus were argued at the time: Arius (250 - 336 CE) proposed that Jesus and God were
very separate and different entities. Jesus was closer to God than any other human being, but he
was born a man, had no prior existence, and was not a god. On the other hand, God has been in
existence forever. Arius felt that any attempt to recognize the deity of Christ would blur the lines
between Christianity and the Pagan religions. If Christianity recognized two separate gods, the
Father and Jesus, it would become a polytheistic religion.
Athanasius (296 - 373 CE) argued that Jesus must be divine, because otherwise, he could
not be the Savior. Both Arius and Athanasius had large, evenly matched followings among the
bishops. The council, under intense pressure from Emperor Constantine, resolved its deadlock by
a close vote in favor of Athanasius. The dissenting bishops were offered two options: to sign the
settlement at Nicea or be exiled. The bishops produced the Nicene Creed, which declared that
Jesus Christ was "of one substance with the Father." This did not immediately settle the question
of the divinity of Christ; many bishops and churches refused to believe in the council's decision
for decades.
In 330 CE, Emperor Constantine decided to build a "New Rome" on the site of the Greek
city of Byzantium (now at Istanbul, Turkey). It was called Constantinople. It became the center
of the largely Christian empire5. By this time, the church had evolved from a small, scattering of
congregations to a geographically widespread church under the authority of many bishops. By
341 CE, many now believe that Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire through
the evangelical efforts of the early church during the fourth century CE. The evidence seems to
show that this is not true; "The Greek-Roman world was not...converted to a new religion, but
compelled to embrace it." The Emperor Theodosian issued a series of decrees or rescripts in the
years 341, 345, 356, 381, 383, 386 and 391 CE. The effect of these orders was to, "suppress all
rival religions, order the closing of the temples, and impose fines, confiscation, imprisonment or
death upon any who cling to the older (i.e. Pagan) religions.”2 The period of relative religious
tolerance in the Roman Empire ended as Pagan temples were seized and converted to Christian
use or destroyed. Priests and Priestesses were exiled or killed. Christianity and Judaism became
the only permitted religions. In Spain, bishop Priscillian, who taught some Gnostic beliefs,
became the first heretic executed by his fellow Christians for religious reasons. The church used
the power of the state to begin programs to oppress, exile or exterminate both Pagans and
Gnostic Christians. By the end of the century, Pagan temples had been either destroyed or
5
Zipple.com bill themselves as "The Jewish MEGA-Site" with considerable justification. It is a wide-ranging Jewish
web site with a broad list of topics. See: http://www.zipple.com/
2
Judaism 101 is an "online encyclopedia of Judaism, covering Jewish beliefs, people, places, things, language,
scripture, holidays, practices and customs." See: http://www.jewfaq.org
9
recycled for Christian use. Pagan worship became punishable by death. But government
toleration was not without its cost. The Emperor Constantine and later political rulers demanded
a major say in the running of the church and in decisions on its beliefs.
Church authority had become concentrated in the five bishops or patriarchs located in
Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, Jerusalem and Rome. Although they were officially given
equal status, the Bishop of Rome was considered by many to be the first among equals4. In 381
CE, at the Council of Constantinople, the earlier council's decision on the deity of Jesus was
confirmed and Arianism was formally declared a heresy. They also voted that Holy Spirit was
the third Person of the Trinity. Almost all of the churches abandoned Arianism after this council.
Near the end of the century, the Roman Emperor "Theodosius decreed that the doctrine of the
Trinity was to be the official state religion and that all his subjects should adhere to it."5 Siricius,
who reigned from 384 to 399 CE, became the first bishop of Rome to be called Pope (father).
During the 5th century CE, around 431 CE, The Council of Ephasus was called to debate
the precise nature of Jesus. Again, there were two main competing belief systems: From the city
of Alexandria, scholars developed the Alexandrian school of thought which: Promoted the
allegorical interpretation of the Bible, that it contained hidden meanings; Emphasized the
divinity of Christ; Recognized that Jesus had both a human and divine nature, tightly united.
Within the city of Antioch, Nestorius and other scholars developed the Aniochene school which:
Rejected an allegorical interpretation of the Bible; emphasized the humanity of Jesus; Saw the
two natures of Jesus as being loosely connected. The council excommunicated Nestorian and
declared his beliefs (Nestorianism) to be heresy. The Virgin Mary's status was elevated from the
mother of Jesus to "theotokos", the mother of God.
