Period 4 – The World Shrinks - 1450-1750 CE
I.
Cultural and Intellectual Developments in the West
A.
Trade stimulated by the Crusades made several of the Italian city-states wealthy (Genoa, Venice, and
Florence) and wealthy families became patrons of the arts and architecture (Medici family)
supporting artists (da Vinci or Michelangelo); some of the supporters were Catholic Popes; Also a
renewed interest in reading, writing, architecture and philosophy = the Italian Renaissance
B.
Renaissance (rebirth) spread to the rest of Europe (14th and 15th centuries)
1.
revival of classical civilizations of the Mediterranean: Greek/Roman (texts found in Arab
libraries during the Crusades)
2.
Renaissance Man – excelled in many areas of study
3.
humanism – focus on the accomplishments, characteristics, and capabilities of humans, not
God; challenged Medieval Christian values
4.
Machiavelli – advanced ideas similar to those of Chinese legalists; ends justify the means
5.
inspired literary styles: Shakespeare in England
6.
encouraged people to think in different ways than they had before
7.
few people outside the urban centers saw any changes
8.
Northern Renaissance was centered in France, the Low countries, Germany and England
C.
Changes in Social and Gender Structures
1.
Rise of bourgeoisie “town dwellers” – developed a new class; eventually became more
wealthy than the nobles
2.
Growing income gap – by the late 16th c., rising wealth of the bourgeoisie created a gap
between the rich and poor; poor were not only the rural peasants, but also lived in cities as
craftsmen, peddlers, and beggars
3.
Change in marriage arrangements
a.
most marriages in the rest of the world were arranged; but the custom of young men
and women choosing their mates started in Europe
b.
later marriages (late 20s)– craftsmen & poor delayed marriage until they finished their
education/training; need for education was growing b/c of the demands for business
success; participation in trade demanded knowledge of languages or acquiring law
c.
later marriage led to fewer births
II.
The European reconnaissance of the world's oceans
Ch 23: Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections
A.
European exploration
1.
Portuguese exploration
a.
Prince Henry of Portugal determined to increase Portuguese influence
b.
Portuguese mariners emerged as the early leaders; result will be global trade
2.
Slave trade expanded in the 15th c. - Portuguese traders ventured down west coast of Africa
and traded guns and textiles for gold and slaves
3.
Indian Ocean trade
a.
Portuguese searched for sea route to Asian markets bypassing Middle East
b.
Bartolomeu Dias reached Cape of Good Hope, entered the Indian Ocean, 1488
c.
Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut in 1498, returned to Lisbon with huge profit
d.
Portuguese mariners dominated trade between Europe and Asia, 16th century
e.
Portuguese ships with cannons launched European imperialism in Asia
4.
Cristoforo Colombo (Christopher Columbus) hoped to reach Asia by sailing west
a.
1492, led three ships to the Caribbean Sea, believed he was near Japan
b.
Result – increased interest in transoceanic travel and trade
5.
Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese navigator, in service of Spain
a.
Crossed both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans 1519-1522
b.
1 ship of 5 completed the circumnavigation of world; Magellan died in conflict in
Philippines
6.
Captain James Cook (1728-1779), British explorer – to Australia
7.
By late 18th century, Europeans had reasonably accurate geographic knowledge of the world
B.
Motives for exploration – 3 Gs – God, Gold, and Glory
1.
Missionary efforts of European Christians
a.
New Testament urged Christians to spread the faith throughout the world
b.
Crusades and holy wars against Muslims in early centuries
c.
Reconquista (Christians removing Muslims) of Spain inspired Iberian crusaders
2.
Direct trade without Muslim intermediaries - Asian spices and African gold, ivory, slaves
3.
Honor and power
1
C.
III.
IV.
The technology of exploration enabled European mariners to travel offshore
1.
Caravel – fast, maneuverable ship with a sternpost rudder and two types of sails that enabled
ships to advance against wind
2.
Navigational instruments: magnetic compass and astrolabe (determines latitude)
3.
Knowledge of winds and currents enabled Europeans to travel reliably
a.
Trade winds north and south of the equator
b.
Regular monsoons in Indian Ocean basin
c.
volta do mar - navigational technique by Portuguese navigators based on ocean
circulations
Trade and conflict in early modern Asia
A.
Trading-post empires
1.
Portuguese built more than fifty trading posts between west Africa and east Asia
2.
English and Dutch established parallel trading posts in Asian coasts
B.
European conquests in southeast Asia
1.
Spanish conquest of the Philippines, 1565
2.
Conquest of Java by the Dutch
C.
Commercial rivalries and the Seven Years' War
1.
Global competition and conflict
a.
Dutch forces expelled most Portuguese merchants from southeast Asia
b.
Conflict btw Eng. & Fr. merchants over control of Indian cotton and tea early 18th c.
c.
Competition in the Americas among English, French, and Spanish forces
2.
The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) - British and Prussians against France, Austria, and
Russia (fought in Europe, India, Caribbean, and North America)
a.
Outcome: British hegemony
I.
British gained control of India, Canada
II.
War paved the way for the British empire in the nineteenth century
Global exchanges
A.
The Columbian Exchange
1.
Biological exchanges between Old and New Worlds
a.
Columbian Exchange--global diffusion of plants, food crops, animals, human
populations, and disease pathogens after Columbus's voyages
b.
Permanently altered the earth's environment
2.
Epidemic diseases--smallpox, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, and influenza--led to
staggering population losses
a.
Smallpox reduced Aztec population by 95 percent in one century after 1519
b.
Contagious diseases had same horrifying effects in the Pacific islands
c.
Between 1500 and 1800, one hundred million people died of imported diseases
3.
New foods and domestic animals
a.
Wheat, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and chickens went to Americas
b.
American crops included maize, potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peppers, peanuts
c.
Growth of world population: from 425 million in 1500 to 900 million in 1800
4.
