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NOTES – Chapter 3
Heredity
Development = heredity + environment
Beginnings – gametes (unfertilized eggs and sperm)
zygote (fertilized egg)
chromosomes: 22 pairs + 2 sex determining ones
46 chromosomes in all body cells
EXCEPT sperm and eggs, which have 22 chromosomes + ONE sex
determining chromosome X or Y.
genes – about 30,000 –35,000 in humans, about the same number as in plants
Twins -
monozygotic – 1 in 270 births
dizygotic – 1 in 60 births
DNA – chemical molecules – about 6 BILLION
Traits: polygenic – many genes acting in concert
multifactorial interation of heredity and environment
genotype: all the genes one inherits, whether they are observable or not – total potential
phenotype: genes that show – are observable
dominant: stronger – take over
recessive: weaker – need double dose to be expressed
Chromosome Abnormalities
usually result in spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), but not always
Down Syndrom: risks increase as woman (and man) grows older
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NOTES – Chapter 4
Prenatal Development and Birth
Three Stages of Prenatal Development
Germinal – 1st 2 weeks
Embdyonic – 3-8 weeks
Fetus – 9-37 weeks (+or-)
Teratogen: harmful substances – drugs, viruses
Example: rubella
tobacco
alcohol
Viability:
fetus can survive – about 22 weeks
only abouat 31% of conceptions become living babies
Birth:
Stages
labor – 5-7 hours for 1st birth
transition – head moes into vagina (birth canal)
delivery – head crowns, followed by body
APGAR – measures new born health
Complications:
anoxia
low birth weight preterm
small for age (SGA)
post partum depression
Bonding
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Chapter 5
Bio Social Development
Infancy/Toddlerhood
Physical Growth
Height
Weight
at birth
20 in.
6-9 lbs.
4th month
double birth weight
12 months
30 in.
22 lbs.
24 months
32-36 in.
30 lbs.
(Two year olds have attained 1/5 adult weight, ½ adult height.)
SIDS – prevention
Neurons
Myelination: Speeds communication. Allows child to gain more control over functions.
Reflexes – Types
1. maintain oxygen supply
2. maintain body temperature
3. manage feeding
Gross motor skills
Fine motor skills
Sequence of motor skills
Sensation: Sensory response, whether detected or not.
Perception: Mental processing of sensory information.
Vision: Newborns focus clearly at between 4-30 in.
Hearing: Quite sensitive in newborns.
Young babies able to distinguish different sounds easily. Adults cannot distinguish as
well.
Prevention of hearing loss: reduce ear infections – careful hand washing.
Taste, Smell, touch: Less developed, but still sensitive.
Ideal Diet: Breast milk.
Malnutrition – in developing countries.
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Chapter 6
Cognitive Development – Infancy/Toddlerhood
Dynamic perception: Ability to connect the senses, i.e. – “See what I feel”
“Hear what I see”
Object permanence: “Things are there, even if I can no longer see them.”
Starts at about 8 months of age.
A-B error – continues until about 12 months of age.
Baillargeon’s Tests of Object Permanence
Possible event
Impossible event
Piaget
Active intelligence – seek to understand in age related ways.
Sensori – Motor Intelligence – 6 sub stages.
Language Development
Babbling
First words – age 12 months
Referential – names, labels, nouns more common. Ex.: Mom, dog.
Expressive – interaction words more common. Ex.: Go, want.
Underextension: Too limited – undergeneralization.
Overextension: Too broad – overgeneralization.
Holophrase: Single word sentences.
Telegraphic speech: Only the important words.
LAD – inborn.
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Chapter 7
Psycho-Social Development – Infancy/Toddlerhood
Emotional expressions seen in first month of life. First emotion: distress.
Social smile – appears at 6 weeks.
Social referencing – looking to parents for emotional cues.
Dads encourage bold, playful behavior.
Self awareness: Fosters growth of emotions – positive and negative. Ex.: guilt,
shame, anxiety, pride.
Personality Theories
1. Learning Skinner: Based on reinforcement.
2.
Psychoanalytic: Freud,
Oral
Anal
Fixations
3.
Psychoanalytic - Erikson
Trust vs. mistrust
Autonomy vs. shame & doubt
Temperament – 9 dimensions
3 types: easy – 40%
slow-to-warm – 15%
difficult – 10%
Attachment
Proximity – seeking
Contact – maintaining
Secure attachment
Insecure attachment
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Chapter 8
Outline/Key Concepts
Growth
Slows down, child becomes slimmer; lower body lengthens; some baby fat melts.
