Erica Baruch
Bio Final Definitions
Kilo=1000
Deci=1/10
Centi=1/100
Milli=1/1000
Micro=1/1000000
Nano=1000000000
Diaphragm=controls the amount of light entering the microscope
Stage=supports slide
Stage Clips=holds glass slide specimen in place
Revolving Nosepiece=directs light into scope
Eyepiece=on the revolving nosepiece and contains a lens capable of 10x magnification
Protons=positively charged particles
Neutrons=neutral particles
Electrons=subatomic negatively charged particles outside the nucleus
Atomic Number=number of protons in the nucleus  identity of the atom
Atomic Mass=protons + neutrons
Ions=charged atomsthe number of protons and electrons are different
Elements=substances composed of the same atoms
-Same number of protons
-Same numbers of protons as neutrons
-Mass Number=average of isotopes
Isotopes=atoms with varying numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons
-Different mass number
-Same chemical properties and same atomic number
-Isotope of Hydrogen:
Name
Atomic #
Mass #
Protons
Electrons
Neutrons
Protium
1
1
1
1
0
Deutorium
1
2
1
1
1
Tritium
1
3
1
1
2
Non-Radioactive=stable nucleus
Radioactive=unstable nucleusunbalanced protons and neutrons
Treatment of diseases, radioactive dating, sterilization of food, study of organisms
Electron Configuration=288
Valence Electrons=electrons on the outermost level
Unstable Atom=outermost level (valence) is not full
Ionic Bonding=losing/gaining electrons because there is an attraction between oppositely
charged ions
Covalent Bonding=sharing electrons  the bond provides stability
Element
Electrons
Valence
Missing
Hydrogen
1
1
1
Oxygen
8
6
2
Nitrogen
7
5
3
Carbon
6
4
4
Chlorine
17
7
1
Polar=electrons attract to one element more than the other because of varied numbers of
elections  when there are 2 different signs
Electronegativity=tendency to attract electrons
H2O: there is OH- and H+ so there is a slight negativity  dissolves charged things
pH=potential hydrogen  concentration of H+ and OH- ions
Acids=very reactive compounds with H+ ions floating around when dissolved in water
pH=less than 7
Bases=very reactive compounds with OH- ions floating around when dissolved in water
pH=more than 7
Phenol Phthalin=base indicator  turns substance pink when OH- ions are present
Organic Compounds=have both carbon and hydrogen
Inorganic Compounds=don’t have both carbon and hydrogen (CO2, H2O, NaCl, HCl)
Monomer=small molecule
O
Polymer=repeating molecules with covalent bonds
O-O-O-O-O
Dehydration Synthesis=joining of monomers with covalent bonds when H2O breaks off
Hydrolysis=breaking of covalent bonds in monomers when H2O breaks: the OH- goes to one
monomer and the H+ goes to the other monomer
Carbohydrates=oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon
FUNCTION=energy and structural support
Monosaccharide=one simple sugar covalently bonded with dehydration synthesis
*
Function=energy for cells
C6H12O6
Glucose=hexagon structure
-Photosynthesis=turns sun energy into chemical energy
Light + 6H2O + 6CO2  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Fructose=pentagon structure
Galactose=hexagon structure
Disaccharide=two simple sugars covalently bonded with dehydration synthesis
FUNCTION=provides energy
2C6H12O6  C12H22O11 + H2O (one O and 2 H break off)
Sucrose=glucose + fructose
Lactose=glucose + galactose
Maltose=glucose + glucose
Polysaccharide=many simple sugars covalently bonded with dehydration synthesis
Starch / Glycogen=chain of glucose molecules
FUNCTION=reservoir for glucose and energy
-Starch is only in animals but when we eat it, it gets turned into glucose (hydrolysis),
which gives energy to cells and is then turned into glycogen (dehydration synthesis)
and is stored
Starch  Glucose  Glycogen
D.S.
H
Cellulose=chain of glucose molecules
FUNCTION=structural support and makes up cell wall in plants
-Only in plants and people/animals can’t digest it: cows can eat it because they have
microorganisms that digest it to get the glucose
Chitin
FUNCTION=structural support and endoskeleton of spiders and crustation
-In some animals—crustation: insects, crabs, shellfish, etc.