Migration of human populations
a.
Enslaved Africans were largest group of migrants from 1500 to 1800
b.
Sizable migration from Europe to the Americas
c.
19th century, European migration to South Africa, Australia, and Pacific islands
B.
The origins of global trade
1.
Transoceanic trade: European merchants created a genuinely global trading system of supply
and demand, linking the ports of the world
2.
The Manila galleons
a.
Sleek, fast, heavily armed ships that sailed between Manila and Mexico
b.
Asian luxury goods to Mexico, silver from Mexico to China
c.
Asian luxury goods to Europe, silver to China
2
Ch 24: The Transformation of Europe
I.
The fragmentation of western Christendom
A.
The Protestant Reformation
1.
Martin Luther (1517) in his 95 Theses
a.
Attacked corruption in the Roman Catholic Church; called for reform
b.
attacked the sale of indulgences – pardons sold that released people from performing
penalties for their sins
c.
Main disagreement with the church—Church equated good works with salvation and
ignored the importance of faith
d.
Argument reproduced with printing presses and widely read
e.
Enthusiastic popular response from lay Christians, princes
f.
By mid-sixteenth century, half the German people adopted Lutheran Christianity
g.
Martin Luther’s ideas
I.
Faith in God’s forgiveness brought salvation
II.
Teachings should be based on the Bible
III.
All people with faith were equal
2.
Reform spread outside Germany
a.
Protestant movements popular in Swiss cities, Low Countries
b.
English Reformation sparked by King Henry VIII's desire for divorce; declared himself
head of the English Church
c.
John Calvin, missionary successful in Scotland, Low Countries, France and England –
predestination - doctrine that God has foreordained all things, especially that God has elected
certain souls to eternal salvation.
d.
Gutenberg’s Printing Press
I.
helped spread the reform by printing his first full-sized book = Bible
II.
effects of printing press – increased literacy and the use of the vernacular
B.
Catholic Reformation – response to the Protestant Reformation
1.
Council of Trent, 1545-1563, directed reform of Roman Catholic Church
2.
Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded 1540 by Ignatius Loyola
a. High standards in education
b. Became effective political advisors and missionaries worldwide
C.
Witch-hunts and religious wars
1.
Witch-hunts in 16th c. Europe
a. Religious conflicts of Reformation fed hysteria about witches and devil worship
b. About sixty thousand executed, 95 % of them women
2.
Religious wars between Protestants and Catholics throughout the sixteenth century
a. Civil war in France for thirty-six years (1562-1598)
b. War between Catholic Spain and Protestant England, 1588
c. Protestant provinces of the Netherlands revolted against rule of Catholic Spain
3.
Thirty Years' War (based on religion) (1618-1648), most destructive European war up to WWI
I.
The consolidation of sovereign states
A.
The attempted revival of empire
1.
Charles V (reigned 1519-1556),Holy Roman Emperor
a.
Unable to establish a unified state; pressures from Fr. and Ottomans halted expansion
B.
The new monarchs of England, France, and Spain developed strong, centralized governments
1.
Enhanced state treasuries by direct taxes, fines, and fees
2.
Standing armies in France and Spain; not England
3.
Reformation increased royal power by taking over Catholic property and $$$
4.
Spanish Inquisition, Catholic court of inquiry, founded 1478 - Intended to discover secret
Muslims, Jews and political opposition
C.
Constitutional states and absolute monarchies
1.
Constitutional states of England and the Netherlands
a.
1215 – Nobles forced King John to sign the Magna Carta; characterized by limited
powers, individual rights, and representative institutions
b.
English Civil War (1642-1649) shaped political thought
1.
the king was decapitated and political authority fell to Parliament—1689,
English Bill of Rights limited the power of the monarch
2.
led to John Locke’s Second Treatise of Civil Government – argued that
rulers get their right to rule not from heaven but from the consent of the
3
II.
governed; laid the basis for rule of law; if a monarch overstepped the law,
citizens had the right and duty to rebel
c.
England/Netherlands had a prominent merchant class; very prosperous
d.
England/Netherlands built commercial empires overseas w. minimal state interference
2.
Absolutism in France, Spain, Austria, and Prussia
a.
Based on the theory of the divine right of kings (god-given authority to rule)
b.
Cardinal Richelieu, French chief minister 1624-1642, crushed power of nobles
c.
The Sun King of France, Louis XIV (reigned 1643-1715)
1.
Model of royal absolutism: the court at Versailles
2.
Large standing army kept order
3.
Used more dependable middle class as officials
4.
Promoted economic development: roads, canals, industry and exports
d.
Rulers in Spain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia saw absolutist France as a model
D.
The European states system
1.
The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years' War (started as a war between
Protestants and Catholics)
a.
Laid foundation for system of independent sovereign states
b.
Abandoned notion of religious unity across Europe
c.
Did not end war between European states; led to Balkanization of Europe and idea of
sovereign nation states
2.
No ruler wanted to see another state dominate all the others
a.
balance of power - Diplomacy based on shifting alliances in national interests
3.
Military development costly and competitive
a.
New armaments (cannons and small arms) and new military tactics
b.
Other empires--China, India, and the Islamic states--did not keep pace
Early capitalist society
A.
Population growth and urbanization
1.
Population growth
a.
American food crops improved Europeans' nutrition and diets
b.
Increased resistance to epidemic diseases after the mid-seventeenth century
c.
European population increased from 81 million in 1500 to 180 million in 1800
2.
Urbanization
a.
Rapid growth of major cities, for example, Paris - 130,000 in 1550 to 500,000 in 1650
b.
Cities increasingly important as administrative and commercial centers
B.
Early capitalism and protoindustrialization
1.
The nature of capitalism
a.
Private parties sought to take advantage of free market conditions
b.
Economic decisions by private parties, not by governments or nobility
c.
Forces of supply and demand determined price
d.