In 440 CE, Pope Leo I became the Bishop of Rome. A post he held for 21 years. He
maintained that the pope was highest ranking of the Christian bishops. Then, 451 CE: Emperor
Marcian called the Council of Chalcedon to resolve still another debate about Jesus. The
traditional belief that Jesus had both a divine and human nature was being challenged by
Monophysitism, an outgrowth of the Alexandrian school. Their followers believed that Christ
had only a single divine nature. The council rejected that belief. In their Chalcedonian
Definition, they affirmed that Christ had two natures, human and divine. These were without
confusion, without change, without division, without separation." This formulation has survived
as the traditional belief to the present day among almost all branches of Christendom. The East
Syrian (Nestorian) church and the Oriental Orthodox Christian church disagreed with the
council's decision, and split off from the rest of Christianity in the first major schism from
Pauline Christianity.
During the 5th century CE, various Germanic tribes invaded Rome and destroyed much
of the Roman Empire. Meanwhile, the church centered in Rome successfully converted the
invaders to Christianity. Authority within the church was coalescing around the Bishop of Rome
in the west and the Patriarch of Constantinople in the east. Divisions between the two power
centers in the Christian church gradually intensified. Gnostic Christianity's membership went
into a steep decline.
4
Robert Kaiser, Frequently Asked Questions about Judaism at:
http://communities.msn.com/judaismfaqs Topics covered are: Jewish principles of faith, The Jewish denominations,
and revelation and Torah
10
In the 6th century, Emperor Justinian called The Second Council of Constantinople. He
invited equal numbers of bishops from each of the five patriarchal sees. The Bishop of Rome,
Pope Vigilius saw that many more bishops from the east than from the west would be present; he
refused to attend. The council concentrated on the writings of three Christian leaders: Theodore
of Mopsuestia, Theodoret and Ibas. The council as heretics condemned all three. "We observed
that the pupils of Nestorius were trying to bring their heresy into the church of God by means of
the heretical Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia and his books as also by the writings of the
heretical Theodoret and the disgraceful letter which is alleged to have been sent by Ibas to Mari
the Persian.” Our observations prompted us to correct what was happening. We assembled in this
imperial city, summoned here by the will of God and the command of the most religious
emperor.6”
Gnostic Christianity ceased being a significant force by the 6th century. The only group
to have continuously survived into modern times is the Mandaean sect of Iraq and Iran. This
group currently numbers fewer than 15,000. Gnostic Christianity has been revitalized in the West
and is now growing rapidly. The eastern and western branches of Christianity continued their
process of separation. This was caused by a variety of factors: The Slav invasions in the Balkans.
The religious language in the west was Latin, while the Eastern Church used Greek. Bilingual
theologians became increasingly rare. "While the intellectual thought of Eastern Christianity was
driven by Greek teachers, Western Christianity came to be dominated by the teachings of
Augustine of Hippo." (354 - 386 CE).4 "Although the two regions belonged to the same church,
they became increasingly remote from each other." 4 A formal split did not occur until 1054 CE
when the Roman Catholic church and Eastern Orthodox churches formally separated. Although
discussions are currently underway to bring the two churches into some form of unity, little
progress is being made. In 1517 CE, Martin Luther attacked certain practices and beliefs of the
Church, and the authority of the Pope. He was followed by other reformers, which produced a
mass movement, the Protestant Reformation. They were driven largely by two fundamental
principles: "Sola Scriptura" (Scripture Alone): The belief that the Holy Bible was the ultimate
authority for all matters of religious belief and practice. The Priesthood of all Believers: The
belief that no priest or other intermediary is needed between the Christian believer and God.
About Islam
It is Estimated of the total number of Muslims range from 0.7 to 1.2 billion worldwide
and 1.1 to 7 million in the U.S.2 About 21% of all people on earth follow Islam. The religion is
currently in a period of rapid growth.
Christianity is currently the largest religion in the world. It is followed by about 33% of
all people, a percentage that has remained stable for decades. If current trends continue, Islam
will become the most popular world religion sometime in the mid-21st century.
