Version 0.5
17. June 2003
A framework for the role of narratives in
educational use of computer games
PhD student, Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen
Dept. of Digital Aesthetics & Communication
IT-University of Copenhagen
Glentevej 67, DK-2400 NV Copenhagen
sen@it-c.dk
This article explores how to progress beyond the traditional use of narratives in computer
games with focus on the educational implications. The article starts with a general
discussion of narratives in digital media, specifically computer games to establish the
current understanding of narrative. Afterwards I move on to discuss narrative from a
psychological point of view, where narrative is seen in relation to our everyday actions.
The last step is to discuss the theoretical framework in an educational context, and
examine the consequences.
Initially narratives are not conceived as the exclusive property of computer games,
neither of learning, but as one element in a complex process of interaction between
subject and object, in a given context. Furthermore I will not treat learning in computer
games from a narrow perspective, where learning is perceived as occurring only in
games specifically constructed for educational purposes. Rather I see all computer
games as possessing a potential for educational use, with some computer games more
explicitly catering for this dimension. Learning should not only be seen as an intrinsic
quality of computer games but also as constituted in a social context, where certain
computer games have different potential for supporting a learning experience. For
example SimCity has often been accentuated as a significant example of the possibilities
for learning through computer games, specifically about urban space and city planning
through experimentation with building and running a virtual city (Adams, 1998; Betz,
1996; Miklaucic, 2001; Prensky, 2001; Squire, 2002; McFarlane, Sparrowhawk & Heald,
2002). In the case of SimCity the intrinsic potential of games is used, the game design
lends itself to educational purposes, and a there exist a potential for establishing an
environment of social interaction around the game.
It has almost become a mantra for people talking about computer games and their
learning potential to bring forward SimCity, a second after Simcity has been mentioned,
other familiar titles will emerge like Civilization and Railroad Tycoon. However it seems
that SimCity is the game when it comes to having a metaphor for learning through
computer games. Therefore it is also interesting that SimCity is quite an unusual
computer game. First of all nobody expected SimCity to become a success – some even
question if it qualifies as a computer game. Mainly the objections are connected with the
lack of explicit goals in the game: how and when did you win. Will Wright, the designer of
SimCity, has since become well known for his design style that he characterises with:
1/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
"Instead, we give them [the player] a rich environment with goals
embedded in it [...] I’m interested in rewarding imagination: letting
them leverage creativity to build an interesting external artifact of their
imagination." (Brown, 2002)1.
It is not the lack of goals that are central but rather the possibility to create a more open
game universe: The goals are set by the player but are still a part of the game context.
Especially the last part is quite interesting from a learning perspective, where Wright
specifically label a large part of the game process, as the building of an external artifact
of their imagination. From his perspective it seems that computer games are not well
defined and finite for the player but instead a mental construction set. The player can
interact and construct a game session, where his own prior knowledge and the game
artefacts are combined. By this I do not mean to state that SimCity should be our
preferred game form for educational use, however the success of SimCity point to the
factors in games that educators and researchers find are interesting properties for
educational purposes. These ideas seem to be that games for educational use should be
open-ended, creative and toy-like, however this also implies that a lot of game titles
would not be suited for educators’ purposes. These properties seem to limit the scope of
games for education and favour the simulation genre, which have been the most
discussed and researched genre since games entered education in the 1960’s
(Dempsey et.al, 1993). The simulation genre lends itself well to the underlying learning
paradigm in the game research community, namely experiential learning. We should
however be careful not to perceive the ideas of experiential learning to literal, and we
should not make experiential learning the only theory. On this background you can
speculate that the Simcity is a natural extension of earlier work and research in game
research, however we should not confuse the metaphor with the content. Simcity is an
excellent metaphor and champion for educational use of computer games, however
there are certainly our game genres, which are worth while to pursue – they may not be
so obvious but still have the necessary content and form.
In the following I will sketch the current discussion of, what a game is, and prepare the
ground for a look at narratives in computer games. Although a computer game on the
surface may seem quite simple and straightforward, built on simple rules, this is a faulty
position based on inadequate external observations of the play situation 2. The focus on
simple rules will formally describe a game, however the importance of rules in games is
far from enough to give the full picture A game is more than meets the eye, you might
say. It is worth remembering one of the first formal analyses of a computer game by
Patricia Greenfield back in 1984, where she looks closer at Pac-Man. Much to her
surprise the computer game is far from simple but requires the player to analyse the