Merchants built efficient transportation and communication networks
e.
New institutions and services: banks, insurance, stock exchanges
f.
Joint-stock companies - purpose – to find funding to colonize and control colonies
2.
Capitalism actively supported by governments, especially in England and Netherlands
a.
protected rights of private property, upheld contracts, settled disputes
b.
Chartered joint-stock companies and auth.to explore, conquer, colonize distant lands
3.
The putting-out system, or protoindustrialization, of 17th and 18th centuries
a.
Entrepreneurs bypassed guilds, moved production to countryside for the water power
b.
Rural labor cheap, cloth production highly profitable (water power)
4.
Mercantilism - economic theory that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of
capital, and that the global volume of international trade is "unchangeable." Economic assets
or capital, are represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state, which is
best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations (exports minus imports).
Mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a
protectionist role in the economy; by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, notably
through the use of tariffs and subsidies. (Ex. Spanish colonies could only buy Spanish goods)
5.
Atlantic System – movement of goods, wealth, free and unfree labor, and the mixing of
culture across the Atlantic
4
C.
III.
Social change in early modern Europe
1.
Early capitalism altered rural society: improved material standards, increased financial
independence of rural workers
2.
Profits and ethics
a.
Medieval theologians considered profit making to be selfish and sinful
b.
Adam Smith: society would prosper as individuals pursued their own interests
c.
Capitalism generated deep social strains also: bandits, muggers, witch-hunting
3.
The nuclear family strengthened by capitalism
a.
Families more independent economically, socially, and emotionally
b.
Love between men and women, parents and children became more important
Science and enlightenment
A.
The reconception of the universe
1.
The Ptolemaic universe: A motionless earth surrounded by nine spheres (geocentric)
a.
Could not account for observable movement of the planets
b.
Compatible with Christian conception of creation
2.
The Copernican universe - Nicolaus Copernicus suggested that the sun was the center of the
universe (heliocentric), 1543; Implied that the earth was just another planet; challenged
classical and biblical authorities
B.
The Scientific Revolution – created conflicts with religious leaders over new discoveries
1.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
a.
With a telescope, Galileo saw sunspots, moons of Jupiter, mountains of the moon
b.
Galileo's theory of velocity of falling bodies anticipated the modern law of inertia
2.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) demonstrated planetary orbits to be elliptical
3.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
a.
Published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1686
b.
Offered mathematical explanations of laws that govern movements of bodies
c.
Newton's work symbolized the Sci. Rev.--direct observation & mathematical reasoning
C.
The Enlightenment
1.
Science and society - center of Enlightenment was France where philosophes debated issues
of day
a.
Enlightenment thinkers sought natural laws that governed human society in the same
way that Newton's laws governed the universe
b.
John Locke: all human knowledge comes from sense perceptions
c.
Adam Smith: laws of supply and demand determine price
d.
Montesquieu: used political science to argue for political liberty
e.
Voltaire (1694-1778) Fr. philosophe/writer, champion of religion liberty & individual
freedom
2.
Deism popular among thinkers of Enlightenment, including Voltaire
a.
Accepted the existence of a god but denied supernatural teachings of Christianity
b.
God the Clockmaker ordered the universe according to rational and natural laws
3.
Impact of Enlightenment
a.
Weakened the influence of organized religion; encouraged secular values based on
reason rather than revelation
b.
Subjected society to rational analysis, promoted progress and prosperity
c.
Threatened European monarchies because is suggested the idea of individual
liberty and rights
Ch 25: New Worlds: The Americas and Oceania
I.
Colliding worlds
1.
Maritime/Sea-based Empires: Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, France, England
2.
Portugal leads the way in exploring - Prince Henry the Navigator established a school for
sailors using new sailing technology
3.
Columbian Exchange –
a.
Old World items to New World: horses, pigs, cattle, okra, rice, diseases, etc.
b.
New World items to Old World: potatoes, maize, manioc, etc.
B.
The Spanish Caribbean
5
II.
a.
Indigenous peoples were the Taino; showed little resistance to European visitors
b.
Encomiendas: land grants to Spanish settlers with total control over local people
c.
Brutal abuses plus smallpox brought decline of Taino populations
C.
The conquest of Mexico and Peru
1.
Hernan Cortés
a.
Aztec and Inca societies wealthier, more complex than Caribbean societies
b.
With 450 men, Cortés conquered the Aztec empire, 1519-1521
c.
Tribal resentment, in the region. against the Mexica helped Cortés
d.
Epidemic disease (smallpox) also aided Spanish efforts
2.
Francisco Pizarro
a.
Led a small band of men and toppled the Inca empire, 1532-1533
b.
Internal problems and smallpox aided Pizarro's efforts
3.
To administer territories, Spain built capital cities staffed with bureaucrats
D.
Iberian empires in the Americas
1.
Portuguese Brazil: given to Portugal by Treaty of Tordesillas
2.
Colonial American society - European-style society in cities, indigenous culture persisted in
rural areas
E.
Settler colonies in North America
1.
France and England came seeking fur, fish, trade routes in the early 17th century; settlements
suffered isolation, food shortages
2.
Colonial government different from Iberian colonies
a.
North American colonies controlled by private investors with little royal backing
b.
Royal authority and royal governors, but also institutions of self-government
3.
Relations with indigenous peoples
a.
Settlers' farms interrupted the migrations of indigenous peoples
b.
Settlers seized lands, then justified with treaties
c.
Natives retaliated with raids on farms and villages; brought reprisals from settlers
d.
Between 1500 and 1800, native population of North America dropped 90 percent
Colonial society in the Americas
A.
Conquerors
1.
Goals - God, Gold, Glory
2.
Success - Guns, Germs, and Steel (violence, domination, and theft)
3.
Justification – freeing Indians from their unjust lords and to bring the light of salvation, also not
fully human; some people were “born to serve”
B.