6
Click on Judaism is a project of the Reform Movement Commission on Synagogue Affiliation. It invites Jews in
their 20s and 30s to explore liberal Judaism. See http://www.clickonjudaism.com/
4
Robert Kaiser, Frequently Asked Questions about Judaism at:
http://communities.msn.com/judaismfaqs Topics covered are: Jewish principles of faith, The Jewish denominations,
and revelation and Torah
2
Judaism 101 is an "online encyclopedia of Judaism, covering Jewish beliefs, people, places, things, language,
scripture, holidays, practices and customs." See: http://www.jewfaq.org
11
Origin of Islam
The name of this religion, Islam, is derived from the word "Salam," which is often
interpreted as meaning "peace." However "submission" would be a better translation. A Muslim
is a follower of Islam. "Muslim" is an Arabic word that refers to a person who submits
themselves to the will of God. Most religious historians view Islam as having been founded in
622 CE by Muhammad the Prophet. He lived from about 570 to 632 CE. The religion started in
Mecca, when the angel Jibreel (Gabriel) read the first revelation to Muhammad. Islam is the
youngest of the world's very large religions (e.g. those with over 300 million members) which
include Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism. However, many if not most of the
followers of Islam believe that: Islam existed before Muhammad was born, The origins of Islam
date back to the creation of the world, and Muhammad was the last of a series of Prophets.
Followers of Islam are called Muslims. "Allah" is an Arabic word, which means "the One
True God." Some Western writers in the past have referred to Islam as "Mohammedism"; this is
deeply offensive to many Muslims, as its usage can lead some to the concept that Muhammad
the Prophet was in some way divine.
While still young, he was sent into the desert to be raised by a foster family. This was a
common practice at the time. He was orphaned at the age of 6 and brought up by his uncle. As a
child, he worked as a shepherd. He was taken on a caravan to Syria by his uncle at the age of 9,
but possibly 12. Later, as a youth, he was employed as a camel driver on the trade routes
between Syria and Arabia. Muhammad later managed caravans on behalf of merchants. He met
people of different religious beliefs on his travels, and was able to observe and learn about
Judaism, Christianity and the indigenous Pagan religions.
After marriage, he was able to spend more time in meditation. At the age of 40, (610 CE),
he was visited in Mecca by the angel Gabriel. He developed the conviction that he had been
ordained a Prophet and given the task of converting his countrymen from their pagan,
polytheistic beliefs and what he regarded as moral decadence, idolatry, hedonism and
materialism. He met considerable opposition to his teachings. In 622 CE he moved north to
Medina due to increasing persecution. The trek is known as the hegira. Here he was disappointed
by the rejection of his message by the Jews. Through religious discussion, persuasion, military
activity and political negotiation, Muhammad became the most powerful leader in Arabia, and
Islam was firmly established throughout the area.
About Islam:
By 750 CE, Islam had expanded to China, India, along the Southern shore of the
Mediterranean and into Spain. By 1550 they had reached Vienna. Wars resulted, expelling
Muslims from Spain and Europe. Since their trading routes were mostly over land, they did not
develop extensive sea trade (as for example the English and Spaniards). As a result, the Old
World occupation of North America was left to Christians. Believers are currently concentrated
from the West Coast of Africa to the Philippines. Particularly in Africa, they are increasing in
numbers, largely at the expense of Christianity. Many do not look upon Islam as a new religion.
They feel that it is in reality the faith taught by the ancient Prophets, Abraham, David, Moses and
Jesus (Peace be upon them). Mohammed’s role as the last of the Prophets was to formalize and
clarify the faith and to purify it by removing foreign ideas that had been added in error.
12
There are two main texts consulted by Muslims
The Qur'an (Recitation) are the words of God. Muslims believe that it was revealed to
Muhammad by the archangel Jibril (Gabriel). This was originally in oral and written form. They
were later assembled together into a single book, the Qur'an. Its name is often spelled "Koran" in
English. This is not recommended, as some Muslims find it offensive.
The Hadith, which are collections of the sayings of Muhammad. They are regarded as the
Sunnah (lived example) of Muhammad. The Quran gives legitimacy to the Hadith. It states: "Nor
does he say aught of his own desire. It is no less than inspiration sent down to him" (53:3-4).