ghost’s behaviour, set-up strategies for different levels, and acquire the necessary
navigation skill. The game is open to construction, interaction, and change over time, as
the player's abilities improve.
In an interview with Pearce (2002) at Game-studies.org Will Wright’s design style is even more
fleshed out.
2 I am referring to several discussions here for example on emergence in computer games (Wright,
2003; Johnson, 2001) and the social interaction around computer games (Jessen, 1999).
1
2/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
When Henry Jenkins (2002) in his paper Game Design as Narrative Architecture, points
to the obvious problems of applying film theory to computer games, the flexibility of the
game universe is one of the key points. He states that he wants to formulate a position
“examining games less as stories than as spaces ripe with narrative possibility” (Jenkins,
2002:2). A game supports different interpretations and routes through the game. He is
trying to follow in the footsteps of legendary game designers like Will Wright and Sid
Meier. The game is not characterized by linearity, like other media, but he stresses that
this doesn’t mean, that the narrative potential is all lost. He advocates for diversity in the
genres, the aesthetics and the use of narrative in games. Although I sympathies with his
ambition I do not agree with his analysis of the current game industry, as one trying new
concepts like the examples he brings forward: The Sims and Black & White. The Sims is
a mainstream game borrowing heavily from old games like Mud1 and Little Computer
People. And although Black & White have a clearer angle on the option for being a good
or bad god, the basic principle is close to the old Bullfrog title Populous and similar godgames. However the point is still valid; narratives should have different roles, and be
allowed to have different strengths and roles to play in computer games. Indeed this is
the case, when we look at the use of narrative in different game genres (EgenfeldtNielsen, 2003a).
A look at different definitions of narratives
The discussion of the role of narrativity in games is often closely linked to the discussion
of the nature of computer games. On one side narratologist is struggling to fit computer
games into an existing paradigm, where the story is the significant part. Until now they
have not been faring very well, and have been heavily criticized, with Espen Aarseth
(1997) as one of the most well known critics. The so-called ludologists see computer
games as an extension of games and play (Frasca, 1999; Eskelinen, 2001). I will not go
in depth with what ludology have to offer in this paper but concentrate on the narrative
part.
Before venturing into a discussion of the potential of narrative in computer games for
learning, it will be worthwhile to take a closer look at, what is meant with the term
narrative. The definitions are many, and I will not go into all the definitions but
concentrate on three different views on narrative. I have chosen Marie-Laure Ryan’s,
and Janet Murray’s as a starting point as their work on narratives in digital media have
influenced the field considerable over the last years. Furthermore they supplement each
other, and illustrate some of the main problems in using narratives in computer games.
This discussion will show the problems of current digital narrative theory, and leads the
way for a new perspective on narrative by Jerome Bruner, which is informed by a
psychological tradition. This tradition is closer to the goal of this paper, namely to
address the role of narrative in educational application of computer games from a
learning perspective.
Murray (1997:180) stress that “we cannot bring to a transformative, shape-shifting
medium the same expectations of static shapeliness and finality that belong to linear
media.” Murray is not talking specifically about computer games but it seems that her
3/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
account of the consequences for using narratives in digital environments, is especially
true for computer games, these in some ways being the very front-runner of
transformative and shape-shifting media. Her account offers us three different
perspectives on what aesthetics and pleasures the new medium offers us: Immersion,
agency and transformation, which she believes will have to be staged through a new
narrative style called procedural authorship.
The procedural authorship is characterised by an ability to draw the user into the digital
experience, and provide a frame for the experience, building blocks, more than a fixed
linear pattern. In this way Janet Murray’s description of the digital universe lies close to
Will Wright’s design philosophy and Henry Jenkins’s ideas. However her insistence on
keeping the narrative in the foreground clouds the picture.
Towards the end Murray (1997:275) points specifically to computer games, as a place,
where we see this future almost in place. She is not only referring to classic narrative
game examples like Myst and Kings Quest but also points to a game like Mario
Brother’s. By pointing to a platform game like Mario Brother’s she is entering into
dangerous territory. It seems obvious that the adventure genre, and it’s sub genre roleplaying games (RPG), draws on narratives elements. These two genres do obviously
have immersion, agency and transformation as important parts, where magical spells of
change, immersion into the fantasy world, and the power to make things right through
righteous agency, are important ingredients. However these characteristics are not so
clear when we turn to other computer game genres like action, strategy, and simulation 3.
But, lets start with the game Murray uses as an example it belongs within the action
genre. The game Mario Brothers is about controlling a plumber, jumping between
platforms, avoiding obstacles while getting different objects for extra points. Starting with
agency, it is clear, that there is a high degree of player control, but it is not as such a