Demographic catastrophe because of slaving, mistreatment, and disease
C.
Seizure of communal Ind. lands by Spanish landowners to cluster the remaining few into fewer towns
D.
Commercial farming led to deforestation and soil degradation
E.
Exploitation
1.
Used as laborers or to exact tribute from them encouraged the Spanish to keep some
traditional Indian culture
2.
Traditional Indian nobility remained in place to serve as middlemen in tax and labor demands
3.
Concentrated the populations in towns (moved indigenous people into the cities)
4.
Mita – used by the Inca, a sort of labor tax to support the elites and elderly—generally, an
adult male had to spend 1/7 of his time working for the Inca; the Spanish adopted this system,
particularly for mines in Bolivia and surrounding areas; the problem was that so many natives
died (from disease or overwork), that the Spanish kept having to increase the time spent in the
mines and it became impractical (like corvee labor)
5.
Encomienda – used for agricultural work; natives in an area were placed under the authority
of encomenderos, or Spanish bosses, who could extract labor and tribute according to the
needs of the area; only used during the 16th century because so many died; then had to import
slaves
F.
The formation of multicultural societies
1.
Sp. and Portuguese settlements - Peoples of varied ancestry lived together under Eur. rule
2.
Typically the social (and racial) hierarchy in Iberian colonies was as follows:
a.
Whites (peninsulares and criollos) owned the land and held the power
b.
Mixed races (mestizos and zambos) performed much of the manual labor
c.
Africans and natives were at the bottom
3.
North American societies
a.
Greater gender balance among settlers allowed marriage within their own groups
b.
Relationships of French traders and native women generated some métis
6
G.
H.
I.
III.
c.
English disdainful of interracial marriages
Mining and agriculture in the Spanish empire
1.
Silver more plentiful than gold, the basis of Spanish New World wealth
2.
Large private estates, or haciendas, were the basis of Spanish American production
a.
Produced foodstuffs for local production
b.
Abusive encomienda system replaced by the repartimiento system
c.
Repartimiento system replaced by free laborers by the mid-seventeenth century
3.
Resistance to Spanish rule by indigenous people : rebellion, indolence, retreat
4.
Global Impact of Silver
a.
It strengthened and integrated the world economy
b.
It increased outside interest in the Americas
c.
It increased the power of the Spanish crown
d.
It led to the exploitation of indigenous labor in the Americas
Sugar and slavery in Portuguese Brazil
1.
The Portuguese empire in Brazil dependent on sugar production
2.
Growth of slavery in Brazil
a.
Native peoples of Brazil were not cultivators; they resisted farm labor
b.
Smallpox and measles reduced indigenous population
c.
Imported African slaves for sugarcane production after 1530
d.
High death rate/low birth rate fed demand for more slaves (a ton of sugar cost 1 life)
Fur traders and settlers in North America
1.
The fur trade was very profitable
a.
Native peoples trapped for and traded with Europeans
b.
Impact of the fur trade: environ. and conflicts among natives competing for resources
2.
European settler-cultivators posed more serious threat to native societies
a.
Cultivation of cash crops--tobacco, rice, indigo, and later, cotton
b.
Indentured labor flocked to North America in the 17th and 18th centuries
3.
African slaves replaced indentured servants (an employer would pay the passage of a
person to the New World in return for several years of labor, after which they would be free)
a.
Slave labor not yet prominent in North America (lack of labor-intensive crops)
b.
New England merchants participated in slave trade, distillation of rum
J.
Christianity and native religions in the Americas
1.
Spanish missionaries introduced Catholicism
a.
Mission schools and churches established
b.
missionaries recorded the languages and traditions of native peoples
c.
Native religions survived but the Catholic Ch. attracted many converts
2.
French and English missions less successful
a.
North American indigenous populations not settled or captive
b.
English colonists had little interest in converting indigenous peoples
c.
French missionaries worked actively, but met only modest success
Europeans in the Pacific
A.
Australia –
1.
Dutch explored w. Australia in the 17th c.; no spices, no farmland
2.
British captain James Cook explored east Australia in 1770
3.
In 1788, England established first settlement in Australia as a penal colony
4.
Free settlers outnumbered convicted criminal migrants after 1830s
B.
Impact on Pacific islanders of regular visitors and trade
1.
Most significant conversions to Christianity occur in the Philippines
7
Ch 26: Africa and the Atlantic World
I.
African politics and societies in early modern times
A.
The states of west Africa and east Africa
1.
The Songhay empire was the dominant power of west Africa, replacing Mali
2.
Decline of Swahili city-states in east Africa
a.
Massive Portuguese naval fleet subdued all the Swahili cities, 1505
b.
Ottomans and Portuguese continue trading across the Indian Ocean
B.
Social change in early modern Africa
1.
American food crops which were high in calories (i.e., manioc, maize, peanuts)
2.
Population growth in sub-Sahara: 35 million in 1500 to 60 million in 1800
C.
Trade to Muslim Lands - Fewer slaves crossed the Sahara than the Atlantic, but the numbers were
substantial; most were female—part of an individual’s harem, or collection of wives and concubines
that filled his household (concubines were not slaves and their children had higher status); males were
brought to fight in the large Gunpowder Empire armies
II.
The Atlantic slave/coercive trade
A.
Foundations of the slave/coercive trade (slavery common in traditional Africa
1.
Slaves typically war captives, criminals, or outcasts
2.
Most slaves worked as cultivators, some as administrators or soldiers
3.
With all land held in common (by tribe), slaves were a measure of power and wealth
4.
Slaves often assimilated into their masters' kinship groups, even earned freedom
5.
10 M may have been shipped out of Africa by Islamic slave trade 8-18th centuries (mostly
women for harems as concubines)
6.
Europeans used these existing networks and expanded the slave trade
B.
Human cargoes
1.
The early slave trade on the Atlantic started by Portuguese in 1441
a.