Eating Habits
appetites decrease – normal
iron deficiency anemia causes chronic fatigue
lack of meat, grains, eggs, dark green veggies
preschoolers compulsive about food, meals
Factors Affecting Height
Brain Growth
myelination – on going
reaction time quicker, control better
Accidents/Injury
better prevention through laws
Physical Skills
gross
fine
Child Maltreatment
community/cultural context
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Chapter 9
Outline/Key Concepts
Preoperational Thought – Piaget
Guided Participation – Vygotsky
children as apprentices
scaffolding
private speech
Scripts
Language
fast mapping
nouns, verbs easiest
grammar
how can parents help
Head Start
score higher – achievement tests
better report cards
fewer in remedial classes
more likely to go to college
less likely to go to jail!
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Chapter 10
Outline/Key Concepts
Initiative vs. Guilt – Erikson
Optimistic, competent, enthusiastic, bold
Emotional Regulation
how parents can help with fears
Aggression
Instrumental
reactive
relational
bullying
Play
helps children learn social skills
rough-&-tumble
socio dramatic
mastery
imaginary playmates
Effects of TV
watch about 20-25 hours per week
promotes aggressive behavior – takes time from play
Parenting Patterns
authoritarian
authoritative
permissive-democratic/indulgent
permissive-neglecting
traditional
Gender Roles
children prefer to play with same sex from age 2 onward
Freud – Oedipus Complex – Electra Complex
resolution – identification
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Chapter 11
Outline/Key Concepts
Development between ages 7 and 11 is rather uneventful, relative slow. Children become
slimmer.
Variations in height and weight in this country is mainly due to heredity. In poorer
nations – nutrition.
Obesity: a growing problem
Causes: heredity
activity level
TV
cultural attitudes – love = food
Solution: increase physical activity – no bribery, no crash diets
Motor Skills: boys and girls about equal in abilities.
Skill depends on: motivation
guidance
practice, practice, practice
Sports programs should be fun!
Problems: competitive
comparing children to each other
time spent on side lines, etc.
BORING
Developmental Problems – psychopathology
1) all of us have some problems – abnormality is normal
2) disabilities change over time – adulthood can be better or worse
3) label depends on social context
Mental retardation vs. learning disabilities
dyslexia
dyscalcula
ADHD – amphetamines
help at home and school
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Chapter 12
Outline/Key Concepts
Mental processing much more effective now. Kids know more, can use selective attention,
metacognition, things become automatic.
Concrete Operational Thought – Piaget
5 to 7 shift
identity – an egg is still an egg when it’s scrambled.
reversibility – even if we fight we can go back to being friends
Kohlberg – Moral Reasoning: 6 stages
morality of justice
morality of caring
Communication Skills
jokes
secret languages
logic
code switching: formal code
informal code
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Chapter 13
Outline/Key Concepts
Freud: latency – drives are quieter – time for mastering society’s developmental tasks.
Erikson – industry vs. inferiority – competent/incompetent
Children in most cultures are expected to show independence/responsibility, starting at age 6.
Also expected to begin to understand motives, emotions, intentions of others – “walk a mile ……
moccasins. Known as social cognition.
Society of Children
kids now demand more of friends, pickier. Tend to choose friends who are similar to
themselves
Two types of rejected children:
aggressive-rejected
withdrawn-ejected – most likely to be bullied
Bullying – can be slowed/stopped by educating both bullies/victims – Norway has a
national policy.
Bullies usually have “groupies”/friends who admire/fear them.
Family Styles:
open: every family member contributes
closed: strict guidelines, limits, rules
Divorce:
Is usually harmful to the children – at least in short term. – lower school achievement, poorer
health, economic loss.
same is true for homeless children.
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Chapter 14
Key Concepts
Puberty: ends childhood - produces adult size, shape, sexual potential.
Hormones: kick in from hypothalamus in brain.
Growth hormone – both sexes
Testosterone – more in males than females
Estrogen – more in females than males
Menarache/spermarche
Earlier for Afro-Americans
Later for Asian-Americans
Growth Spurt: both boys and girls have similar increases in weight and height.
1. Proceeds from extremities
2. Rapid weight gain – girls gain more fat: ¼ body
weight is fat – 1/8 boys
girls gain more (proportionally) in hips and legs.
