AN APPRAISAL OF THE LAW RELATING TO
OIL POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION
IN NIGERIA
By
OLANREWAJU ADIGUN FAGBOHUN
LL.B (Hons), LL.M (Lagos), BL
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT
OF INTERNATIONAL LAW,
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE,
IN PART FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LAW
2008
TABLE OF CONTENT
Authorization to Copy …………………………………………………
ii
Certification
…………………………………………………………
iii
Acknowledgments ………………………………………………………... iv – vi
Table of Contents ……………………………………………………….. vii – x
Table of Cases
………………………………………………………. xi – xiv
Table of Statutes and Statutory Instruments ………………… xv - xviii
Table of Conventions and Treaties ……………………………
xix – xx
Abbreviations
…………………………………………………… xxi – xxii
Abstract
………………………………………………….. xxiii - xxiv
Chapter One: Introduction …………………………………………
Background to the Study
…………………………………………
Objectives of the Study …………………………………………………
Literature Review …………………………………………………………
Statement of Research Problem ……………………………………….
Rationale for Study
…………………………………………………
Research Methodology …………………………………………………
Scope and Structure of Study …………………………………………
1
1
8
9
34
34
36
38
Chapter Two: Definitions and Conceptual Clarification ..……
Introduction
…………………………………………………………..
Challenge of Definition …………………………………………………..
Environment
…………………………………………………………..
Definition of Oil …………………………………………………………..
Pollution Defined …………………………………………………………..
Restoration Defined
…………………………………………………..
Distinction from Related Concepts …………………………………..
Rehabilitation
…………………………………………………………..
Reclamation
…………………………………………………………..
Mitigation
…………………………………………………………..
Recovery
…………………………………………………………..
Remediation
…………………………………………………………..
Replacement or Re-introduction
…………………………………..
Re-creation
…………………………………………………………..
Enhancement
…………………………………………………………..
The Expedience of Restoration
…………………………………..
Classification of Restoration …………………………………………..
Environmental Restoration
…………………………………………..
Restoration Ecology
…………………………………………..
Perspectives of Restoration
…………………………………………..
Shallow Restoration
…………………………………………………..
Deep Restoration
…………………………………………………..
Biocultural Restoration …………………………………………………..
44
44
44
47
48
50
57
65
66
67
68
69
69
70
70
71
71
73
73
74
75
75
76
76
Chapter Three: Philosophical and Theoretical Perspectives
of Restoration
…………………………………………………………..
Introduction
…………………………………………………………..
Identifying the Contending Perspectives
…………………………..
A Theory of Justice
…………………………………………………..
Dimensions of the Justice Model
…………………………………..
A Theory of the Natural Order …………………………………………..
78
78
79
84
96
108
Ethics as a Basis of Restoration
…………………………………..
Ethical Issues in Ecological Restoration
…………………………..
Nature in the Eyes of Indigenous Peoples …………………………..
Economic Models and Environmental Values
…………………..
Market Allocation of Natural Resources
…………………………..
The Position of Social Ecology …………………………………………..
The Green Ecology Movement
…………………………………..
The Oil Industry and Its Impact on the
Environment
…………………………………...
Introduction
……………………………………………………………
Nature and Importance of Oil ……………………………………………
Oil Exploration in Global History
……………………………………
History of Oil in Nigeria ……………………………………………………
Nigeria’s Niger Delta
……………………………………………………
Environmental Impact of Oil Pollution
……………………………
Consequences of Environmental Impact of Pollution
……………
Air Quality and the Oil Pollution Problem ……………………………
Soil Degradation including Surface and Ground Water ……………
The Coastal Zone and the Sea ……………………………………………
Effects of Oil Contamination on Plants
……………………………
Effects on Natural Landscapes and Habitats
……………………
Effects on Cultural Landscapes and Heritages
……………………
Physiological and Other Effects on Human Beings
……………
118
126
129
134
144
152
157
Chapter Four:
The Interface between Restoration and
Compensation
……………………………………
Introduction
……………………………………………………………
Compensation and Restoration as Remedies
……………………
Restoration of the Status Quo ……………………………………………
Compensation in Money or Detriment Caused
……………………
Punishment
……………………………………………………………
Declaration of Rights
……………………………………………………
Prevention ……………………………………………………………………
Environmental Security and Compensation
……………………
Primary Rules of Compensation
……………………………………
Environmental Damage and Fault System
……………………
Operational Problems of the Non-Fault Scheme ……………………
163
163
164
166
170
183
187
194
194
201
203
207
212
216
217
Chapter Five:
225
225
228
230
231
236
239
240
241
243
244
254
Chapter Six:
Common Law and Environmental Restoration 264
Introduction
…………………………………………………………… 264
The Common Law of Tort and Security of Eco-Rights ………..
