4. Phrases
4.1 What is a phrase?
SENTENCE ↔ CLAUSE ↔ PHRASE ↔ WORD ↔ MORPHEME
 Words combine together to form phrases according to rules called phrase
structure rules.
 The set of phrase structure rules for a language form a generative grammar.
 Different phrase structure rules generate phrases of different categorical
structure: noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP), prepositional phrases (PP),
adjective phrases (AP), adverbial phrases (AdvP), etc.
4.2 Phrase types: are they parallel?
4.2.1 Noun Phrases (NP)
 The following phrase structure rule
NP → Det (AP) N
(S)
(PP)
generate grammatical NP:
[NP [N I ]] love [NP [N chocolate]]
[NPThe [Ntramp]] read [NP the [Ndiary]]
[NP[DetBoth][Ngirls]] enjoy [NP[APclassical] [Nmusic]]
[NP [Det The] [Ndiary] [Swhich the tramp was reading]] was amusing
[NP [Det Two] [Nboys] [PPwith red hair]] entered the room
 A noun phrase contains a head noun that is non-omissible.
 The head noun may be preceded by a determiner specifier and an adjective that
modifies the noun (premodifier):
 The head noun may be followed by a postmodifier
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NP
specifier
pre-modifier
N
post-modifier
for example,
[NPThe diary which the tramp was reading] was amusing
NP
Det
The
N
S
diary which the tramp was reading
 Do all NPs share the same selectional restrictions?
 The head noun (N) is obligatorily.
 The determiner (Det) in the specifier position is sometimes obligatory.
 The pre- and post- modifiers are optional, so they are adjuncts.
4.2.2 Verb Phrases (VP)
 Is it only ONE phrase structure rule that generate VPs? Do all verbs belong to the
same type?
to laugh
a) The tramp laughed
b) * The tramp laughed the little kid.
to lean
a) The tramp leaned towards the
German girl.
b) * The tramp leaned.
VP → V
VP → V PP
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to be
to read
a) The story is interesting
b) The story is on the table
c) The story is mine
d) * The story is
a) The tramp says ugly words.
b) The tramp says that he is poor.
c) * The tramp says
VP → V
VP → V NP
S
AdjP
PP
NP
to put
to tell
a) The tramp put the chocolate on the
table.
b) * The tramp put on the table.
a) He told the girl an interesting story.
b) He told an interesting story to the girl.
c)* He told an interesting.
d) * He told the girl.
VP → V NP PP
VP → V NP NP
VP→ V NP PP
to call
a) He called her a clever girl.
b) He called her clever.
b) * He called a clever girl.
c) * He called her a clever girl.
VP → V NP NP
AP
Each verb seems to have a different rule (or rules) for generating verb phrases.
Verbs fall into different (sub)categories depending on the number and category of
phrasal complement, if any, they required they required to form a grammatical VP.
 Intransitive verbs subcategorise for 0 complement (e.g. laugh, sleep, etc.)
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 Intransitive verbs subcategorise for 1 adverbial PP complement (e.g. lean, move,
etc.)
 Copula verbs subcategorise for 1 AP, NP, or PP (e.g. be)
 Monotransitive verbs subcategorise for 1 NP or S (e,g, says, believe).
 Transitive verbs subcategorise for 1 NP and 1 adverbial PP complement (e.g.
put, lay, etc.)
 Ditransitive verbs subcategorise for 2 complements 1 NP plus 1 PP or 2 NPs
(e.g. told, send).
 Complex transitive verbs subcategorise for 2 complements 1 NP plus 1 AP or 2
NPs (e.g. call, put).
4.2.2.1 Adjuncts
 Extra information that is not required for the interpretation of a predicate.
 Constituents which are not part of a predicate’s subcategorisation frame.
He unfolded his magazine
He unfolded his magazine [PPfor the girl].
He unfolded his magazine [AdvPquite unexpectedly]
He unfolded his magazine [S'because he wanted to read it]
 Adjuncts are not subcategorized complements.
 Adjuncts are optional that can be omitted without affecting the grammaticality
of the sentence.
 What is the difference between complements and adjuncts?