very immerse experience into the digital environment, as a plumber. There are some
transformative aspects like jumping on obstacles so they go flat but they are not that
noticeable in the game. It seems that when the player is focused on the game, it is the
navigation and movement that are fascinating: Running, jumping and stopping at the
exact right time, to avoid holes or monsters. Living up to the games rules, not because
they are interesting from a narrative point of view, but because the rules are challenging
and intrigue your explorative desire. When you observe children playing computer
games their fascination and experience is seldom described by drawing on narrative
theory (Jessen, 1999). In the old days, where piracy also where common, many players
didn’t have a clue that Mario was a plumber. The narrative in the game was lacked the
usual support of the cover, manual, and often hackers also removed the intro to the
game. The players just saw an avatar, which should avoid obstacles and gain points by
gathering objects.
In this perspective the agency, immersion and transformation becomes to weak for
describing the experience. Although they have bearing on the game experience, they do
not grasp the fundamental dynamics and structures. The procedural authorship offers us
some indications of, what goes on in the game but somewhat out of focus, as it still holds
on to a narrative scripting of an event, that isn’t really conceived as narrative by the
player. We have to turn to ludology for an explanation of games’ basic aesthetics and
3
For an explanation of my definition turn to Egenfeldt & Smith (2000).
4/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
pleasures. It is not by chance that we call it computer games, as computer games have a
lot in common with games as such. Jesper Juul (2003) has described some of these
mechanisms focusing on properties like for example; a game have rules, goals, and
emergent patterns. However in this paper I will stay with narratives for a little longer, still
pursuing the scope of narrative in games.
Murray’s definition of a narrative is a framework, which only gets us so far. The metaphor
is not very precise; instead we should find a metaphor, which more clearly demonstrates
the process of games as affordances for the player’s experience. In The Design of
Everyday Things (1988) Donald A. Norman defines affordances, as the actual properties
of an object, a user perceive, and determines what the object can be used for. In respect
to the objects we encounter. “Affordances provide strong clues to the operation of things”
(Norman, 1988:9). In this perspective Henry Jenkins (2002) and Jonas H. Smith’s (2002)
architecture metaphor is more fitting. Buildings and surroundings support different ways
of perceiving an environment and your scope of action. I would argue that it is more
constructive to see game elements from an affordances perspective, where the player
can choose between different operations. This way the actions in the game is not
necessarily contained in a narrative perspective but the narrative is still maintained as an
opportunity.
This is also what Murray is looking for with her concept of procedural authorship but she
keeps it within a narrative framework. Still I believe narrative have a place in a computer
game theory, and that we can come a bit closer to the difference between narrative in
computer games and other digital media, through Marie-Laure Ryan’s transmedial
definition of narrative. Ryan’s definition is more basic, than Murray’s thoughts. In her
paper Narrative: A Transmedial Definition Marie-Laure Ryan (2004) identifies three
properties of a narrative script, which are necessary for a narrative script to function:
1. A narrative has a world with characters and objects (Immersion)
2. The world must change either as a consequences of user actions or events
(Agency).
3. It must be possible for the user to ‘speculate’ around the events hereby creating
a plot (Transformation).
In this perspective the basic building blocks of Ryan and Murray are close to each other
with Murray’s concept in brackets behind each point above. The obvious difference is in
point one, where Ryan identifies characters and objects. Murray on the other hand focus
on immersion, where a world with characters and objects is a necessary prerequisite. In
this sense Murray is more focused on describing the narrative experience where Ryan
focuses on the narrative structure. Both perspectives are relevant but Ryan’s definition
has the advantage of making it possible to distinguish between levels of narrativity in
games, which is quite useful, if we want to discuss narratives across computer game
genres, and the place of narratives in learning. The levels of narrativity can be thought of
as a continuum reaching from “possessing narrativity” to “being a narrative”. Marie-Laure
Ryan (2004) advocate this distinction and sees being a narrative as attributable to the
text (game), however in order to posses narrativity the text must be able to evoke the
5/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
narrative script in the user through immersion, agency, and transformation. So even
though a game is a narrative it doesn’t necessarily posses narrativity in the sense that
the player is able to construct a meaningful narrative out of the game universe and its
affordances. For example the game Mario Brother’s has a world with characters, object,
and these changes as a consequence of a player’s actions, or by a random pattern,
however the game do not necessarily posses narrative qualities from the players view. It
is possible to speculate around the events of the plumber, killing monsters, getting closer
to freeing the princess in the end, but the players only engage in this behaviour to a
limited degree, and it is not the primary dynamic of the game. The distinction between
being a narrative, and possessing narrativity, is especially important in relation to