By 1460 about five hundred slaves a year shipped to Portugal and Spain
b.
By fifteenth century African slaves shipped to sugar plantations on Atlantic islands
c.
Africans were a better source of labor than Native Americans because they wouldn’t
have local allies or know places to hide
2.
Triangular trade: all three legs of voyage profitable
a.
European goods traded for African slaves
b.
Slaves traded in the Caribbean for sugar or molasses
c.
American products traded in Europe
3.
At every stage the slave trade was brutal
a.
Individuals captured in violent raids w. forced march to the coast for transport
b.
The dreaded Middle Passage, where between 25 percent and 50 percent died
C.
The impact of the slave trade in Africa
1.
Volume of the Atlantic slave trade increased dramatically after 1600
a.
At height--end of the 18th century--about 100,000 shipped per year
b.
Most to tropical and subtropical plantations
c.
Altogether about 12 million brought to Americas, another 4 million died en route
d.
Mortality rate in Americas was high and fertility rate was low
2.
Profound impact on African societies
a.
Impact uneven: some societies spared, some societies profited
b.
Distorted African sex ratios, since two-thirds of exported slaves were males
c.
Encouraged polygamy and forced women to take on men's duties
d.
Introduced firearms; fostered conflict and violence between peoples
e.
Population will recover due to women and new foods
III.
The African diaspora
A.
Plantation societies
1.
Cash crops introduced to fertile lands of Caribbean early fifteenth century
a.
Important cash crops: sugar, tobacco, rice, indigo, cotton, coffee
2.
Plantations racially divided: one hundred or more slaves with a few white supervisors
a.
High death rates in the Caribbean and Brazil; continued importation of slaves
b.
Only about 5 percent of slaves to North America, where slave families more common
3.
Resistance to slavery widespread, though dangerous
a.
Slow work, sabotage, and escape
b.
Slave revolts were rare but were brutally suppressed by plantation owners
c.
1793: slaves in French colony of Saint-Domingue revolted, abolished slavery, and
established the free state of Haiti
8
B.
The making of African-American cultural traditions
1.
African and Creole languages
a.
Slaves from many tribes; lacked a common language; developed creole languages by
blending African lang. with the lang. of the slaveholder
2.
African-American religions also combined elements from different cultures (syncretism)
3.
Other African-American cultural traditions: hybrid cuisine, weaving, pottery
C.
The end of the slave trade and the abolition of slavery
1.
American and French revolutions encouraged ideals of freedom and equality
2.
Slavery became increasingly costly
a.
Slave revolts made slavery expensive and dangerous
b.
Decline of sugar price and rising costs of slaves in the late eighteenth century
c.
Manufacturing industries were more profitable; Africa became a market
3.
End of the slave trade
a.
Most European states abolished the slave trade in the early 19th c. - 1833 in British
colonies, 1848 in French colonies, 1865 in the United States, 1888 in Brazil
Ch 27: Tradition and Change in East Asia
I.
The quest for political stability
A.
The Ming dynasty
1.
Ming government (1368-1644) drove the Mongols out of China (w. help from Manchurians)
a.
Centralized government control; faced new invasions from the Mongols
b.
Restored Chinese cultural traditions and civil service examinations
2.
Ming decline
a.
Coastal cities and trade disrupted by pirates, 1520s--1560s
b.
Government corruption and inefficiency caused by powerful eunuchs
c.
Famines and peasant rebellions during the 1630s and 1640s
d.
Manchu invaders with peasant support led to final Ming collapse, 1644
B.
The Qing dynasty
1.
The Manchus (1644-1911), invaders from Manchuria to the northeast
a.
Overwhelmed the Chinese forces; proclaimed the Qing dynasty, 1644
b.
Originally pastoral nomads, organized powerful military force
c.
Captured Korea and Mongolia first, then China
d.
Remained an ethnic elite; forbade intermarriage with Chinese
e.
Kangxi (1661-1722) emperor; Confucian scholar; effective, enlightened ruler;
conquered Taiwan; extended to Mongolia, central Asia, and Tibet
f.
Qianlong (1736-1795) emperor; sophisticated and learned ruler, poet, and artist
a.
Vietnam, Burma, and Nepal were made vassal states of China
b.
Under his rule, China was peaceful, prosperous, and powerful
C.
The son of heaven and the scholar-bureaucrats
1.
Emperor considered "the son of heaven"
a.
Heavenly powers and an obligation to maintain order on the earth
b.
Privileged life, awesome authority, and paramount power
2.
Continued meritocracy
a.
Civil service exam intensely competitive; few chosen for government positions
b.
Others could become local teachers or tutors
c.
System created a meritocracy with best students running the country
d.
Wealthy families had some advantages over poor families
e.
Confucian curriculum fostered common values
II.
Economic and social changes
A.
The patriarchal family – Ming kept society rigidly stratified (Neo-Confucianists)
1.
basic unit of Chinese society was the family; the highest value, filial piety;cont. Confucian org.
2.
Gender relations: strict patriarchal control over all females
a.
Parents preferred boys over girls; marriage was to continue male line
b.
Female infanticide; widows encouraged to commit suicide
c.
Footbinding of young girls increased
d.
Lowest status person in family was a young bride
B.
Population growth and economic development
1.
Intense garden-style agriculture fed a large population
a.
Add American food crops in 17th century: maize, sweet potatoes, and peanuts
b.
Available land reached maximum productivity by mid-seventeenth century
2.
Population growth: 100 million in 1500, 225 million in 1750
9
3.
III.
IV.
Manufacturing and trade benefited from abundant, cheap labor
a.
Exported large quantities of silk, porcelain, lacquerware, tea, paper, and spices
b.
majority of silver bullion went to China to pay for import goods
4.
European trade in China a challenge
a.
Asians were not interested in European goods
b.
Asians did not want to convert to Christianity
c.
