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With reference to selected management theories and drawing on specific
example, discuss why managers need both instrumental and conceptual
knowledge in their everyday practice.
In today’s chaos and turbulent business environment, organizations and
academics take every single aspect into research and consideration with the aim to
have the best strategy. However, there are always contradiction between theories and
practices and theories might not always work effectively in the complex and
unpredictable real world. This paper will examine both instrumental and conceptual
knowledge about one of the “soft issues” within management – culture (Goold &
Campbell, 2002). Wherever humans are involved, there is nothing as a social fact
(Jackson & Carter, 2000) since people act differently and every single individual
have different interpretation, thus, we cannot predict what will happen next. Soft
issues such as cultures which involve mainly people will be critically discuss and
evaluate the differences between theories and practices.
There are increasing studies for organizational culture in the 1980s due to the
significant success of Japanese corporations which went global and stimulate their
own country economic while others American companies faced difficulty for
surviving (Mintzberg, 1998; Hofstede, 1980). Some academics believe that the
successful of Japanese corporations relied on its culture where they do things
differently from the American, thus some authors such as Peters & Waterman (1982),
Deal & Kennedy (1982), Schein (1985), Wilkins & Ouchi (1983), Casson (1991),
Johnson et al (2005) and others argue that culture are able to make a huge differences
and lead organization to success and sustain competitive advantages (Hoecklin, 1995)
by having effective cultural management (Miroshnik, 2002). As Peters & Waterman
(1982: p75) argues, “without exception, the dominance and coherence of culture
proved to be an essential quality of the excellent companies”. Deal & Kennedy (1982)
even argued that ‘Japan Inc’ is a culture and Thompson (2001) also agreed that culture
plays a significant role at the heart of the Japanese strategy process.
Therefore, the above assumptions that culture can have a great impact on
organization performance which are instrumental knowledge had lead culture to have
an increasingly role in today’s business environment and also lead manager to learn
more about culture. Manager need to know both instrumental and conceptual
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knowledge about culture since what was described by instrumental knowledge in
managing culture step-by-step to achieve significant result might not work in the
practice since human behaviour is complex and unpredictable (Jackson & Carter,
2000; Huczynski & Buchanan, 2001), thus they need also conceptual knowledge to
have better understanding and knowledge about culture and the issues within it, as
well as realize the fact that culture cannot be manage easily in their everyday practice.
Firstly, there are various definitions for culture and the most popular and
simplified way of defining it is “how things are done around here” (Mullins, 2002:
p802), while Hofstede (1984: p9) defined culture as “the collective programming of
the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from
another” and Pettigrew (1985: p44) argue that organizational culture can be seen as
an “expressive social tissue”. Moreover, Schein (1985: p6) argue that the term
“culture should be reserved for the deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that
are shared by members of an organization, that operate unconsciously, and that define
in a basic taken-for-granted fashion an organization’s view of itself and its
environment”, he also argue that culture is a “learned product of group experiences”
(p7). Johnson (1992: p30) has a really similar view to Schein (1985) where he pointed
out that organization with strong culture are characterized by a set of “taken for
granted assumptions” which are “protected by a web of cultural artifices including the
way people behave towards each other, the stories they tell which embed the present
in organizational history”. Tayeb (1998: p36) also agreed that “culture is a set of
values that underline attitudes and actions of members of social groupings”. In a
recent study at 2002 by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (Unesco), they argue that culture should be regarded as a set of
distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social
group, and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of
living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs.
Moreover, Alvesson (1993) summarized many of the existing cultural
definitions when he referred to culture as consisting of both objective elements
(symbols and artefacts) and subjective elements (shared values, beliefs, and
assumptions). Culture is relatively permanent and stable and influences individual
behaviour both in and out of the workplace. Therefore, every culture has its own
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values, traditions, knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Tylor, 1970) and it
directly affect how things are done within organization (Deal & Kennedy, 1982;
Mullins, 2002). For example, Japanese who have strong collectivist culture (Hofstede,
1984) are more willing to sacrifice their own leisure time for their organization and
this is the way how Japanese do things and it is a taken for granted (Schein, 1985;
Johnson, 1992) behaviour which are acceptable and encouraged (Atkinson, 1990) for
the Japanese.