3. Growth spurt may occur at widely different ages.
4. Adolescents want to develop “on time” – a particular problem for early maturing girls.
Organ Growth/Change
1. Lungs increase in size, capacity
2. Heart – doubles in size
3. Oil, sweat glands become much more active
4. Eyes elongate – may become nearsighted
Primary Sex Characteristics
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Body Image – girls more dissatisfied with more body parts – almost all want to lose weight.
Sexual Abuse: Can include teasing, invading privacy. Most abusers are male, BUT 20% are
female.
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Chapter 15
Key Concepts
Piaget: Formal Operations
Can think in terms of possibilities, abstractions hypothetical – maybe/possibly
still situation specific.
Can reason against their own personal beliefs.
Can use reasoning that is
Inductive: from particulars to the general – BOTTOM UP
Ex: If it walks and quacks like …. it must be …. .
Deductive: from general to specific – TOP DOWN
Ex: Ducks waddle and quack. This animal … & … . It must be a duck.
Elkind: Adolescent Egocentrism: focus on selves, see selves as unique.
Invincibility fable: won’t happen to me.
Personal fable: see selves as heroic.
Imaginary audience: “everyone is looking at me”.
Schools:
Best are supportive – teachers offer supportive interaction.
Most are not supportive.
Social promotion.
Task involvement learning vs. group learning.
Work and school – is the work meaningful – how many hours – no more than 15.
Pregnancy: Causes multiple, long term problems. Understanding of basic facts doesn’t
necessarily lead to responsible behavior.
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Chapter 16
Key Concepts
Erikson: Identity vs. role confusion
Identity achievement – ultimate status
Foreclosure
Negative identity
Identity diffusion
Identity moratorium
Process can take 10 years or more – people going through several statuses before
reaching ultimate status.
Identity easy to achieve in societies where everyone has same values and change is slow.
Conflict
Probably inevitable; usually not serious. Adolescents don’t benefit from extreme
laziness or abusive strictness.
Other aspects:
Communication
Support
Control – restricts autonomy – there is a fine line.
Peers: Can sometimes act as buffers between dependence of childhood and independence
of adult hood.
Suicide:
Suicid al idention – so common in adolescence that some experts consider it normal.
Para suicide – self-destruction – may or may not be attempted suicide.
Law Breaking:
Statistics show males more likely to be arrested than females – blacks more likely
than whites – whites more likely than Asians.
But …. these are only arrest statistics – gender and ethnic differences may really be
smaller – if non-arrested lawbreakers were included.
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NOTES - CHAPTER 17
Sex
Among married couples frequency of sexual activity declines with age.
Men:
Require longer to attain an erection as they age; require more direct stimulation.
Refractory period is longer (period following orgasm - when sexual arousal is not
possible).
Women: Become more easily aroused and experience more orgasms as they grow older experience and longer fore play.
The capacity for sexual pleasure is unaffected by biological aging well into late adult hood.
Infertility - inability to conceive after a year of trying.
Male: Most common problem - low healthy sperm count.
(motility) (swimming ability) (mobility)
Normal sperm count per ejaculation: 80 million plus.
Female: Most common reason - failure to ovulate - ovulation becomes more erratic as women
age - sometimes release more than one egg
per cycle. Older women more likely to have
multiple births. Also
due to fertility drug.
Dieting/Disease
Set points: A particular weight that an individual body strives to maintain. Affected by
various factors: genetics, diet, age, etc., but body strives to maintain and metabolism changes.
Cultural norms in western cultures can lead to unhealthy thinness, more common in women and
less common in black women.
Can never be too rich or too thin.
Most likely to diet without needing to.
Young, well educated women.
Anorexia
Insufficient fat halts hormone functioning - menstrual cycle anorexia - typically a young, high achieving white, female.
Bulimia: Binge and purge - barf and scarf - most common among female college students and
athletes
Changes in sexual arousal vis-a-vis aging. men: longer time needed women: arousal/orgasm
more likely
Infertility: 12 months of trying with no luck. 1/3 of untreated couples eventually have a child.