Asian culture was thriving and diverse
d.
Europeans were too few to force Asians to do anything
e.
The way to trade was to use existing trade networks
5.
Foreign trade brought wealth to the dynasty, but threatened scholar-bureaucrats
a.
Kangxi began policy of strict control on foreign contact – only the government was
allowed to trade with foreign countries at Macao and Quangzhou
b.
China didn’t need British trade goods; it was self-sufficient
6.
Innovation declines
a.
Ming and Qing dynasties considered technological change disruptive
b.
With abundant skilled labor, labor-saving technologies unnecessary
C.
Gentry, commoners, soldiers, and “mean” people
1.
Privileged classes
a.
Scholar-bureaucrats/gentry and aristocrats occupied the most exalted positions
b.
Directed local government and society
2.
Peasants, the largest class, esteemed by Confucius for their honest labor
3.
Artisans and other skilled workers, some economic status
4.
Merchants often powerful and wealthy
5.
Lower classes or "mean people": slaves, servants, entertainers, prostitutes
The Confucian tradition and new cultural influences
A.
The return of Christianity to China
1.
Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), an Italian Jesuit in the Ming court
a.
Impressed Chinese with European science and mathematics
b.
Popular mechanical devices: glass prisms, harpsichords, clocks
2.
Confucianism and Christianity
a.
Jesuits respectful of Chinese tradition, but won few converts
b.
Chinese had problems with exclusivity of Christianity
3.
End of the Jesuit mission - rival Franciscan and Dominican missionaries criticized Jesuits'
tolerance; when the pope upheld critics, emperor Kangxi denounced Christianity .
The unification of Japan
A.
The Tokugawa shogunate - brought stability to Japan after 1600
1.
Japan divided into warring feudal estates
2.
As shogun, Leyasu established a military government known as bakufu
3.
First need to control the daimyos, powerful local lords
a.
Tokugawa shoguns required daimyo to live alternative years at Edo = alternative
attendance (limited the time they could spend gaining power)
b.
Bakufu controlled daimyo marriages, travel, expenditures
4.
Control of foreign relations
a.
Initially like European contacts
b.
shoguns adopted policy of isolation from outside world, 1630s (Edo Period) –
National Seclusion Policy
c.
Foreign trade was under tight restriction at the port of Nagasaki (despite the policy,
Japan was never completely isolated
B.
Economic and social change
1.
Population growth
a.
Agricultural production doubled between 1600 and 1700
b.
Population rose by a one-third from 1600 to 1700
c.
Followed by slow growth due to infanticide, contraception, late marriage, abortion
2.
Social change
a.
Peace undermined the social and economic role of warrior elites
b.
Merchants became prominent, and often wealthier than the ruling elites
C.
Neo-Confucianism and floating worlds
1.
Neo-Confucianism (loyalty, submission) became the official ideology of the Tokugawa
2.
Scholars of "native learning" tried to estab. distinctive Japanese identity; "Floating
worlds"=centers of urban culture: teahouses, theaters, brothels, public baths; poetry
10
D.
Christianity and Dutch learning
1.
Christian missions, under Jesuits, had significant success in sixteenth century
2.
Anti-Christian campaign launched by Tokugawa shoguns
a.
Feared any movement that might help daimyo
b.
Buddhists and Confucians resented Christian exclusivity
c.
After 1612, Christians banned from islands, thousands killed
3.
Dutch learning was the only connection to the outside world
a.
Dutch merchants permitted to trade at Nagasaki
b.
Japanese scholars were permitted to learn Dutch &, after 1720, to read Dutch books
c.
Shoguns became enthusiastic proponents of Dutch learning by mid-18th century
d.
European art, medicine, and science began to influence Japanese scholars
Ch 28: The Islamic Empires
I.
Gunpowder Empires - Ottomans and Safavids in Southwest Asia, the Mughals in India, the Ming and
Qing/Manchu in China, Japan, and the new Russian empire
A.
All had huge armies based on gunpowder technology
B.
These empires developed independently from western influence and to some extent counterbalanced
the growth of European power (sea-based) and colonization
C.
Empires lasted a fairly long time: Safavid in Iran - 1500-1722; Mughal in India - 1500s until the mid1700s; Ottoman late 1300s until 1918
II.
Formation of the Islamic empires
A.
Not nomadic empires, but originate with Turk nomads
1.
Begin with absolute rulers and efficient bureaucracies
2.
Based on conquest and use of military technology
B.
The Ottoman empire (1289-1923) – in a good location to be powerful economically and politically
1.
Founded by Osman Bey in 1289, who led Muslim religious warriors (ghazi)
2.
Mehmed the Conqueror (reigned 1451-1481)
a.
Captured Constantinople in 1453; it became Istanbul, the Ottoman capital
b.
Absolute monarchy; centralized state
c.
Expanded to Serbia, Greece, Albania; attacked Italy
3.
Suleyman the Magnificent (reigned 1520-1566)
a.
Suleyman the Magnificent expanded into SW Asia and central Europe; stopped in
Austria w. Siege of Vienna, 1529—kept Muslims from expanding further into Europe
b.
Suleyman also built a navy powerful enough to challenge European fleets
4.
Battle of Lepanto, 1571 (Spain and Italy defeat Ottomans)
a.
Spain and Italian city-states (“Holy League”) controlled Mediterranean trade
b.
Last major naval battle fought w. oar-powered galleys
c.
Europeans had guns and cannons; Ottomans fought with composite bow
C.
The Safavid empire
1.
The Safavids, Turkish conquerors of Persia and Mesopotamia
a.
Founder, Shah Ismail (reigned 1501-1524) claimed ancient Persian title of shah
b.
Twelver Shiism the official religion; imposed on Sunni population
2.
Twelver Shiism - Traced origins to twelve ancient Shiite imams; Ismail believed to be the
twelfth, or "hidden," imam, or even an incarnation of Allah
3.