However, the writings are not regarded as having the same status as the Holy Qur'an; the latter is
considered to be God's word. The great Islamic scholar Yahya bin Sharaf Ul-Deen An-Nawawi
compiled a collection of 43 sayings of Prophet Muhammad. It is now known as "Al-Nawawi's
Forty Hadiths"5
The Judaism Today
There are five main forms of Judaism in the world today. However, the most conservative
traditions do not necessarily recognize the most liberal as being part of Judaism. This is a
common problem among many of the world's great religions. The five form of Judaism includes
Conservative Judaism, Humanistic Judaism, Orthodox Judaism, Reconstructionist Judaism, and
Reform Judaism.
Conservative Judaism began in the mid-nineteenth century as a reaction against the
Reform movement. It is a main line movement midway between Reform and Orthodox.
Conservatives have 23 percent.
Humanistic Judaism is a very small group, mainly composed of atheists and agnostics,
who regard mankind as the measure of all things.
Orthodox Judaism is the oldest, most conservative, and most diverse form of Judaism.
Modern Orthodox, Chasidim and Ultra Orthodox share a basic belief in the derivation of Jewish
law, even as they hold very different outlooks on life. They attempt to follow the original form of
Judaism as they view it to be. They look upon every word in their sacred texts as being divinely
inspired. Fewer that 10% of American Jews are estimated to be Orthodox. However, Orthodox
synagogues represent 40% of all U.S. synagogues.
Reconstructionist Judaism is a new, small, liberal movement started by Mordecai Kaplan
as an attempt to unify and revitalize the religion. They reject the concept that Jews are a uniquely
favored and chosen people. They have no connection at all with Christian Reconstructionism,
which is an ultra-conservative form of Christianity.
Reform Judaism is a liberal group, followed by many North American Jews. The
movement started in the 1790's in Germany. They follow the ethical laws of Judaism, but leave
up to the individual the decision whether to follow or ignore the dietary and other traditional
laws. They use modern forms of worship. There are many female rabbis in reform congregations.
Reform Judaism has 26 percent of all synagogues.
Jewish Texts
The Tanakh corresponds to the Jewish Scriptures, (often referred to as the Old Testament
by Christians). It is composed of three groups of books: Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim. The Torah
(Pentateuch) consists of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Nevi’im
consists Joshua, Judges, Samuel (2), Kings (2), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos,
5
Zipple.com bill themselves as "The Jewish MEGA-Site" with considerable justification. It is a wide-ranging Jewish
web site with a broad list of topics. See: http://www.zipple.com/
13
Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zachariah, Malachi, Isaiah,
and Amos. The Ketuvim are the "Writings" including Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs,
Ecclesiastes, Ruth, Esther, Lamentations, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles (2).
The Talmud contains stories, laws, medical knowledge, debates about moral choices, etc.
It is composed of material that comes mainly from two sources, the Mishnah and Gemara. The
Mishnah, six "orders" containing hundreds of chapters, including series of laws from the Hebrew
Scriptures. It was compiled about 200 CE. The Gemara (one Babylonian and one Palestinian) is
encyclopedic in scope. It includes comments from hundreds of Rabbis from 200 - 500 CE,
explaining the Mishnah with additional historical, religious, legal, sociological, etc. material. It
often records many different opinions on a topic without giving a definitive answer.
Jewish Practices
 Observation of the Sabbath as a day of rest, starting at sundown on Friday evening.
 Strict discipline, according to the Law, which governs all areas of life
 Regular attendance by Jewish males at Synagogue

Celebration of the annual festivals including: Passover, or Pesach is held each Spring to
recall the Jews' deliverance out of slavery in Egypt circa 1300 BCE. A ritual Seder meal is
eaten in each observing Jewish home at this time. Six different foods are placed on the seder
plate in the order in which they area eaten: Karpas (vegetables dipped in salt water) recalls
the bitter tears shed during slavery; Maror (bitter herbs) to symbolize the bitterness of
slavery; Chazeret (bitter vegetables) also to symbolize the bitterness of slavery; Choroset
(apple, nuts & spices with wine) represents the mortar used by Hebrew slaves. Also placed
on the seder plate, but uneaten during the Seder meal: Zeroa (lamb shankbone) to recall the
Passover sacrifice in the ancient temple. Beitzah (roasted egg) symbolizes mourning,
sacrifice, spring, and renewal. Not placed on the Seder plate, but often eaten, is a boiled egg.
Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year, and is the anniversary of the completion of creation,
about 5760 years ago. It is held in the fall. The 10 days from Rosh Hashanah to Yom
Kippur, the Day of Atonement, are days of fasting and penitence. Sukkoth or the Feast of
Booths is an 8-day harvest festival; a time of thanksgiving. Hanukkah or the Feast of Lights
is an 8-day Feast of Dedication. It recalls the war fought by the Maccabees in the cause of
religious freedom. It is typically observed in December. Originally a minor Jewish holy day,
it has become more important in recent years. Purim, the Feast of Lots recalls the defeat by
Queen Esther of the plan to slaughter all of the Persian Jews, circa 400 BCE. Shavout, the
Feast of Weeks recalls God's revelation of the Torah to the Jewish people. It is held in late
May or early June.
Basic Jewish Beliefs:
There is a story in wide circulation about a question asked of Rabbi Hillel, a notable rabbi
from the 1st century BCE. A non-Jew asked the rabbi to teach him everything about the Torah
while standing on one foot. Rabbi Hillel responded: "What is hateful to you, don't do unto your
neighbor. The rest is commentary. Now, go and study." Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, (a.k.a.
Maimonides) is generally accepted as one of the most important Jewish scholars from medieval
times. He wrote a list of thirteen principles of faith. This list has been generally accepted by Jews
for centuries as a brief summary of the Jewish faith. However, the liberal wings of Judaism
dispute some of the 13 today.
1. God exists.
2. God is one and unique.
14
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
God is incorporeal.
God is eternal.
Prayer is to be directed to God alone and to no other.
The words of the prophets are true.
Moses was the greatest of the prophets, and his prophecies are true.
The Written Torah (first 5 books of the Bible) and Oral Torah (teachings now contained
in the Talmud and other writings) were given to Moses.
9. There will be no other Torah.
10. God knows the thoughts and deeds of men.
11. God will reward the good and punish the wicked.
12. The Messiah will come.
The dead will be resurrected. 9
Some additional beliefs found commonly among Jews are:
Some Jews view Jesus as a great moral teacher. Others see him as a false prophet or as an
idol of Christianity. Some sects of Judaism will not even say his name due to the prohibition
against saying an idol's name. The Jews are often referred to as God's chosen people. This does
not mean that they are in any way to be considered superior to other groups. Biblical verses such
as Exodus 19:5 simply imply that God has selected Israel to receive and study the Torah, to
worship God only, to rest on the Sabbath, and to celebrate the festivals. Jews were not chosen to
be better that others; they were simply selected to receive more difficult responsibilities, and
more onerous punishment if they fail. The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other
books regulate all aspects of Jewish life. The Ten commandments, as delineated in Exodus 20:117 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21, form a brief synopsis of the Law. The Messiah (the anointed one of
God) will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel. There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time. The Jerusalem Temple, destroyed in 70 CE, will be
rebuilt. A fetus gains full personhood when it is half-emerged from its mother's body. Boys reach
the status of Bar Mitzvah on their 13th birthday; girls reach Bat Mitzvah on their 12th birthday.
This means that they are recognized as adults and are personally responsible to follow the Jewish
commandments and laws. Males are allowed to lead a religious service; they are counted in a
"minyan" (a quota of men necessary to perform certain parts of religious services). Following
their Bar Mitzvah or Bat Mitzvah they can sign contracts; they can testify in religious courts;
theoretically, they can marry, although the Talmud recommends 18 to 24 as the proper age for
marriage. The more liberal movements within Judaism differ from some of the stated beliefs
concerning the source of the Torah, the concept of direct reward, and punishment according to
one's behavior, etc.
Christianity Today
Christianity is fractured into many Protestant movement successively divided into over
1,000 individual denominations, as individuals and groups interpreted the Bible in their own
unique ways, and continually formed new sects that they felt were closer to Jesus' intentions for
the church. Today, Christian Denominations can be placed into 15 groups:
 Adventist Family- Adventist groups, Jehovah's Witnesses, and British Israelism
 Baptist Family- Southern Baptists, American Baptists, etc.
 Christian Science-Metaphysical Family Christian Science, New Thought
 Communal Family- The Jesus People, Twin Oaks, etc.
 Eastern Orthodox Family- Various Orthodox churches from Russia, Greece, Serbia, etc.
15









European Free-Church Family Amish, Brethren, Mennonites, Quakers, others
Holiness Family- Christian and Missionary Alliance, Church of the Nazarene, etc.