Benedicts=indicates monosaccharides (blueflashy orange)
Iodine=indicates polysaccharides (yellowvery dark blue)
Lipids=fats and oils
Structure=one glycerol (E) and 3 fatty acids (6 sac line)
Glycerol=carbon, OH, and hydrogen
Fatty Acid=carboxyl group and a chain of carbon and hydrogen
**When the fatty acid and glycerol bond 3H2O break off (from each fatty acid) so there is no
more carboxyl group
Fats=only in animals
FUNCTION=cushions organs, provides and stores energy, and insulates against cold
Saturated Fatty Acids=fatty acids only have single bonds
Oils=plant seed embryo  only in plants
FUNCTION=provide energy for plant seed embryo
Unsaturated Fatty Acids=fatty acids have double bonds
Phospholipids=one glycerol 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group (P)
FUNCTION=building block of cell membrane
-The fatty acids are hydrophobic and the phosphate group is hydrophilic
Steroids=hormones and cholesterol
*
Structure=all unstable carbons
Hormones
Estrogen
Testosterone
Adrenalin
HGH (for migits)
Cholesterol=building block of cell membrane in animals
Proteins=chains of amino acids (monomers)
Structure=amino group, acid/carboxyl group, carbon, hydrogen, R group
Amino Group=H--N, H (left)
Acid/Carboxyl Group=O--C--OH
Carbon=double bond
R=variable for 20 different types of amino acids
Peptide Bond=bond between amino acids with dehydration synthesis where H2O breaks off
Dipeptide Bond=2 amino acids joined together with a peptide bond
Polypeptide Bond=proteinmany amino acids bonded with peptide bonds
Primary Structure=
Secondary Structure=amino acids coil up into a spiral
**It is polar because there are different numbers of protons  positive
Tertiary Structure=the spiral folds into a coiled ball because there
isn’t enough space for it to stretch out
-The folding is not random: proteins each have their own type of folding
**Not all proteins have this structure--some remain in secondary
Structural Proteins=hair, skin, ligaments, nails (layered coils)
-Remain in secondary structure
Globular/Functional Proteins=enzymes, hormones, antibodies
-Tertiary structure
Nucleic Acids=DNA, RNA, ATP
Structure=phosphate group, monosaccharide, nitrogenous base
Nucleotide=monomer of nucleic acids
DNA=deoxyribonucleic acid
2 strands of nucleotides
FUNCTION=carries genetic code and determines protein structure
RNA=ribonucleic acid
1 strand of nucleotides
FUNCTION=protein synthesis
ATP=adenosine triphosphate
Single nucleotide
FUNCTION=provides energy for cells
Humans=46 chromosomes
-25,000 genes
-3 billion nucleotides
-Regulatory DNA Regions=turn on/off genes  before start codons
Blood Types=depends on proteins A / B (and red blood cells)
Type
Antibodies
A A
I I =type A
against B
A B
I I =type AB
universal recipient
IBIB=type B
against A
A
I i=type A
against B
B
I i=type B
against A
ii=type O
against A and B universal donor
A
Alleles: I =protein A
IB=protein B
i=no A or B
**
Antibodies fight against
the other blood and
clump together to form a
blood clot
Human Genetic Disorders=mutations
Autosomal Recessive=only on homozygous recessive genotype (tt) and not sex chromosomes
Tay-Sacks Disease=brain deterioration  3-5 years of life expectancy
TT x Tt  50% TT
Tt x Tt  25% tt
50% Tt
100% NOT tt
PKU=enzyme for processing phenylalanine (amino acid) is missing/not function so it
accumulates in brain cells
-Treatment=avoiding phenylalanine by eating specific foods
Cystic Fibrosis=protein channel mutation so there is an excess of mucus from the lungs and
digestive system  short life expectancy once it breaks out
Autosomal Dominant=only on homozygous dominant (DD/Dd)
Huntington’s Disease=brain deterioration later in life (30s)
-It changes the mood to angry/aggressive/crazy  retarded  medical vegetable
**Very rare
DD x dd  100% Dd
Dd x dd  50% Dd
Sex Linked Disorders=mutations on sex chromosome
Recessive on X=more common in males
X1=disorder X=normal
Woman: XX=normal
X1X=carrier but normal
X1X1=disorder
1
Man: X Y=disease
XY=normal
X1
X
X1X
XX
X
X1Y
XY
Y
1
XY x X X
25% child
50% boy
0% girl
-Color Blindness=sex linked
-Hemophilia=disease where blood clots don’t work well and clotting factors are missing
Chromosomal Disorders=extra/missing chromosome (or a piece of the chromosome)