computer games for two reasons. We can observe that games are often set in a game
universe with some resemblances to the real world, and the player’s actions are
fundamental for the game experience. Excluding very abstract computer games like
Tetris, and Pong, games often do have objects, obstacles, and characters, which are
interconnected, and change during the game as a consequences of the player’s action. It
is possible to speculate around the game events but in a lot of games, it doesn’t really
make sense. The meaning attributable to the narrative is so insignificant that it doesn’t
qualify as a narrative, in the player’s interaction with the game. This is primarily because
the player’s actions are not meaningful in relation to the game’s narrative. It does not
make sense to connect, the plumber on a rescue mission for his loved one, with head
butting little boxes to gain points. Even though the narrative potentially is there, and the
objects, characters and events are interrelated, it is not deep and relevant enough to
engage the player meaningfully. An example from the related world of board games
might prove useful to demonstrate, the fuzzy border between possessing narrative and
being narrative.
It has become popular to make classic games with a brand attached to it like for example
the board game Risk has lately
been published in a Lord of The
Rings version. The first version
of Risk was quite abstract, and
the only background story, was
something like conquering the
world. You had a world map,
some plastic pieces, rules, and
cards with cannons, soldiers,
and cavalry. Through these few
clues the scene was set: A war
for world domination sometime
in
the
Century4.
Picture 1: The game board for Risk with plastic
pieces and cards.
beginning
of
19.
In the Lord of the
Rings game, the setting is a
little different but the rules are
basically the same. The question is if the setting in the Lord of The Rings version has an
4
Later a version was released with more detailed pieces, and a more colourful map, which could
be seen as a first step towards ‘other’ versions of Risk.
6/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
impact on the game experience. The two games have the same amount of narrative
scripting (Ryan’s three basic elements), however the Lord of The Rings world are initially
much stronger supported with the alleged target group of Tolkien’s fans and we would
expect the experience to posses some degree of narrativity. So, despite the fact that
narrativity remains weak in the Lord of The Rings version of the game, it still seems to
have a bearing in the Risk game, where it is actually possible to connect the game
actions with the overall narrative. The narrative elements have an impact but it is outside
part of the game experience. The border remains fuzzy, and do both depend on the
narrative scripting and the player’s capacity for understanding these narrative elements.
The relation between narrative, language and mental
images
Marie-Laure Ryan (2004) states that she finds that language is one of the best carriers of
narrative but that narrative is not a linguistic phenomenon but rather a cognitive
phenomenon, where we construct a mental image of the experience we participate in.
Taking this further, the mental image comes before the narrative. We construct a mental
image of the activity we are engaged in and only when we reflect over it, under special
circumstances, do we turn it into a narrative. In this way narratives become a way to
understand and handle the world by making it meaningful.
If we turn to the psychologist Jerome Bruner (1990: 67-99) the importance of seeing
narrative as something very fundamental becomes clear. According to Bruner, language
is learned through praxis, which he calls an everyday drama: narratives without a
narrator. Bruner sees the first drive for acquisition of language as a way to control these
everyday narratives, and frame them according to ones own goals and pleasures.
Therefore it is not strange that to understand and communicate narratives the natural
medium is language, which originally is a way to master our everyday life, and frame it to
our benefit, by using narratives. However it is also very clear that the experience of a
narrative is not related to language per se. It doesn’t really make sense to call our
everyday experiences for a narrative, even though they resemble them. Our everyday
experience is life but when we talk about them and change them through language
manipulation, they become narratives. To make events manageable we narrate them,
and put perspective on.
Therefore the experience through agency of a computer game player is not to be seen
as a narrative but rather the other way around. The player venturing into a game,
experiencing things, and dealing with these, is participating in virtual life. Like life itself it
can with different degrees of relevance and success be transformed into a narrative. But,
just like life, the game is not a narrative as such although it as life may have narrative
potential (Remember Ryan’s distinction between being a narrative and possessing
narrative). Drawing on Bruner (1990) the narrating process is often activated when it
violates canonical narratives. Although life in action is not a narrative we still constantly
live and navigate in and through narratives. Everyday life is framed within a social praxis
that consists of canonical narratives, but these are not explicit in our everyday life, rather
background noise. When the background noise comes to much out of tune with our life
(narratives are violated), we search for ways to make these deviances meaningful. The
language becomes a tool for the narrative process.
7/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
With this theoretical framework it is important to hold on to a genre definition, where we
can pinpoint games that heavily draw on language for supporting the game experience
and thereby lend itself more easily to narratives, games like Baldurs Gate II and Gabriel