Battle of Chaldiran (1514) – Safavids vs. Ottomans
a.
Sunni Ottomans persecuted Shiites within Ottoman empire
b.
Qizilbash (twelver shias) considered firearms unmanly; were crushed by Ottomans at
Chadiran
4.
Shah Abbas the Great (1588-1629) revitalized the Safavid empire
a.
modernized military; sought European alliances against Ottomans; centralized admin.
D.
The Mughal empire (Muslim)
1.
Babur (1523-1530), founder of Mughal ("Mongol") dynasty in India
2.
Akbar (reigned 1556-1605), a brilliant charismatic ruler
a.
Created a centralized, absolutist government
b.
Encouraged religious tolerance between Muslims and Hindus
c.
Created a syncretic religion that all could worship
3.
Aurangzeb (1659-1707) - Muslim
a.
Expanded the empire to almost the entire Indian subcontinent
b.
Revoked policies of toleration: Hindus taxed, temples destroyed
c.
His rule troubled by religious tensions and hostility
4.
Shah Jahan - Muslim ruler which built the Taj Mahal as a tomb for his wife
11
III.
IV.
Imperial Islamic society
A.
The dynastic state
1.
The emperors and Islam
a.
All three Islamic empires were military creations
b.
Authority of dynasty derived from personal piety and military prowess of rulers
c.
Devotion to Islam encouraged rulers to extend their faith to new lands
2.
Steppe traditions
a.
Autocratic: emperors imposed their will on the state
b.
Prob. w. royal succession; Otto. rulers could legally kill brothers after taking the throne
c.
Royal women often wielded great influence on politics
B.
Agriculture and trade
1.
Food crops the basis of all three empires
a.
Major crops: wheat and rice; little impact by new American crops
b.
Imports of coffee and tobacco very popular
2.
Population growth in the three empires less dramatic than in China or Europe
3.
Long-distance trade important to all three empires
a.
Ottoman and Safavid empires shared segments of the east-west trade routes
b.
Safavids offered silk, carpets, and ceramics to European trading companies
c.
Mughal empire less attentive to foreign or maritime trading
d.
Mughals permitted stations for English, French, and Dutch trading companies
C.
Religious affairs in the Islamic empires - diversity created challenges to the rule of the empires
a.
Religious diversity in India under the rule of Akbar: Christian in Portuguese Goa;
Jesuits welcomed at court; Akbar tolerated Sikhism, a new faith combining elements
of Hinduism and Islam
2.
Religious minorities generally tolerated in Islamic states
a.
In Ottoman empire, conquered peoples protected, granted religious and civil
autonomy in their own communities
b.
In India, the Muslim rulers closely cooperated with Hindu majority
c.
Under Aurangzeb: Islam proclaimed official state religion, nonbelievers taxed
D.
Cultural patronage by Islamic Emperors - All three sponsored arts and public works: mosques,
palaces, schools, hospitals, etc.
The Islamic empires in transition
A.
The deterioration of imperial leadership, the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries
1.
Dynastic decline caused by negligent rulers, factions, and government corruption
2.
Tensions increased when religious conservatives abandoned policies of tolerance
a.
Ottoman conservatives resisted innovations like the telescope and printing press
b.
Safavid empire: Shiite leaders urged the shahs to persecute Sunnis, non-Muslims,
and even the Sufis
c.
Mughal India, Aurangzeb's policies provoked deep animosity of Hindus
B.
Economic and military decline
1.
Strong economies in sixteenth century; stagnated by eighteenth century
a.
End of territorial expansion; difficult to support armies and bureaucrats
b.
Series of long and costly wars
c.
Officials resorted to raising taxes or corruption to deal with financial problems
d.
Failure to develop industry; lost initiative to European merchants
2.
Military decline
a.
Importing European weapons and ships only promoted European weapon industries
b.
Imported arsenals were outdated
C.
Cultural insularity/conservatism
1.
Muslims seldom traveled to the West, confident of their superiority
2.
Either ignorant of or hostile to European technological developments
3.
Resistance to printing press
a.
At first, Ottoman authorities banned printing in Turkish and Arabic
b.
In India, Mughal rulers showed little interest in printing technology
4.
Foreign cultural innovations seen as a threat to political stability
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Ch 29: The Russian Empire in Europe and Asia
I.
Foundations of the absolutist state
A.
The gathering of the Russian land
a.
Ivan III (or Ivan the Great, reigned 1462-1505) - Rus. indep. from Mongol rule, 1480
b.
Ivan built strong centralized government modeled after the Byzantine empire
c.
Called himself tsar (Roman title "caesar") - head of the st. & Rus. Orthodox church
2.
Ivan IV (reigned 1533-1584), Ivan III's grandson
a.
Known as Ivan the Terrible; notorious for erratic, often violent rule
b.
Confiscated large estates and redistributed them to supporters, 1564
c.
reign of terror - Oprichniki: new aristocracy and a private army of supporters; used
terror and cruelty to subdue civilian populations
B.
The time of troubles
1.
War/famine followed Ivan's death in 1598 w/o an heir; 15 yrs (1598-1613) of turmoil followed
a.
Mikhail Romanov chosen as new tsar in 1613; Romanov dynasty, lasted until 1917
C.
No Renaissance (1400s)or Reformation (1500s) - Mongol rule cut Rus. off from the West; no Catholics
II.
Westernization and empire
A.
17th century “Westernization”
1.
Peter I (reigned 1682-1725): known as Peter the Great (progressive but autocratic)
a.
imposed program of rapid modernization/westernization
1.
industries to incorporate the most advanced science and technology
2.
Russians sent abroad to study; Peter himself traveled to Europe to study
government, military, and industry
3.
architecture in western style and using western techniques
b.
Military reform: to build powerful, modern army (modeled on Germany’s)
1.
Offered better pay and modern weapons to peasants
2.