Non Disjunction in Meiosis=the homologous chromosomes don’t split equally so there is an
extra or missing chromosome
**Only one set (tetrad) is affected so there are 23 chromosomes
Down Syndrome=chromosome 21 has 3 instead of 2
Klinefelter Syndrome=XXY  male with underdeveloped sex organs
Turner Syndrome=XO  female with underdeveloped sex organs but lives a normal life
Cry of the Cat=lack of chromosome 5
-Not normal: makes weird sounds and is retarded
Detection of Genetic Disorders
Pedigree=family tree
= male
= female
= disorder
Shaded=disorder
Half shaded=carrier
Genetic Testing=detection of mutated genes
-They need the gene to know what they are looking forthey heat the DNA so it separates and
they copy the DNA by adding nucleotides and DNA polymerase
PCR=using fractions of genes and copying them to test
-They use a probe to see if the DNA with the disease matches up to the person’s DNA
Analysis of Chromosomes
Karyotyping=analyze nucleus after mitosis so they are uncoiled and visible and look if there is
anything missing or extra
Amniocentesis=they test the fluids in the embryo stage (amniotic sac)
**
Recommended for older women because down syndrome is more common
Nonliving Organisms
Viruses=no cells, life activities, or chemical reactions
Retro Virus=DNA or RNA
Lytic Cycle=inject DNA into the cells and take it over so it reproduces viruses and then
explodes so the viruses spread in the body (1 hour long process)
Lysogenic Cycle=after the injection the DNA remains dormant in the cell and gets replicated if
the cell divides  gets active  Lytic Cycle begins
-Viral Diseases=cold, stomach virus, hepatitis (liver)  no antibiotics for viral
Aids=acquired immune deficiency syndrome
-Caused by HIV (human immune virus) that you catch
-It breaks out and paralyzes the immune system because it infects white blood cells
-It gets into the body from body fluid: breast milk, urine, saliva, blood, vaginal fluid, sperm
Sexual intercourse  STD
Blood transfusions
Sharing needles of drug addicts
-Treatment=many pills and medication but VERY expensive
Ebola=inner organ bleeding  die within days
Herpes=cold sores virus hides in cells forever and become active a few times a year
Genital herpescold sores on genitals
Prions=only in animals – short proteins that multiply in cells
Mad Cow Disease OR Crentfeldt Jacob Disease  prions multiply in brain cells and destroy the
brain
Virods=short/circular RNA molecules that cause certain diseases by using cells to multiply -only in plants
Living Organisms
Old System: 2 domains=Prokarya and Eukarya
5 kingdoms=monera
protista, fungi, plantae, animalia
New System: 3 domains=Prokarya  Eubacteria / Archaea and Eukarya
6 kingdoms=eubacteria / archaea bacteria protista, fungi, plantae, animalia
Domain
Eubacteri
Achaea
a
Eukarya
Archaea
Protists
Fungi
Plants
Bacteria
Cell Type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Number of
Most
Most
Unicellular
Mulitcellular
Unicellular Multicellular
Cells
Peptidoglyco
Some of
Protein
Chitin
Cellulose
Cell Wall gen
cellulose
consumer
consumer
producer
Nutrition
E.Coli Thermophils Ameba Para
Example homosapiens live in hot mecia Eugle
-cause
conditions na Algae
Kingdom
Eubacteria
Animals
consumer
tuberculoses Holophils li
ve in salty
conditions
Methaneog
ens produce
methane
Eubacteria=prokaryotic
Cell wall (protein and carbohydrate)
Reproduction=splits into 2
Binary Fission=DNA replication
When the cell grows the DNA separate to the sides of the cells
Endospores=if the conditions are unfavorable the bacteria shrivel up and covers itself in a thick
shell so it can remain without water for a long time and when there is food it grows back
-Mutualists: most help
-Decomposers: can’t exist without them
-Parasites=off everything
-Cholera=in dirty water
-Salmonella=eggs
-Bubonic Plague
-Tuberculosis
-Getting rid of bacteria: chemicals, radiation/rays, heat
Protists=dumping ground for everything
Unicellular
Multicellular
Plant Like
Autotrophs -Volvox -Euglena
Animals Like
Green Algae=plant ancestor bound to water except lichen
live on land
Red Algae
Fungi=many hyphae (cells put together)  mycelium is the way fungi grow
-Athletes foot grows hyphae into skin
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