Chapter 13
Behaviorism: concerned with overt, observable behavior. Not concerned with emotions,
thoughts, expectancies, values, insight, unconscious.
B. F. Skinner---rejected the use of inner states, such as anxiety, as explanations of
behavior in favor of observable external events.
Radical behaviorism An extreme form of the behaviorist view that argues against using
inner states as explanations for behaviors.
Freud and Skinner held similar view----people do not know reason for many of their
behaviors—although think we do.
Personality described: the end result of one's history of conditioning. To understand
processes that shape personality and to change problem behaviors—have to examine
basic conditioning principles. The behavioral approach to personality proposes that
personality is the consistent patterns of behavior we engage in.
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are used by behaviorists to explain the
development and maintenance of behaviors.
Classical conditioning: event-event learning. Learn that there is a temporal or sequential
relationship between 2 events in world, such as bell and food powder.
Operant conditioning: behavior-event learning. Learn the relationship between behavior
and some consequential event. Press a lever produces piece of food.
Edward Thorndike: Law of effect—an action that results in a favorable effect more
likely to be repeated--- an action that results in an unfavorable effect less likely to be
repeated.
Operant conditioning—consequences of action important. Consequence increases
frequency of behavior that precedes it is called reinforcement. Decreases behavior—
called punishment. Consequence reinforcing or punishing varies according to situation
and person.
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
behavior modification Therapy procedures based on operant conditioning and classical
conditioning principles
Social Learning theory: introduced idea of behavior-environment-behavior interactions.
Incorporates internal concepts into descriptions of conditioning and personality.
Environment influences behavior, behavior influences environment. How you act partly a
result of how you are treated; the way others treat you partly result of how you act.
People provide own reinforcers in absence of visible external rewards—reach goals set
for yourself.
Rotter: social learning theory cognitive expectancies: (1) what you expect to happen
following a specific behavior, and (2) the value you attach to the outcome (reinforcement
value); both influence whether you will engage in the specific behavior
To predict human behavior—behavior potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, and
psychological situation.
A basic idea of Rotter's social learning theory is that the strength of expectancy is
determined by the value placed on reinforcement
The probability of engaging in a behavior changes after rewards and punishments
because our expectancies change.
Behavior potential-refers to likelihood that given behavior will occur in particular
situation. Each possible response has different behavior potential.
Strength of behavior potential determined by expectancy and reinforcement.
Expectancy—person’s expectation of being reinforced. Expect to get something of value
for behavior—likely to do it.
Figure out probability that will have a good time—base expectancies on how things
turned out in past situations. More rewards in past, more confidence in rewards at
present time.
Reinforcement value—preference for a particular reinforcement.
Needs of person contributes to reinforcement value. Goals with highest reinforcement
value most desirable. stable individual differences
Locus of Control
Research on locus of control developed out of Rotter's concept of generalized
expectancies. Locus of control---personality trait that divides people along a continuum
according to the extent to which they believe what happens to them and others is
controllable.
Social cognitive theory—Albert Bandura: human functioning is a product of the mutual
interaction of environmental events, behavior, and personal factors.
Bandura proposes that internal states, the environment, and behavior all affect one
another. people regulate own behavior, and we engage in purposeful, future-oriented
thinking.
Personality is determined by the interplay of behavior, environment, and cognitive
processes---called reciprocal determinism.
Reciprocal determinism— three way interaction of environment, behavior and person.
Behavior partially function of environment, but environment partially function of
behavior
Bandura adds 3rd factor—the person—cognitive factors such as memory, anticipation,
planning and judging. Because people have and use cognitive capacities—able to
influence both their environment and own behavior.
Cognition determines which environmental events people attend to, what values placed
on events
3 reciprocal factors don’t have to be of equal strength or to make equal contributions.
Strength of factor varies with individual and with situation.
Behavior may be most powerful—person plays piano for own enjoyment.
Environment exerting most influence—boat overturns every survivor begins thinking and
behaving in same ways
Cognition (person) more powerful—person believes there are sinister plans being plotted
to destroy her.
Relative influence of behavior, environment and person depends on which of the 3
factors is strongest at particular moment.
Observational learning is a key aspect in how we learn--form ideas about others’
behavior and possibly adopt that behavior.
Bandura: learn through observing others, although whether behaviors are performed
depends on expectancies for rewards or punishments.
Instead of passive recipients of the environment, we can actively regulate and control our
behaviors.
Behavior modification therapists apply basic conditioning principles when dealing with
their clients.
systematic desensitization is based on classical conditioning.
token economies, are based on operant conditioning.
Bandura has identified clients' self-efficacy beliefs as crucial in the psychotherapy
progress. Whether clients expect to succeed is an important determinant of therapy
success. These expectancies come from a variety of sources, including past performance
accomplishments and vicarious learning.
Self efficacy: people’s beliefs that they are capable of performing those behaviors that
can produce desired outcomes in a particular situation.
How people act depends on reciprocity of environmental and cognitive conditions,
especially those that relate to beliefs----Influences actions choose to pursue, how much
effort invested in activity, how long work at activity, and resiliency if not successful
Beliefs in capabilities to exercise some measure of control over own functioning and
over environmental events.
High self-efficacy—believe they can do something that has potential to alter
environmental events. Low self-efficacy---see themselves as incapable of carrying out
activities.
Confidence in ability to perform certain behaviors.
Efficacy does not imply that people can perform behaviors without anxiety, stress –
instead judgement about whether or not they can carry out the required action.
Self-efficacy can be enhanced or reduced by: mastery experiences past performances/
successful performances raises self-efficacy in proportion to difficulty of task.; social
modeling or vicarious experiences—provided by other people.
Physical and emotional states
High self-efficacy in one situation, low in another, situational variables—competence
required for different activities, whether other people are present and their perceived
competence, accompanying physiological states
High and low efficacy combined with responsiveness of environment—predict behavior.
Behavioral assessment includes a variety of techniques, including direct observation, selfmonitoring, and observation by others. Each of these techniques can provide useful data
for determining baseline frequencies, the conditions under which the target behavior
occurs, and the success of the treatment procedure.
Among the strengths of the behavioral/social learning approach is its empirical base and
the useful therapeutic procedures it has generated. The observation of behavior has
fostered a scientific climate for studying personality.
The criticisms include the inappropriate attention given to heredity. People have also
criticized the way behavior therapists interpret problems into observable behaviors.
Both perspectives have been more concerned with situations, rather than the enduring
characteristics of the person.