Animism
Archaeological investigation provides clear evidence to support the idea that
prehistoric human communities displayed signs of religious beliefs. An examination
of archaeological evidence has led numerous scholars to formulate theories as to how
religion began in prehistoric times. No one theory has gained universal acceptance
though there are several major theories, which have made significant contributions to
the study of the origins of religion. Several prominent figures in the development of
such theories are, Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, Friedrich Max Muller and Wilhelm
Schmidt.
Definition
One of the earliest and most influential theories developed on this issue of the origins
of religion was formulated by nineteenth century British anthropologist, Sir Edward
Burnett Tylor. In 1871, Tylor put forward the theory of animism in his book,
"Primitive Culture". According to Tylor, prehistoric people believed that all natural
objects, including living creatures, had a soul or spirit, which existed separately and
independently of its physical being. It was this force, prehistoric people believed, that
controlled the activities of the natural world.
How prehistoric communities formulated the theory of animism
Animism is the belief that natural events such as windstorms, the transition from day
to night, tornadoes, and volcanic eruptions could be attributed to the actions of the
spirits, also known as "animae". Tylor argues that prehistoric communities firstly
revered and then later worshipped these spirits, because the natural phenomena which
these spirits produced were often so impressive and completely beyond normal human
capacities. Prehistoric people began to worship these spirits as these natural
phenomena affected their day-to-day life.
According to Tylor, however, religion did not begin simply as a result of prehistoric
people observing the awe-inspiring might of the natural world. Tylor also believed
that on top of observing the power of the natural forces an additional element was
required - that is awareness by prehistoric people of the existence of "animae" which
came about as a result of witnessing events such as death and dreams. When primitive
people dreamt about people or animals that had already died they may have formed
the idea that these dead people had spirits, otherwise these dead people or animals
would not have come to them in dreams. This belief in the spirits of the departed led
to an awareness of the presence of spirits in all aspects of the natural world.
Polytheism is generally considered to have developed from animism
From this worship of elements such as water, fire, rivers and mountains come the
beginnings of polytheistic religious practices. This belief that polytheistic religions
must have been derived from simpler forms of religious practice should be seen
against the background of influential theories around that time, developed by thinkers
such as Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer who both stressed the idea that a
complex society developed from a simple one. Thus evolution is characterised by the
transition from the basic to the sophisticated.
Implications of the belief in animism
The belief that all living things have souls or spirits has a number of implications.
Firstly, all facets of the natural world, from the inanimate elemental forces of nature
to the animate flora and fauna, were considered as being more or less of equal
importance. This is because everything was perceived as being endowed with a spirit
or soul. Therefore, it was important for human beings to treat animals with
respect. Not only were human beings seen as being of equal importance to all other
soul carrying agents, they were seen as an integral part of this natural world.
This concept of the world and of the role in which human beings play, is diametrically
opposed to the modern perception of the world which is characterised by a Cartesian
belief in the superiority of human beings who are separate and independent from the
natural world.
Secondly, prehistoric hunter-gatherer communities believed that the spirit, or
supernatural being, that inhabits both animate and inanimate agents, survives
physical death. Precisely what prehistoric people believed would happen to a soul or
spirit after physical death is unclear. In some cultures it is believed that this soul
moves unto a better world, a world of fertile vegetation, easy game, and abundant
crops.
Other cultures held the belief that these souls must transmigrate to a spirit world or
else risks becoming a wandering ghost. Alternatively, other prehistoric communities
believed that because the soul lives on even after the death of the physical agent
inhabited by the soul. The soul continues to play an active role amongst the living.
Thus, rituals are undertaken to appease these wandering spirits. Such rituals are
intended to ensure the abundance of food, provision of shelter and overall wellbeing.
They are also intended to help stave off the activities of evil spirits. Shamans, who
are priests that possess great spiritual powers, undertake these rituals in animistic
cultures.
Most scholars have rejected the theory of animism
Although Tylor's theories are not universally accepted they were, nevertheless, highly
influential during his time and continue to influence the work of modern scholars. The
controversial nature of Tylor's theories encouraged other historians and
anthropologists to develop alternate theories to account for the origins of religion.
Muller's alternative to the theory of animism
One such academic was nineteenth century German scholar, Friedrich Max Muller,
who is also famously known as the first historian of religion. Muller agreed with
Tylor insofar as accepting Tylor's idea that religion began as spirit worship. However,
Muller discounts Tylor's notion that such spirits inhabited the natural world. Instead
Muller has argued for the view that these souls were anthropomorphic spirits in the
sense that these spirits were endowed with human emotions such as anger and hence
had good or bad tempers. It was these spirits, Muller argues, that became to be
revered as deities.
Animism is still prevalent in some cultures today
While animism is often associated with prehistoric or preliterate communities it
is, however, still a predominant feature of some communities and cultures today.
For example, the traditional religion and spirituality of Australian Aboriginal people
has animistic features as does the traditional religions of Melanesian, Polynesian and
Micronesian communities of the Oceanic region. There are also features of animism
found among African communities as well as the beliefs of the Native American
Indians.