Subcategorised Complements vs. adjuncts
 Complements are obligatory whereas adjuncts are optional
 Complements are indicated in predicate’s subcategorisation frame whereas
adjuncts are not.
 Complements are part of the lexical entry whereas adjuncts are not.
4.2.2.2 Auxiliaries
 Auxiliaries are elements preceding the verb.
 Auxiliaries are model auxiliaries and primary auxiliaries.
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 Model auxiliaries are will, would can could, may, might, shall, should, etc.
 Primary auxiliaries are have, be, do that are used to indicate the aspect (Perfect
and Progressive), voice.
 Do auxiliaries come in order?
a)
b)
c)
d)
The dog may have been being given a bone
* The dog have may been being given a bone
* The dog may been have being given a bone
* The dog may have been being given a bone
 Auxiliaries come in specific order:
Order of auxiliaries:
1. Tense or model : model + V [infinitive]
a) Sue may give the dog a bone
b) Sue give may the dog a bone
2. Perfect: have + V [-en]
a) Sue may have given the dog a bone
b)* Sue have may given the dog a bone
3. Progressive: be + V [-ing]
a) Sue may have been giving the dog a bone
b)* Sue may be have giving the dog a bone
4. Passive: be + V [-en]
a) The dog may have been being given a bone
b) * The dog may have being been given a bone
c)
4.2.3
Prepositional Phrases (PP)
 Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition (P) head.
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 The PS rule
PP
PP → (advP) P NP
(NP)
generates grammatical PPs:
AdvP
right
in the corner
to the tramp
with red hair
4.2.4
P
on
NP
the spot
right on the spot
straight through the wall
three inches above the wall
Adjective Phrases (AP)
 Adjective phrases contain an adjective (A/Adj) head.
 The PS rule
AP → (AdvP) A
(PP)
(S)
generate grammatical APs:
young
German
very soft
worried about the future
extremely afraid that she might die
[AP[AdvP [Advextremely]] [Aafraid] [Sthat she might die]]
AP
AdvP
A
S
afraid
that she might die
Adv
extremely
 Adjective phrases (AP) occur as adjuncts inside a NP or as predicative
complement after copular and other linking verbs:
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[NPThe [APyoung] girl] decided to depend on herself
He leaned towards [NP the [APGerman] girl]
Her voice [VPwas [APvery soft]]
She [VPis [APafraid that she might die]]
4.2.5 Adverbial Phrases (AdvP)
 Adverb phrases contain an adverb (Adv) head.
 The following PS rule
AdvP → (Adv) Adv
generates grammatical adverbial phrases:
again
slowly
then
very soon
extremely slowly
AdvP
Adv
Adv
extremely
slowly
 Adverb phrases (AdvP) are adjuncts that occur inside a VP or a AP:
He [VPleft very recently]
She [VPcopied the documents quite accurately]
An [APunexpectedly large] crowd took part in the demonstration
He is [AP typically British]
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A generalized phrase structure:
NP
Det
N
two
boys
VP
PP
with red hair
Aux
V
NP
have
read
the diary
PP
AdvP
AP
P
right
AdvP
NP
on
the spot
A
PP
Adv
worried about the future
extremely
a)
b)
c)
d)
each phrase type (XP) has a Head (X);
the Head (X) may be preceded by a Specifier (Spec);
the Head (X) may be followed by Complements plus
adjuncts that optionally occur initially or finally.
XP
specifier


X
complement
X is V if XP is VP; X is N if XP is NP; X is P if XP is PP; X is A/Adj if
XP is AP; X is adv if XP is AdvP.
The specifier position is available for:
Det or AP if X is N
Aux if X is V
AdvP or NP if X is P
AdvP if X is A
Adv if X is Adv
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
The complement position is available for:
PP or S if X is N
NP, PP, AP, or S if X is V
NP if X is P
PP or S if X is A
4.7 Summary
 Phrases are formed by combining words together according to phrase structure
rules.
 Phrases are of different categories: VP headed by V, NP headed by N, PP
headed by P, AP headed , AdvP headed by Adv, etc.
Reading for this lecture:
Wekker&Haegeman (1985: 35-56)
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