Independent Fundamentalist Family- Plymouth Brethren, Fundamentalists, etc.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The community of Christ
Lutheran Family- Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Lutheran church - Missouri
Synod, etc. Messianic Judaism Jews For Jesus, and other similar groups
Pentecostal Family- Assemblies of God, Church of God (Cleveland, TN)
Pietist-Methodist Family- Scandinavian Pietism, United Methodist Church, other
Methodists
Reformed-Presbyterian Family Reformed, various Presbyterian churches, Congregational,
United Church of Christ
Western Liturgical Family Roman Catholicism, including the Latin Rite and the Eastern
Rite Churches: (Armenian 5 Catholic Church, Chaldean C.C., Coptic C.C., Marionite C.C.,
Melkite C.C., Syrian C.C.); Old Catholicism; Anglican Communion
Islam Today
Islamic considers six fundamental beliefs to be the foundation of their faith: A single,
indivisible God. (God, the creator, is just, omnipotent and merciful. "Allah" is often used to refer
to God. It is the Arabic word for God.); The angels; The divine scriptures, which include the
Torah, the Psalms, the rest of the Bible, (as they were originally revealed) and the Qur'an (which
is composed of God's words, dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Muhammad); The Messengers
of God, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and Muhammad, the last
prophet; Muhammad's message is considered the final, universal message for all of humanity;
The Day of Judgment when people will be judged on the basis of their deeds while on earth, and
will either attain reward of Heaven or punishment in Hell. They do not believe that Jesus or any
other individual can atone for another person's sin. Hell is where unbelievers and sinners spend
eternity. One translation of the Qur'an, 98:1-8, states: "The unbelievers among the People of the
Book and the pagans shall burn for ever in the fire of Hell. They are the vilest of all creatures."
("People of the Book" refers to Christians, Jews and Muslims). Paradise is a place of physical
and spiritual pleasure where the sinless go after death; The supremacy of God's will.
Other beliefs include God did not have a son; Jesus is a prophet, born of the Virgin Mary.
They regard the Christian concept of the deity of Jesus to be blasphemous. It is seen as a form of
polytheism; Jesus was not executed on the cross. He escaped crucifixion and was taken up into
Paradise; The existence of Satan who drives people to sin; Muslims who sincerely repent and
submit to God return to a state of sinlessness; All people are considered children of Adam; Islam
officially rejects racism; All children are born on Al-Fitra (a pure, natural state of submission to
Islam). His parents sometimes make him Christian, Jewish, etc; When a child reaches puberty an
account of their deeds is opened in Paradise; When the person dies, their eventual destination
(Paradise or Hell) depends on the balance of their good deeds (helping others, testifying to the
truth of God, leading a virtuous life) and their bad deeds; Alcohol, other drugs, eating of pork,
etc. should be avoided; Gambling should be avoided.
Practices
A Muslim's duties as described in the Five Pillars of Islam are 1) to recite at least once
during their lifetime the shahadah (the creed: "There is no God but God and Muhammad is his
Prophet"). Most Muslims repeat it at least daily. 2) To perform the salat (prayer) 5 times a day, if
16
possible. This is recited while orienting one's body with qibia (the shorter of the two great
circle routes towards the Kaaba at Mecca). This is generally North East in the U.S. 4 The five
prayers are: Fajr (Morning Prayer) which is performed some time between the break of dawn and
just before sunrise. Zuhr (Noon Prayer) offered from just after midday to afternoon. 'Asr
(Afternoon Prayer) offered from late afternoon until just before sunset. Maghrib (Sunset Prayer)
offered between sunset and darkness. Isha (Night Prayer) offered at nighttime, often just before
sleeping. 1 3) To donate regularly to charity through zakat. This is a 2.5% charity tax on the
income and property of middle and upper class Muslims. Believers are urged to make additional
donations to the needy as they feel moved. 4) To fast during the lunar month of Ramadan. This is
believed to be the month that Muhammad (pbuh) received the first revelation of the Qur'an from
God.
5) If economically and physically able, to make at least one hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.
Islamic Holy Days
 Al-Hijra/Muharram is the Muslim New Year, the beginning of the first lunar month.
 'Ashura recalls an event circa October 20, 680 CE in Iraq when an army of the
Umayyad regime martyred a group of 70 individuals whom refused to submit to the
Caliph. One of the martyrs was Imam Husain, the youngest grandson of Prophet
Muhammad.