264
Negligence …………………………………………………………………… 266
Negligence and Special Valuation Problems
…………………… 273
Trespass
……………………………………………………………………
Trespass and Appropriateness of Damage ……………………………
Nuisance ………………………………………………………………………
Social Utility or Economic Loss and the Problem of Substantial
Harm in Private Nuisance
…………………………………………...
Foreseeability of Damage as a Test of Nuisance ……………………
Strict Liability
……………………………………………………………
276
281
287
298
306
316
Chapter Seven:
Statutory Framework for Environmental
Restoration …………………………………………..
Introduction ………………………………………………………………….
The Oil Pipelines Act, 1956 ………………………………………………..
The Petroleum Act, 1969 ……………………………………………………
The Petroleum Regulations, 1967 ………………………………………..
Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulation ………………………
Petroleum Refining Regulations …………………………………………..
Oil in Navigable Waters Act, 1990
…………………………………….
Oil in Navigable Waters Regulations …………………………………….
Associated Gas Re-Injection Act
…………………………………….
Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1988 ………………..
Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provisions etc) Act, 1988………..
Environmental Impact Assessment Act, 1992 ………………………..
Oil and Gas Pipeline Regulations
……………………………………
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999 …………
Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum
Industry, 1991 ……………………………………………………………….
National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement
Agency (Establishment) Act ………………………………………………..
Judicial Attitude to Restoration in Nigeria ……………………………
Related Judicial Development in Other Jurisdictions ………………
Way Forward for Nigeria’s Judiciary …………………………………….
Institutional Framework ……………………………………………………
Department of Petroleum Resources ……………………………………
National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency …………………..
The Niger-Delta Development Commission ……………………………
Chapter Eight:
322
322
324
329
331
335
338
339
340
340
344
349
350
351
353
361
371
376
381
339
392
393
396
401
International Environmental Law and Oil
Pollution in Nigeria ………………………………. 406
The Concept and Relevance of International Environmental Law .. 406
Institutional Arrangement for Environmental Security …………….. 417
United Nations
……………………………………………………………. 417
Other International Organizations ………………………………………. 418
Regional Organizations ……………………………………………………. 422
Challenges of Enforcement Mechanisms ………………………………. 423
International Laws in the Regulation of Oil Pollution ……………... 427
Traditional Customary International Law ……………………………… 427
Conventions and Treaties ………………………………………………… 432
Convention on the Continental Shelf, 1958 …………………………… 432
Convention on the High Seas, 1958 (Geneva) ………………………… 433
Act Regarding Navigation and Economic Co-operation
Between the States of the Niger Basin 1963 (Niamey) ……………… 433
Convention and Statute Relating to the Development of the
Chad Basin, 1964 (Fort-Lamy, N’Djamena; Younde) ……………….. 436
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes and Other Matters, 1972 ………………………………………… 438
Convention creating the Niger Basin Authority and Protocol
Relating to the Development Fund of the Niger Basin, 1980 ………. 440
Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development
Of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central
African Region, 1981 …………………………………………………………. 441
Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution in
Cases of Emergency, 1981 ………………………………………………… 442
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS) 442
Application of Treaties and Conventions on the Environment in
Nigeria. ………………………………………………………………………… 447
Chapter Nine: Summary, Recommendations and Conclusion
Summary of Study
…………………………………………………….
Managing the Challenges of Environmental Restoration ……………
Institutional Reforms ………………………………………………… ……
Constitutional and Statutory Reforms as an Imperative ……………
Standing to Sue ………………………………………………………………
Pre-Action Notice …………………………………………………………….
Public Access to Information ……………………………………………..
Rethinking the Role of Civil Society Groups …………………………..
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………….
451
451
455
455
463
464
468
470
473
476
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
477
478
480
482
482
I ……………………………………………………………………
II ……………………………………………………………………
III ……………………………………………………………………
IV ……………………………………………………………………
V ……………………………………………………………………
Bibliography ………………………………………………………………….. 477