Pheysey (1993) also argues that managers who have no appreciation for
cultural differences have a local perspective. They believe in the inherent superiority
of their own group and culture, and they tend to look down on those considered
“foreign”. Rather than accepting differences as legitimate, they view and measure
alien culture in terms of their own. This is not the proper way to deal with culture and
manager needs to understand different culture to increase their awareness and tolerate
themselves to organization culture so that they can adjust themselves to fit in the
culture. Besides, Hunt (2001) also agreed that understanding different cultures can
make for better managers. Therefore, managers need to learn how to understand their
own and other cultures and learn about cross-cultural attitudes and relationships if
they hope to get effective results out of mixed-culture stakeholders.
In order to understand culture, we must first have the basic knowledge about
culture and Schein’s (1985) model which distinguish three level of culture: artefacts
and creation, values and basic underlying assumptions is amongst the most popular
model for studying culture. According to Schein (1985: p14), artefacts in level one
“is the most visible level of the culture and its constructed physical and social
environment”. Huczynski & Buchanan (2001: p627) argue that the surface
manifestation of culture “are its most visible and most accessible forms, which are the
visible and audible behaviour patterns and objects”, such as physical space, language,
rituals, artefacts and others. For example, Wal-mart and some divisions of BT do not
have ‘employees’; they refer employees as ‘associates’, while Asda and Sainsbury’s
have ‘colleagues’. However, the conceptual knowledge suggests that different people
will have different interpretation to objects or artefacts due to different backgrounds
or experiences (Nicholson and Stepina, 1998; Jackson & Carter, 2000). For example,
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the visible symbols of Uclan, the red rose is actually a wild rose which mean every
Uclan’s student will grow beautifully no matter where they are just like a wild rose.
However, not everyone know its meaning and some thinks that the red rose mean the
national flower for England and others thinks it the provincial flower of Lancashire.
Red rose was also a symbols for many other things, it was used as a symbol of the
Virgin Mary, as the national flower by United State, act as an ancient symbols of love
and beauty, as well as being the symbol of England Rugby, and of the Rugby Football
Union. A red rose (often held in a hand) is also a symbol of socialism or social
democracy; it is also used as a symbol by the British and Irish Labour Parties, as well
as by the French, Spanish (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party), Portuguese, Norwegian,
Danish, Swedish, Finnish, Brazilian, Dutch (Partij van de Arbeid) and European
socialist parties (Wikipedia.com). Thus, different people from different backgrounds
will have different interpretation on the visible object and there are no such things as
common understanding.
Next, the second level of values defined by Schein (1985: p15) as “in a sense
all cultural learning ultimately reflects someone’s original values, their sense of what
ought to be, as distinct from what is”, and Huczynski & Buchanan (2001: p630)
defined organization values as “those things that have personal or organizational
worth or meaning to the founders or senior management. Values are typically based
on moral, societal or religious precepts that are learned in childhood and modified
through experiences”. For example, HP has a value of humanistic management and
they passed on this humanistic culture through consistent policies that reflected as the
HP Way. However, some cynics who support the conceptual knowledge argue that
organizational values are a passing fad and have little impact on what employees
actually think or do (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2001).
Besides, based on the conceptual knowledge, not everyone shares the same
value or believes and there is always a sub-cultural and individual that against those
values or believes (Chao & Moon, 2005; Erez and Gati, 2004). The value of
humanistic management, the HP Way was not shared by their chief executive Carly
Fiorina who launched the first involuntary job cuts and she manages by ignoring the
HP Way. Wong (6th September, 2006) review that HP, the company once renowned
for providing lifelong employment has laid off more workers worldwide than any
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other Silicon Valley company over the past 6 1/2 years and made a total layoffs to
53,100 people since 2000. This example showed that value is not necessary shared by
everyone in the organization
Lastly, the third level which Schein (1985) called basic assumptions are
congruent with Argyris’s (1976) ‘theories-in-use’ which believe the implicit
assumptions that actually guide behaviour, that tell group member how to perceive,
think about, and feel about things (Argyris, 1976; Argyris & Schon, 1974).
Nevertheless, based on the conceptual knowledge, Huczynski & Buchanan (2001)
argue that basic assumptions are difficult to access. Yet, shared experiences, values,
and basic assumptions that were adaptive in the past may not be adaptive at present,
or in the future because of contextual changes (Triandis, 1994; Erez and Gati, 2004).
Different people will have different basic assumptions because their background and
experience are different, thus, there is no one shared basic assumptions that are
understandable and acceptable by everyone in the organization. What manager thinks
that are right to do does not necessary means that their subordinate will agreed with it.
As Hunt (2001) and Nicholson and Stepina (1998) suggest, not even people from the
same level or same background will shared the same basic assumptions, thus every
single individual will have their own basic assumption that might be similar, but will
not be the same.