Knight III.5. In games like Deus Ex and Metal Gear Solid we see extensive use of
language to construct the story in the game, thereby supporting the story by making the
user reflects on it constantly through the dialogue. In games like Age of Empires II and
Civilization III the setting is supported through a written introduction. The narrative is not
really a part of the game but still sets the scene. Just like in real life where we
accommodate to a specific social praxis, where the norms, rules and expectations are
set through narratives (Bruner, 1990) when going to a fine restaurant or a soccer match.
In game genres like action, strategy and simulation we do not need language to ‘sort out’
the narrative. Life is played out through the game, with physical actions within the game.
We are not just dealing with narratives but engaging in virtual life – where we can try
different paths, with limited consequences. We do not reflect it; we do it. This is perhaps
also why some people acclaim games with the power to make real changes through their
simulation power (Schank, 2000).
Allegedly it should be important whether a game is linear or non-linear. Some considers
this one of the true blessings of computer games, and what sets them aside from other
media - they are interactive and non-linear (i.e. Crawford, 1982). This implies that games
should be more like life, and more non-linear than other media forms. Often a
comparison is made between classic linear narrative media and new non-linear narrative
media (among others computer games). This distinction is not very adequate as it is a
matter of perspective.
A typical game is not more or less linear than a traditional book or movie. What is
apparently meant by non-linearity is that the player can choose different endings, and
ways through the game but emphasising specific parts. But this is not necessarily
different from a book or movie. Here the viewer can also choose to pay more attention to
a specific scene, concentrate on a specific chapter or sympathize with a specific
character. The difference is in the enactment of the narrative. In the book or movie, it is a
mental image constructed, modulated by language, visuals and perhaps even discussed
and formed with other people through discussion. In a computer game the experience is
formed as a physical process through your senses, where you choose to focus on
specific elements in the game universe. You are forming mental images but more
importantly enacting them. In this process you are not choosing between different
narratives but being a human in a certain social setting – doing things. In other media the
narratives are (merely) perceived and processed by the subject but in computer games
the elements for the potential narrative are constructed. The player must choose
between different options, and by doing this make different narrative possible 6.
5
This does not imply that audiovisual elements do not have an important role to play in
constructing narrative but merely that they are not the primary vehicles. It is significantly harder to
construct narratives merely through music or silent movies but not impossible.
6 Frasca (1999) argues along similar line of perspective underlining the difference between ludus
and stories.
8/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
Murray is also thinking along these lines but doesn’t consider the difference between
computer games and other media an unsolvable problem. She concludes:
“Games are limited to very rigid plotlines because they do not have
abstract representations of the story structure… That is, ‘level two’ of
a fighting game always refers to the same configuration, not to a set
of rules by which it can be constructed.” (1997:198, my italics).
Therefore the narratives and plots in a game are not very varied. The point is that it is
really hard to build, frame and manipulate a narrative, when you do not have language
(abstract representations) as the primary communication form. You may argue that films
are capable of this but it seems that even the most language limited film genres like
Westerns do use language to frame and manipulate the narrative.
The game universe is not build through language but through a wide range of means like
genre awareness, kinetic activity, spatial, and audiovisual dynamics. Language plays a
smaller role, and is usually not necessary to come to terms with, what is going on in the
game, by creating a narrative. 7 At least not until someone ask you, and you thereby
reflect on your practice. Or when you have to make sense of a specific conflict or
problem in the game, these usually being objects, characters or events that deviate from
traditional genre, narrative or medium scripts.
The point I want to stress is that we should not be fooled into believing that games are
necessarily better off by drawing more heavily on abstract representation (language).
Games have other means and effects for achieving its goals. Games are closer to our
everyday activities than to other media types, and we should not built on top of classic
media theory. Instead you will have to move closer to theories of everyday life, to
understand, what goes on in computer games.
For some reason the discussions of the nature of games are often waged within a
narrative or ludologic setting, when it is really closer to an everyday encounter. A notable
exception is Goffman (1972). An everyday encounter is non-linear, interactive, physical,
and audiovisual in the sense that we move between contexts and perform actions, which
are not necessarily linked beyond being connected in time. The distinctions between
contexts are often made through narratives but then we have different narratives for
different situations, depending on the activities. Our involvement and activities in life are
perhaps motivated and framed by narratives – stories about who we are (i.e. Giddens,
1991; Bruner, 1990) but they do not explain, why it is fun to bungee jump, drive fast, get