 Mawlid al-Nabi is a celebration of the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, the
founder of Islam in 570 CE. "The Mawlid al-Nabi was first observed around the
thirteenth century and was preceded by a month of celebration. The actual day of
Muhammad's birthday included a sermon, recitation of litanies, honoring of religious
dignitaries, gift giving, and a feast. The festival spread throughout the Muslim world
and is celebrated in many countries today. However, some conservative sects (e.g.,
the Wahhabiyah) consider the celebration to be idolatrous."
 Ramadan is the holiest period in the Islamic year; it is held during the entire 9th lunar
month of the year. This was the month in which the Quran was revealed to the
Prophet Muhammad. The first day of Ramadan is listed above. It is a time at which
almost all Muslims over the age of 12 are expected to fast from sunup to sundown. Id
al-Fitr (a.k.a. "'Id") is the first day of the 10th month -- i.e. the day after the end of
Ramadan. It is a time of rejoicing. Houses are decorated; Muslims buy gifts for
relatives.
 Id al-Adha (a.k.a. the Feast of Sacrifice or Day of Sacrifice) occurs during the 12th
month of the Islamic year. This is the season of the Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca). It
recalls the day when Abraham intended to follow the instructions of God, and
sacrifice his son Ishmael. (This is not a typo; Muslims believe that Abraham was
prepared to sacrifice his elder son Ishmael; Judeo-Christians believe that Isaac was
involved in the near sacrifice).
Schools within Islam
Sunni Muslims: These are followers of the Hanifa, Shari, Hanibal and Malik schools.
They constitute a 90% majority of the believers, and are considered to be main stream
traditionalists. Because they are comfortable pursuing their faith within secular societies, they
have been able to adapt to a variety of national cultures, while following their three sources of
law: the Qur'an, Hadith and consensus of Muslims.
17
Shiite Muslims: These are followers of the Jafri school who constitute a small minority
of Islam. They split from the Sunnis over a dispute about the successor to Muhammad (pbuh).
Their leaders promote a strict interpretation of the Qur'an and close adherence to its teachings.
They believe in 12 heavenly Imams (perfect teachers) who led the Shiites in succession. Shiites
believe that the 12th Imam, the Mahdi (guided one), never died but went into hiding waiting for
the optimum time to reappear and guide humans towards justice and peace.
Sufism: This is a mystic tradition in which followers seek inner knowledge directly from
God through meditation and ritual and dancing. They developed late in the 10th century CE as an
severe reaction to the formalism and laws of the Qur'an. There are Sufis from both the Sunni and
Shiite groups. However, some Sunni followers to not consider Sufiism as a valid Islamic
practice. They incorporated ideas from Neoplatonism, Buddhism, and Christianity. They
emphasize personal union with the divine. In the Middle East, some Sufi traditions are
considered to be a separate school of Islam. In North and sub-Saharan Africa, Sufism is more a
style and an approach rather than a separate school.
Deviations from Islam
There are 70 other groups, which originated within Islam and broke away from the Sunni
or Shiite faith communities.
Baha'i World Faith: This religion attempts to integrate all of the world religions. It was
originally a breakaway sect from Islam but has since grown to become a separate religion.
Ahmadis: Followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement believe that God sent Ahmad as a
Messiah, "a messenger of His in this age who has claimed to have come in the spirit and power
of Jesus Christ. He has come to call all people around one Faith, i.e. Islam..." The movement's
founder was Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908). He was born in Qadian, India. He felt
that he had a mandate from God to correct a serious error within Christianity. Most Christians
believe that Jesus (pbuh) is a member of the Godhead. "...Because Jesus, whom God sent as a
Messiah to the Israelites was taken for a God, Divine jealousy ordained that another man
[Ahmad] should be sent as Messiah so that the world may know that the first Messiah was
nothing more than a weak mortal."
After his death, the community elected a series of Khalifas (successors). The current and "Fourth
Successor (Khalifatul Masih IV), to the Promised Messiah was chosen in the person of Hazrat
Mirza Tahir Ahmad" on June 10. 1982.The Ahmadiyya Community currently has more than 10
million members worldwide. They prefer to call themselves "Muslims of the Amadiyya sect."