In addition, Meyerson & Martin (1987) critiqued that culture was primarily
seen by management as an ‘integrating mechanism’, a predisposition that still resides
in our language and Cummings (2002: p152) suggest that “the above predispositions
encourage and are encouraged by a view of culture as something that organization
‘has’, a separate object, as opposed to something that an organization ‘is’.” In fact,
Miroshnik (2002) argues that managers generally cannot view culture as affecting
organizations’ day-to-day operations and very often managers see themselves as
beyond passport, and good organizations as beyond nationality. Thus, she argues that
managers often demonstrate cultural blindness.
There are always contradictions between theories and practices since human
behaviour are complicated and every individual are different. Therefore, by looking
only at the surface of culture and understand it through instrumental textbooks is not
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sufficient enough for manager to learn about culture. Culture is not a simplified
subject that manager can learn through training and some textbooks, they must learn
through practice and observes other peoples behaviours, thinking, reacting and others
actions with the aim to dig deeper into culture. Accumulative experiences and
knowledge will support manager with more insight of culture.
Furthermore, there is various instrumental knowledge include in the
management textbooks that showed manager how to manage and change the culture if
it is not effective. Some authors argue that strong and effective culture will help
organization to increase its performance and capabilities (Peters & Waterman, 1982;
Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Schein, 1985; Casson, 1991). There are many frameworks or
philosophies that guide manager on how to study and learn to manage the culture
effectively in order to create competitive advantages, and framework that provide
manager with the knowledge of culture are such as Hofstede’s (1984) Cultural
Dimension, Turner & Trompenaars’s (2002) Six Dimensions of Cultural Diversity,
Johnson et al’s (2005) Cultural Webs, Handy’s (1976) Four Cultures Types,
Mintzberg et al’s (1998) The Cultural School and others. However, there are fewer
theories which focus on the visible and external layer of behaviours and practices
(House et al., 1999; Smith, Peterson & Schwartz, 2002) and very few models focus on
the invisible and internal level of basic assumptions. Nicholson and Stepina (1998)
which have a conceptual view argue that very few models uncover the deepest level
of basic assumptions and beliefs and very few models address the dynamic and
changing nature of culture.
Since the nature of culture is complicated and it will change from time to time
and will somehow affect by others factors as well, it is hard to conclude what the
cultures of certain organization or countries are. There are no any cultures that will
remain unchanged, thus after the time past by, we are unable to make sure that what
we learn and understand about culture of a country or organization at the past are still
the same in present or future.
More to the point, the debate about organization culture takes place between
two camps (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2001; Robbins, 1993) and these two camps were
formed by an instrumental view of culture as something that an organization ‘has’,
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and by conceptual view of culture as something that an organization ‘is’ (Cummings,
2002).
From the managerial point of view which is the instrumental knowledge, it
promoted the view that culture can be redesign or reengineered (Dolan & Garcia,
2002; Hoecklin, 1995), distilled from other ‘best practice’ companies, bought and
injected into an entirely different organization (Cummings, 2002), Fullan (2001)
suggest reculturing to change the way things are done, as well as others promote that
strong culture will create more effective and better performance organization (Peters
& Waterman, 1982; Deal & Kennedy, 1982) where the success of those organization
are culture related and culture dependent (Goldsmith & Clutterbuck, 1984). As
Furnham & Gunter (1993) argue that well-developed business culture can increase
commitment and morale, improve efficient performance and lead to increase
productivity.
This instrumental knowledge of culture ‘has’ believes that each
organization has their own culture and are able to manage or control the culture which
will contribute to the organization by manifesting the culture in the organization’s
values or attitudes. Then this culture was acquired by all the employees and
managerial levels are able to manipulate this culture to achieve greater performance
(Smircish, 1983).
There are critics for this view and also strong evidences that proofed nearly all
43 firms held up as excellent example of culture at In Search of Excellent by Peters &
Waterman (1982) experienced dramatic failures in the year that followed (Thompson,
2001; Boje and Rosile, 1996; Byrne, 2001; Chapman, 2003). For example, Thompson
(2001: p200) argue that “People Express and Caterpillar Tractor, have been less
successful and so the findings of In Search of Excellent should be treated carefully”,
he also argue that “In Search of Excellent is descriptive, not prescriptive” (1997:
p119). Others firms such as Atari, Data General, DEC, IBM, Lanier, NCR, Wang,
Xerox and others did not produce excellent results in their balance sheets. Chapman
(2003) published a book titled In Search of Stupidity as a nod to Peters's book and the
disasters that befell many of the companies it profiled (Wikipedia.com). Besides,
Byrne (2001) contends that Peters faked the data for the guru book, In Search of
Excellence and in an article in the December issue of Fast Company, Peters writes:
“This is pretty small beer, but for what its worth, okay, I confess: We faked the data.”