a massage or other activities. However they do to a large degree explain why it is fun to
watch a movie, read a book, socialize with people, or gossip.
Characteristics of games in a learning context from
a narrative perspective
So in the majority of games (action, strategy and simulation genre), narratives are not
the main attraction. In these games the dynamics comes from playing with life in a social
7
This also partly explains the text-MUDS continuing popularity, and game designers frustration,
when building open online-worlds (Smith, 2002).
9/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
praxis with another frame than everyday life. Just like everyday life happens within an
overall narrative (Bruner, 1990), so does games but without taking on immediate
consequences to our everyday life. The narrative is framing the perception.
From a learning perspective this is quite interesting, as this is actually close to the very
definition of a learning environment. It is a place where we can experiment and gain
important experiences and knowledge, without too much risk (Dewey, 1938). It has long
been argued that games are well suited for offering the opportunity to practice and
experience different areas without the consequences of real life (Boocock, 1968). The
main question is how strong the relation between the digital learning environment and
everyday life is.
Adventure computer games are a popular way to create a digital learning environment
through games although the evidence on the learning outcome and the correct teaching
application is limited (Cavallari et al., 1992). In a study by Oluf Danielsen, Birgitte Ravn
Olesen & Birgitte Holm Sørensen (2002) a school class plays an environmental
adventure game, and experience different events, thereby forcing them to think about
environmental issues. What is interesting in their research project is that the degree of
success is measured through test questions on environment, and it supports the
researchers in their conclusion that learning do occur. The environmental information are
presented through language, and tested through language. However this does not mean
that the children change their everyday practice, in this study the researchers found this
to be unlikely8. With the exception of the few homes, where the children parallel with the
computer game playing in school, engaged in environmental relevant behaviour. When
the children at home engaged in environmental issues it became possible for the players
to cross the border between the narratives constructed through language by playing the
game, and their everyday activities. Adventure games are quite traditional and close to
the written media in their learning process, using language as the primary requisite 9.
Therefore it also makes sense to talk about a narrative to a certain degree although it is
rather clumsy implemented in this particular environment game. However the adventure
game rest heavily on traditional learning theory, where we acquire information and then
learn about them. We read or hear information, and then learn them (Schank, 1999). In
opposition to this learning theory I will point to experiential learning represented by John
Dewey (1938) and David Kolb (1984), which stress then importance of ‘Learning by
Doing’. In their perspective it is not enough to simply hear or read some information, we
have to engage with them, and connect it with our existing knowledge and concept.
Another example of a learning game, which lends itself more to experiential learning
perspective is Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus presented by Debra A. Lieberman (2001),
which is within the action genre, in the sub genre called platforms games. You control
Bronkie, a little dragon that must fight the bad Tyrannosaurus Rex to assemble a wind
machine to clean the air. During the game you must fight evil dinosaurs, and engage in
proper asthma management to win the game. The story has minor significance except
setting the scene, and is quickly forgotten, when you jump over enemies and avoid
8
This finding is supported by another Danish study by Estrid Sørensen (1997) on a health game to
teach children on healthy food, where the problems of transfer is highlighted although the focus in
not on the limits of language.
9 This is probably also the explanation for literature, film, and media studies higher interest in
adventure games compared to other genres.
10/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
obstacles that will deteriorate your asthma, trying to make it to the next level. In the
game a lot of necessary asthma management tools are embedded in the game
universes and the activities you perform. The use of language is limited to a few multiplechoice questions between levels. The pre- and post-test are not done through language,
but is rather observed directly in the children’s everyday life, where the game leads to
significant improvement. These improvements were for example observed in
communication about asthma with peers, clinical staff and parents.
Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus.
Packy & Marlon
In another similar game called Packy & Marlon the same guidelines were used for
helping children to improve their management of diabetes’s. Here, in addition to
improved communication, a post-test showed a 77-percent drop in visits to urgent care
and medical visits (Lieberman, 2001).
In best case the information the game designer wishes to convey to the player is part of
the game experience like in Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus and Packy & Marlon. Here
primers for the information you wish to convey have been integrated as a natural part of
the game activity and are necessary for succeeding in the game - the game actions are
directly related to the behaviour you want to learn the player.
The adventure games do have a potential for learning as have been argued by Amory
et.al (1999) but I argue that the real potential for learning through games lies in other