1/2 of treated couples don't have child. men: too few active, live sperm
women:
Medical Advances
solution: build up sperm count be waiting 3 days before ejaculation
1) ovulation becomes less regular - even if menstruating
2) blocked fallopian tubes - caused by PID, (pelvic inflammatory disease)
3) endometriosis: blocks reproductive tract
4) uterine problems, infections, fibrous tumors - prevent implantation
1) IVF - invitro fertilization: ova removed, fertilized in lab, inserted into uteras
2) GIFT - gamete intra Fallopian transfer: inserting sperm and ova (gametes) into Fallopian tube
3) AIFT - zygote intra Fallopian transfer: inserting fertilized ova (zygote) into Fallopian tube
Dieting/Disease
Set point: not rigidly fixed genetics and environment influence. Setting point - may be
better term.
Body mass Index (BMI) your natural (healthy) weight may vary 20 lbs. from other healthy
people.
Anorexia Bulimia The problem with women and diets: knowledgeable about nutrition, diets, but fail to remember
they usually gained back more than they lost.
KEY CONCEPTS/ Notes
Chapter 18
Experience affects moral reasoning; examples: the college experience, sustained responsibility
for welfare of others, making irreversible moral choices.
Both males and females construct principles both relative and changeable: justice AND care.
Adult Thinking:
More pragmatic (practical) personal;
fewer absolutes.
Schaie: Stages of Adult Thought and Attitudes
Child/Adol
Early Adult
Middle Adult
1) acquisition: like sponges - soak up
everything - indiscriminate
2) achieving: goal directed
3) responsible: cares for well being of others - family, friends
executive: cares for larger social systems
4) reintegrative: make sense of life as a whole
Beyond Piaget - Postformal (?) - adaptive interaction between abstract, objective thinking and
subjective feelings and experience.
Notable life experiences can trigger a change in patterns of thinking/cognitive development.
In general thinking in adult hood is toward a more responsible, committed view of the world.
Chapter 19
Erikson - Intimacy vs. isolation - friendship and romantic partnering generativity vs. stagnation
Social clock: "It's about time"
Gender differences in friendship
men don't tend to talk about personal matters - women do
Divorce - rate has leveled off but at high rate 50%
is usually worse than anticipated I)
fail to realize what's positive in the relationship
2)
people are still emotional about each other after the breakup - mixed feelings
Spouse Abuse
1) common couple - usually verbal
2) patriarchial terrorism - usually physical, as well
Chapter 20
Normal changes in Middle Adulthood Gray hair, wrinkles, middle age spread, muscles lose
strength - causes vertebrae to compact somewhat, which causes height loss, hearing loss for door
bells, telephones, loss of near vision - problem: glaucoma.
Abnormal changes
Mortality - death
Morbidity - disease
Disability - inability to perform activities most others of same general age group can
Vitality - energy
Ethnicity and Health
Sex differences more marked than racial differences
Women less likely to die
However, women have more chronic, disabling conditions
Most research done on men because it has focused on acute conditions rather than chronic
ones
Sex Changes
Menopause (average age 5 1) / climacteric (6 years before actual menopause)
Menopause symptoms: hot flashes, hot fluses, cold sweats usually caused by lower
estrogen levels
Hormone Replacement therapy (HRT)
Benefits:
reduces hip fractures - osteoporosis
reduced risk of Alzheimer's
Risks: slightly increased risk of breast cancer
Most women have already decided to end child bearing before menopadse - have few
regrets about children not born.
There is no "male menopause" - although testosterone may dip due to sexual inactivity or
anxiety, etc.
Chapter 21
Fluid intelligence
Crystalized intelligence
Chapter 22
Big Five Personality Traits neuroticism extroversion openness
agreeableness conscientiousness
Quite stable by age 30. People have established an ecological niche. Traits are more valued in
some cultures than certain others. U.S. openness. In middle age women become more assertive;
men become more nurturing/emotional.
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NOTES – CHAPTER 23
Ageism: Prejudice against elderly.
Demographic pyramid: Becoming square. Elderly, age 75+ fastest growing age group –
worldwide.
Subcategories of Aged
Young-old – under 75
Old-old (middle old) – 75-85
Oldest-old – 85+
Types of Aging
Primary: universal, irreversible changes
Secondary: may be prevented, slowed down, reversed.
Both are result of many factors: multiple pathways
Vision
Most older people (80%) see quite well with glasses
Problems –
Cataracts: thickening of lens
Glaucoma: hardening of eyeball caused by fluid buildup
Hearing
Loss affects about 40% of people over age 65. Many refuse to wear aids – don’t want to
appear old-ageism.