Aristocratic officers ordered to study mathematics and geometry
3.
Used western shipbuilding technology
c.
Bureaucratic reform: to facilitate collection of taxes
1.
Only nobles educated to serve as government officials (secular education)
2.
Table of Ranks allowed social mobility for civil servants by merit and service
d.
Social reform: challenged established customs
1.
Abolished the seclusion of women; encouraged social mixing of the sexes
2.
Ordered subjects to wear western clothing; ordered men to shave beards
2.
St. Petersburg, the "window on the west" new capital on the Baltic Sea built by Peter in 1703
B.
The limits of westernization
1.
Catherine II (r. 1762-1795) -Married Peter's grandson, unpopular tsar; replaced him as ruler
a.
Attracted to the ideals of the Enlightenment; corresponded with philosophes
1.
Education for children (boys and girls) but not for serf children
2.
Vaccinations for smallpox
b.
Rejected any changes that would weaken her autocratic rule
2.
Pugachev's rebellion in Caucasus (1773-1774)
a.
Cossacks, exiles, peasants, and serfs, led by Emelian Pugachev, protesting taxes
b.
Killed thousands of nobles, officials, and priests; crushed by imperial army, 1774
3.
The end of Catherine's reforms – opposed to anything that would weaken her power
a.
Pugachev's rebellion and French Revolution soured Catherine on reform
b.
Reversed policy of westernization; tried to restrict foreign influence in Russia but was
not isolationist
c.
Gave nobles more control over their land and serfs
1.
Serfs were not slaves but could be sold as private property in Russia
2.
Also fixed occupational castes; sons forced into trades of their fathers
3.
Serfdom expands; unlike Europe
C.
The Russian empire in Europe
1.
Poland-Lithuania (1790), a dual republican state; two societies, one king and parliament
a.
Poland-Lithuania was Roman Catholic, whereas Russia was Orthodox
D.
The Russian empire in Asia
1.
By late eighteenth century Russia controlled Volga River to Caspian Sea
2.
Siberia less hospitable, but rich in resources, especially furs
a.
Conquest began in 1581 when Cossacks crossed the Ural Mountains
b.
Local peoples forced to pay tribute in furs at Russian forts
3.
across Asia to the Pacific Ocean and west into Alaska and western Canada
13
III.
IV.
V.
Demographic and Environmental Changes
A.
A rise in population of Europe
1.
Europe had been decimated by the plague, 15th and 16th centuries population levels were
growing (population pressure is not a good reason for migration to the New World); 1000 CE,
Eur. populations 36 M; by 1700 = 120 M (the largest % of inc. of any of the continents)
B.
A decrease in the population of the Americas –
1.
time of Columbus – 4 M in N. America; 21 M in Mexico; the Caribbean had 6 M; Central
America 6 M; S. America 30 M; by 1700 the w. hemisphere had only 13 M (down from 67 M)
C.
no overall population decrease occurred in Africa – slave trade did not decimate populations; by 1700,
Africa had 60 M (double that of 1000); areas most affected were along the Atlantic coast
D.
Asia – between 1000 and 1700CE, the populations more than doubled to a total of 415 M
E.
Environmental Changes
1.
Food from the Americas helped spur population growth
2.
Soil exhaustion – plantations, in the Americas, tended to rely on single crops, a process that
depletes the soil; then move on to newly cleared land (shifting cultivation)
3.
Deforestation
a.
New World - Spanish first cut down forests in the Caribbean to make pastures for
cattle; then for plantations; in North America the coastal forests were the first to go
b.
Europe – timber was needed for ship building, buildings, wagons, barrels, etc.; wood
shortage was made worse by the Little Ice Age that began in the 1590s—people
burned wood to keep warm; encouraged use of coal
4.
Little Ice Age caused hardships that led to rebellion; contributed to the demise of Ming China
in the mid-17th century, etc.
Technology and Innovations
A.
Europe became a powerful force during this time period because of their willingness to adapt and use
three key innovations that existed in other parts of the world: gunpowder weapons, navigation, and
ship-building technology, and finally the printing press (which developed independently in Germany)
B.
Competition among Europeans resulted in big risks and innovations while the Japanese and Chinese
returned to more traditional lifestyles in order to maintain stability, and the Muslims, while retaining
powerful land-based empires, allowed innovations in shipping and weaponry to pass them by
C.
Using superior weapons and larger trading ships, the Europeans established new overseas trading
empires, moved lots of plants and animals, enslaved and transported people across oceans, and
generally transformed the interactions of the entire world
D.
Increased contact meant the spread of new ideas and technology and the exposure to new cultures
transformed both education and religion and transported those ideas to new areas
Changes and continuities in the Role of Women
A.
A number of powerful women took charge of some of the world’s empires
1.
Elizabeth I of England, Isabella of Spain, Nur Jahan of Mugal, India (most women shared their
power with their husbands)
2.
Most women saw little change
a.
Legally women were considered property of their husbands
b.
Inherited less than sons or brothers
c.
Had few legal rights
3.
Biggest change came from the mixing of cultures (mestizo, etc.) and racial categories began
to be more widely used in determining status or class
4.
Changes in trade and production placed a greater premium on male labor and jobs that
women had traditionally held, like textile weaving, were increasingly dominated by men
5.
Forced migration of males in African societies resulted in a disproportionate number of
females left behind in what were matrilineal societies; numbers reinforce polygyny (migration
of males in Christian areas of the world did not have the same effect because Christians do
not allow multiple marriages)
6.
Older or widowed women
a.
In Africa and Native American societies, councils of older women were part of the
decision-making process; Some were feared because they could not be controlled
7.
The Renaissance and Enlightenment created more educational opportunities for both groups,
but girls still lagged behind boys and the highest levels of education were only available for
men
8.
Protestant countries grew more puritanical in their regulation of sex, marriage, and illegitimacy
14