game genres like the action, strategy and simulation genres, where virtual life is to a
higher degree practised. Here the social virtual praxis is constituted through narratives
but as in real life the narrative is a distant, framing device. In everyday life it is possible to
manipulate these narratives through language, framing a situation differently, or
exploring other narratives by reading them. But the narrative part comes after the game
experience, after we have done something. Before challenging our experience through
narratives we have to experience ‘something’ – both in life and virtual life. We have to
get the small blocks for toying with in the game before we engage in reflection, and
narrative discourse. Computer games can very well be the carrier of this something,
providing it can give the necessary physical sensations (audiovisual, tactile, kinetic, and
motor skills) for a given situation to be constructed meaningfully by the player. The real
challenge when using computer games for learning, is to stay focused on the areas,
where computer games can give a better learning experience: Not because the player is
‘tricked’ into the learning processes through his favourite pastime but because the
computer game can offer a safer, better, and fuller experience. With a safer, better, and
11/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
fuller experience I am referring to the game as environment, where you can explore,
experience, and manipulate without the same risk as other environments, and get input
that is otherwise more restricted. One example is the use of Simcity for illustrating the
dynamics of urban planning (Adams, 1998), where you get a fuller experience in the
teaching situation than if you read about urban planning or the teacher lectured about it.
The use of Simcity in a course does not make the other contributions obsolete but rather
add another dimension. The safe environment of games should be understood in relation
to for example actually running a city, which could have dire consequences. The finding
that games makes for a better experience is one of the most widespread if you look at
earlier research on games and learning as retention over time increased, and the
students are more motivated (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2003b). Although this research focuses
on games in general the claim is also supported in the few studies currently conducted
with computer games.
In the genres, action, strategy, and simulation, the simulation potential of games is a
much more interesting feature than language driven adventure games. The narrative
experience is formulated and constructed by the player (under the right circumstances)
for example about how he managed asthma in a game, or changed light bulb from a
normal bulb to a low-energy bulb. Although this is beyond the scope of this paper it could
be argued that a design strategy for games for facilitating learning could be to strengthen
the game’s narrativity by leaving it to the player’s imagination to form a narrative
interpretation, rather than explicitly telling a story through language. Perhaps this
explains the attention that SimCity have drawn in educational circles. As I explained at
the start of this paper Simcity is characterized by giving the player more options for
setting own goals, and playing the game. It becomes possible for the player to play a
game of own device, and to construct a narrative experience, which supports their game
experience, and not the game designers.
I believe I have argued that all learning cannot reasonably be reduced to a narrative.
However the narrative does have significant importance as it gives the concrete
elements in the learning experience meaning, affective strength and situate it in
accordance with the player’s perception. The narrative is not the knowledge but supports
acquisition of knowledge. It is like the string that pearls are put on, and the string never
bends the same way. This is just to say that a game’s success as learning tool cannot
only be measured as its ability to facilitate the player’s construction of narratives. Other
factors will certainly come into play for example the precision of information depicted in
the game, the degree of freedom to interact with the information, and the presentation of
information. However I will not elaborate more on these topics here.
In this perspective the closer a game simulate real life, the better. This is not necessarily
the whole truth. In the future work will have to be done on identifying different learning
set-ups in computer games. For example some games will benefit from a realistic
representation, where other games are characterised by reducing the information
complexity. The reduced complexity could be seen as a way of empowering the player, a
virtual guided tour. Hereby facilitating a zone of proximal development in a Vygotskian
sense (Vygotsky, 1978:86).
When examining learning games from a simulation perspective (learning by doing) we
would be wise to be cautious with games trying to communicate abstract information,
12/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
concepts and ideas, which are learned through language, and are primarily represented
by language. By using language we run the risk of reducing the player’s creative options
severely to the process of constructing a narrative. This is not sufficient; instead we
should stress the importance of actually engaging in play, and do things in a safe
environment. We should also be wary of our tendency to fit our conception of learning
games within the current educational practices, which clearly supports learning through
language. Furthermore we should be aware that the computer game genres today are
quite rigid, and the expectations of the players make it limited what activities they will
engage in. Computer games are conservative in their content, interface, narrative, use
of time, space perception, and progression.
13/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
References

