Motivation
Motivation expresses the “whys” of behavior not the “hows”.
Why do some people with the same level of ability seem to work harder and more
productively? Motivation
Definition : Motivation is the force that moves people to behave, think and feel the way
they do.
From the Latin “movere” or to move
3 Key Dimensions of Motivated Behavior
Level of Energy or Arousal – What energizes or arouses behavior
Direction of Behavior – What directs or channels the behavior? Which behaviors does a
person choose to perform?
Level of Persistence – How is the behavior sustained or maintained?
When faced with obstacles, and roadblocks, how hard does a person keep trying to
perform a chosen behavior successfully?
Motivation Theories - Most theories of motivation fall in one of 3 broad classifications
Biological or Needs theories
Instinct or Evolutionary theory
Drive Reduction theory
Need Hierarchy theory
Cognitive theories
Equity theory
Goal setting
Social or learning theories
Operant Conditioning
Evolutionary or Instinct Theories - Emphasizes the role of instincts and genes
Instincts are innate biological patterns of behavior that appear to be universal throughout
a species
Evolutionary theory has recently been applied to explain the motivation for sex,
aggression, helping behavior and other behaviors based on “passing on our genes”
Drive-Reduction Theory - Due to problem with the instinct theory it was replaced by
the drive-reduction theory.
A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an
organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951).
The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady
internal state (e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature).
Evaluating Drive Reduction Theory
Defined motivation using specific observable behaviors
Useful for explaining many biological functions or needs (e.g., water, food, oxygen,
sleep, body temperature)
Limited in explaining higher order motivations such as exploration and curiosity
We are also pulled by incentives
Optimum Arousal Theory
Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it.
Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)
Need Hierarchy Theory
Abraham Maslow (1970): proposed that we have a hierarchy of needs.
Once one need is fulfilled we can move on to the next.
Certain needs have priority over others.
Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs
such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition
Evaluation
 Popular in business and makes good intuitive sense
 Theory still provides useful guidelines
 Weak empirical support
 Satisfied needs become MORE, not less, important to workers (Hall & Nougaim,
1968)
 If one need becomes more important, others also become more important
 Main problems: rigidity of progression and cross cultural problem with the needs
Goal-Setting Theory - Locke (1968)
The basic idea is the people’s behavior are motivated by their internal intentions,
objectives or goals.
A goal is what a person consciously wants to attain or achieve
The goal represents what we intend to do at a given time in the future
Goal Mechanism (Locke & Latham, 2002)
 Goals serve a directive function
The direct attentions and effort toward the goal-relevant activities and away from goal
irrelevant activities
 Goals have an energizing function
High goals lead to greater effort than low goals
There is evidence of physiological indicators of effort
 Goals affect persistence
When people are allowed to control the time they spend on a task, hard goals prolong
effort
 Goals affect action indirectly
By leading to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of task relevant knowledge and strategies
What type of goals leads to the best level of performance?
Establish SMART goals for yourself
S Specific
M Measurable
A Attainable
R Relevant
T Time-oriented
Specific Goals -Goals are only meaningful when they’re specific enough to be verified
and measured
Many studies have compared the performance of people with specific vs. general goals
(ex. “Do your best”)
Measurable Goals - Properly set goals are measurable
Difficult by Attainable Goals - Goals should be set so as to require the employee to
stretch to reach them
Easy goals are not as motivating as difficult but attainable goals
They should not be impossible goals
Relevant Goals - Goals need to be relevant and controllable to the job
Time-bound- Goals should be time specific
Open-ended goals are likely to be neglected because there is no sense of time urgency
Empirical support
Strong!!
Performance under goal-setting conditions is almost always superior to “no goal setting”
conditions
Applicability
Extremely applicable
Can set specific, challenging goals for every conceivable behavior or job and person