Sleep
Older people take longer, spend less time, wake up often, take more naps, etc.
Some of this quite normal.
Disease
Both chronic and acute increase with age.
Autopsies usually show cancer tumors, even if people died of something else.
Ex: prostrate cancer.
Theories: Causes of Aging
1. Wear-&-Tear: bodies wear out through use – not really so for humans.
“Use it or lost it”.
2.
Cellular accidents: body manufactures new cells, but new cells not as good –
mutated.
Oxygen free radicals: molecules separated from their atoms – can scramble
DNA molecules – best defense: antioxidants.
Vitamins C & A
Foods rich in beta-carotene,
the plant form of vitamin A
acorn squash
apricots
beets
broccoli
carrots
collards
dates
green peppers
kale
mangoes
peaches
prunes
pumpkin
red peppers
spinach
squash
tomatoes
Immune System Attack Cells
B cells – made by bone marrow – destroy bacteria and viruses.
T cells – made by thymus gland – attack any kind of infected cells.
People with stronger immune systems live longer.
Decline in immunity may be cause of aging.
Immune-System Enhancers
broccoli
Brussels sprouts
cantaloupe
cauliflower
lime
peppers
potatoes
oranges
grapefruit
grapefruit juice
lemon
orange juice
strawberries
Maximum life span for humans: about 120 years.
Average life expectancy has improved because babies/children are now surviving in greater
numbers than in earlier times.
Characteristics of Long Lived People/Regions
1. Moderate diet – mostly vegetables, little meat.
2. Work continues through life.
3. Family and community important, integrated.
4. Exercise, relaxation part of every day.
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Key Concepts
Chapter 24
Cognitive Development – Late Adulthood
Individual variation in cognitive functioning is greater in old age.
Individuals show both greater deterioration and less.
Explicit memory: consciously learned data, words, etc. More easily retrieved.
Implicit memory: automatic memories – routines – it’s easy to ride a bicycle –
difficult to describe how.
Retrieval more difficult for recently learned information. Old knowledge shows little
decline, even if it hasn’t been used. EXAMPLE: Spanish retention.
Memory and Daily Life – few older adults think memory problems are a significant
handicap.
- Some slowing of thinking can be halted, even reversed – EXERCISE – sends
blood to the brain.
- Thinking/mental stimulation can cause dendrites to make new connections.
- Hormone replacement therapy, antioxidants, even aspirin, ibuprofen can help.
Nursing homes – reinforce passivity. Training in self-help is useful in preserving
health.
Dementia: irreversible loss – impaired judgment.
I. Alzheimer’s = plaques and tangles in cerebral cortex – destroy normal functioning.
Stages:
1. absent mindedness about recent events
2. confusion becomes more generalized
3. memory loss becomes dangerous – can’t manage daily affairs
4.
5.
need full time care
fail to respond – become mute
II. Multi-Infarct Dementia: obstructions of blood vessels, prevents sufficient blood
from reaching brain.
Prevention: improve circulation, control blood pressure, diabetes.
III. Reversible Dementia
1. drug interactions – may cause confusion, etc.
2. depression
Life Review – person attempts to put life in perspective.
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Key Concepts
Chapter 25
Erikson: integrity vs. despair
Selective optimization – figure out how to achieve goals despite limitations.
Theories of Social Development
1. disengagement theory: withdrawal, passivity.
2. continuity theory: social self is maintained throughout adulthood
- going back to school
- volunteering
- politics
Widowhood: men have more difficulty than women – difficulty in revealing feelings,
asking for help.
Divorce: men have more difficulty handling it than women.
Elder Abuse: mainly family members.
Epilogue
Stages of dying – Kubler-Ross
1. denial
2. anger
3. bargaining
4. depression
5. acceptance – devoid of feelings
Other researchers have found that people go back and forth among stages. Family,
as well.
Conspiracy of silence – no one willing to talk about dying – doctors now usually willing
to be frank – but only if patient asks.
Pain medication still under-prescribed.
Living Will: indicates what treatment patient wants/or doesn’t want if patient can’t
express desires.
D.N.R.
Double effect of pain medication:
1. pain reduction
palliative care
2. may hasten death
Death Rituals
Culture often has more influence than religion.
Mourning has become more private, less emotional, less religious.
Survivors may experience manifestations of sorrow over long periods of time –
quite normal.