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(Fast Company.com). Boje and Rosile (1996) also ague that the method issue is that
selection criteria for companies to include in the Peters and Waterman book were not
quite as systematic stated by the authors and this is a good example of junk science;
guru claims scientific rigor. A thousand business professors taught In Search of
Excellence, as if the research was done with scientific rigor.
.
(Removed)
Next, the instrumental knowledge emphasizes on consensus and this approach
assumes that senior managements articulation of its organization’s culture is identical
to the actual culture. Manager who have this view believe that only one culture exist
and act according to this culture to create favourable result (Huczynski & Buchanan,
2001). However, the conceptual knowledge holds that it is critical for manager to
understand the different interests of different groups within the organization, as
Huczynski & Buchanan (2001: p643) argue, “fragmentation perspective of culture is a
view regards on organization as consisting of a loosely structured and incompletely
shared system that emerges dynamically as cultural members experience each other,
events and the organization’s contextual features”. The example of Wal-Mart also
showed that the managerial sees their strong culture as consensus and the manager
from Wal-Mart all act accordingly to this culture and managing their subordinates by
believing they are consensus as well. However, in reality, this culture is not a shared
system and there are employees who disagreed with it and it reflected the
fragmentation perspective which is considered as the conceptual knowledge.
Moreover, based on the instrumental knowledge, it assume that culture can be
created and manage by the managerial level and manager can turn their corporate
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culture by having effective leadership to implement culture change. This symbolic
leadership act as a system to influence employees to work harder and become more
productive (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2001). Smircich and Morgan (1982) also suggest
that manager are treated as hero in the organization since they can manage the culture
and made employees willing to work harder. Ray (1986: p362) argue that these
manager “possess direct ties to the value and goals of the dominant elites in order to
activate the emotion and sentiment which may lead to devotion, loyalty and
commitment to the company”. This instrumental view focus on internalize managerial
control and believe that culture can be control and managed by leaders.
However, the conceptual knowledge suggest that there are no weak or strong
culture as culture is same as individual’s personalities, there is no better or worse
culture, there is just different culture. The conceptual knowledge also holds that
manager should understand and tolerated these different cultures. It emphasize on
humanistic control (Ray, 1986) and focuses on satisfy employees needs’ by providing
a satisfying work task or a pleasant working group to promote internal control (Mayo,
1933, 1945). This view holds that individual will be willing to meet the organizational
goal if they can meet their own individual’s goals (Van Maanen & Barley, 1984).
As an example, the acquisition of IBM by Lenovo will have a huge culture
clash since both of the Eastern and Western culture are totally different and Kanellos
(2004) suggest that normally joint venture wouldn’t work. Many others also agreed
that the corporate culture is a major issue for Lenovo that will create difficulty in
managing it and they even have the most fundamental barriers, languages (Chao,
2004; Harmsen, 2004; Maney, 2005). The instrumental knowledge suggest that such
culture can be managed and control, however, in reality, organizations are unable to
manage such complicated culture. Lenovo didn’t change or manage the existing
culture, thus, employees from IBM are willing to tolerate with the Chinese culture and
adapt themselves to this foreign culture, on the other hand, employees from Lenovo
also doing the same thing by changing themselves to cope with the culture of IBM.
Leader from Lenovo or IBM didn’t take the instrumental knowledge to change and
manage the culture step by step, they had taken the conceptual knowledge of
tolerating the foreign culture and adapt to it, while they both can learn from each
others as well. This had proven that in real situation, instrumental knowledge don’t
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work and conceptual knowledge will help manager to understand the foreign culture
and learn to tolerate it and adapt to it.
In conclusion, by having both the instrumental knowledge and conceptual
knowledge, manager will have the fundamental knowledge of the textbooks and
through the conceptual knowledge, they will realize that there are no one best way to
manage culture and will keep on learning the culture and increase their understanding
and awareness to it in order to adapt themselves or their management style with the
complex nature of culture. It is undeniable that culture is an important issue within
the organization and will influence the ways of how organization do things, thus
manager has to learn this knowledge in order to fit in with the culture more smoothly.
(4111 words)
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