They are very heavily persecuted in Pakistan. They regard themselves as a reform movement
within Islam. 3
Black Muslim Movement (BMM): This is largely a black urban movement in the US.
One driving force was a rejection of Christianity as the religion of the historically oppressing
white race. It was started by Wallace Fard who built the first temple in Detroit. Elijah
Muhammad (born Elijah Poole) established a second temple in Chicago and later supervised the
creation of temples in most large cities with significant black populations. They taught that
blacks were racially superior to whites and that a racial war is inevitable. The charismatic
Malcolm X was perhaps their most famous spokesperson; he played an important role in
reversing the BMM's anti-white beliefs. In its earlier years, the movement deviated significantly
from traditional Islamic beliefs (particularly over matters of racial tolerance the status of the
BMM leaders as prophets). This deviation is being reversed.
Commonalties
18
Traditional Christians and Muslims have certain beliefs in common concerning Jesus.
They both accept that his birth was miraculous. He was the Messiah. He cured people of illness.
He restored dead people to life.
As this paper has illustrated, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are not separate religions.
They each have common etiologies. There each was a form of protest. They can not be separated
from the other. They should be respected for the differences and for the histories.
19
Work Cited
References
1. An index of class notes for a University of Alberta course called "Judaism in the Modern
Age" is at: http://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/363_Transp/363_list.html
2. Judaism 101 is an "online encyclopedia of Judaism, covering Jewish beliefs, people, places,
things, language, scripture, holidays, practices and customs." See: http://www.jewfaq.org
3. The official FAQ of the Soc.Culture.Jewish newsgroup is at:
http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/hl-index.html This extensive list of
questions and answers was developed by a committee of Jews from all denominations.
4. Kaiser, Robert. Frequently Asked Questions about Judaism at:
http://communities.msn.com/judaismfaqs Topics covered are: Jewish principles of faith, The
Jewish denominations, and revelation and Torah
5. Zipple.com bill themselves as "The Jewish MEGA-Site" with considerable justification. It is a
wide-ranging Jewish web site with a broad list of topics. See: http://www.zipple.com/
6. Click on Judaism is a project of the Reform Movement Commission on Synagogue Affiliation.
It invites Jews in during the 20s and 30s to explore liberal Judaism. See
http://www.clickonjudaism.com/
7. "Press Release: American Jewish Committee Publishes Synagogue Census," 2002-AUG-7,
at: http://www.ajc.org/InTheMedia/PressReleases.asp?did=602
8. This is the popular, short version of the Thirteen Principles. The original, more complete,
version appears in the book: Rambam's Commentary on the Mishnah Christianity
9. Messianic Judaism, a new religious movement, is sometimes referred to as Jewish
Christianity. Their theological beliefs match those of Evangelical Christianity, and bear little
resemblance to the Jewish Christianity of the 1st century CE
Bibliography
Barnstone, W. “The Other Bible.” New York: Harper & Row, 1984.
Crossan, J. D. “The birth of Christianity: Discovering what happened in the years immediately
after the execution of Jesus.” San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1999.
Levinson, David. “Religion: A cross cultural dictionary” Eastern Orthodoxy & Roman
Catholicism. Oxford University Press, 1996.
Maccoby, H. “The Mythmaker, Paul and the Invention of Christianity.” San Francisco: Barnes &
Noble/Harper San Francisco, 1986.
Mather, G.A. & Nichols, L.A. "Dictionary of Cults, Sects, Religions and the Occult." Zondervan,
1993.
Mays, J.L. “Harper's Bible Commentary.” New York: Harper & Row, 1988.
20
Pagels, E. “The Gnostic Gospels.” London, 1980.
Riley, Gregory J. “The River of God.” San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 2001.
Riley, Gregory J. “One Jesus, many Christs.” San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1997.
Robinson, J.M. “The Nag Hammadi Library in English.” San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988.
Schonfield, H. “Those incredible Christians.” Element, 1991.
Shorto, R. “Gospel Truth: The new image of Jesus emerging from science and history and why it
matters.” New York: Berkley/Penguin Putnam, 1997.
Smith, J.Z. “Harper Collins Dictionary of Religion.” New York: Harper Collins, 1995.
Smitha, Frank E. “Constantine, the first Christian emperor.” Antiquity Online, 1998.
http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch24.htm
Welburn, A. “The Beginnings of Christianity.” Anthroposophic Press, 1995.