Adams, Paul C. (1998). Teaching and Learning with SimCity 2000. Journal of
Geography; Vol. 97, No. 2. 47-55.

Aarseth, Espen (1997). Cybertext: Perspectives On Ergodic Literature. John
Hopkins University Press

Amory et. al (1999). The use of Computer Games as an Educational Tool:
Identification of Appropriate Game Types and Game elements. British Journal of
Educational Technology. 30(4). 311-322.

Betz, Joseph A.. (1996). Computer Games: Increase Learning in an Interactive
Multidisciplinary Environment. Journal of Educational Technology Systems. Vol.
24, No 2. 195-205.

Boocock, Sarane (1968). From Luxury Item to Learning Tool: An overview of the
Theoretical Literature of Games. In: Boocock, Sarane & Schild, E.O. (1968).
Simulation Games in Learning. London: Sage Publications.

Brown, Janelle. “Payoff = Points: A False Equation”. New York Times. Oct 24,
2002.


Bruner, Jerome (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge: Harvard University
Cavallari, John, Hedberg, John & Harper, Barry (1992). Adventure games in
education: A review. Australian Journal of Educational Technology. Col. 8, No.
2:172-184.

Danielsen, Oluf, Birgitte Ravn Olesen & Birgitte Holm Sørensen. ”From
Computer Based Educational Games to Actions in Everyday Life.” In:
Danielsen, Oluf, Nielsen, Janni & Sørensen, Birgitte Holm (eds.) Learning and
Narrativity in Digital Media. Aarhus: Samfundslitteratur, 2002. 67-81.

Dempsey, J., Lucassen, B., Gilley, W. & Rasmussen, K.. (193). Since Malone's
theory of intrinsically motivating instruction: what's the score in the gaming
literature? Journal of Educational Technology Systems, Vol. 22 No.2, 173-83.


Dewey, John (1938). Experience and education. Kappa Delta Pi.
Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Simon (2003a). Exploration in games – a new starting point.
Version 0.4, May 2003. Work in progress.

Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Simon (2003b). Getting to the right question: A review of the
literature on simulations, games and computer games for learning. Version 0.4,
June, 2003. Work in Progress.

Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Simon & Jonas Heide Smith (2000). Den Digitale leg – Om
børn og computerspil [Digital Play – About children and computer games].
Copenhagen: Hans Reitzel Forlag.
14/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003

Eskelinen, Markku (2001). ”The Gaming Situation.” Game studies, volume 1,
issue 1 (2001). 23.10.2002 http://www.gamestudies.org/0101/eskelinen/

Frasca, Gonzalo (1999). Ludology meets Narratology: Similitude and differences
between (video)games and narrative. Parnasso 3 (1999): 365-371.

Giddens, Anthony (1991). Modernity and Self-Identity. Self and Society in the
Late Modern Age. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Goffman, Erving (1972). Fun in games. I: Goffman, Erving (1972). Encounters.
London: The Penguin Press. 15-31.

Greenfield, Patricia (1984). Mind and Media: The Effects of Television, Video
Games, and Computers. Harvard University Press.

Jenkins, Henry (2002). "Game Design as Narrative Architecture. In: Harrington,
Pat & Frup-Waldrop, Noah. ” First Person. Cambridge: MIT Press.
http://web.mit.edu/21fms/www/faculty/henry3/games&narrative.html

Jessen, Carsten (1999). Computer games and play culture - an outline of an
interpretative framework. In: Christensen, Christa Lykke (red): Børn, unge og
medier. Nordicom: Nordiske forskningsperspektiver.
http://www.carsten-jessen.dk/compgames.html

Juul, Jesper (2003). The Game, the Player, the World. A transmedial definition
of games. Version 20, April 2003. Work in progress.

Johnson, Steve (2001). Emergence: The connected lives of ants, brains, cities,
and software. London: Allen Lane Penguin Press

Kolb, David A. (1984). Experiential learning: experience as the source of
learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

McFarlane, Angela, Sparrowhawk, Anne & Heald, Ysanne (2002). Report
on the educational use of games. Teachers Evaluating Educational Multimedia.
Date of access: 1 May 2002:
http://www.teem.org.uk/howtouse/resources/teem_gamesined_full.pdf

Norman, Donald A. (1998). The design of Everyday Things. Cambridge: MIT
Press.

Pearce, Celia. Sims, Battle Bots, Cellular Automata God and Go. A
Conversation with Will Wright by Celia Pearce. Game studies, Volume 2, issue 1
(2002). 23.10.2002 http://www.gamestudies.org/0102/pearce/

Prensky, Marc. Digital Game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.

Ryan, Marie-Laure (2004). “Narrative: A Transmedial Definition.” In: Ryan,
Marie-Laure. (2004). Narrative Across Media. University of Nebraska Press. In
press.

Schank, Roger (1999). Learning by Doing. In: Schank, Roger (1999). Dynamic
Memory Revisited. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Schank, Roger (2000). Colouring outside the lines. New York: Harper Collins.
15/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003

Shawn Miklaucic (2001). Virtual Real(i)ty: SimCity and the Production of Urban
Cyberspace, 2001, http://www.game-research.com/art_simcity.asp

Smith, Jonas J. (2002). The Architectures of Trust: Supporting Cooperation in
the Computer-Supported Community. Master's Thesis. Film- and Media studies
Copenhagen University, 2002.

Smith, Jonas J. (2002). Stories from the sandbox. Game-Research.com.
http://www.game-research.com/art_stories_from_the_sandbox.asp

Squire, Kurt (2002). Cultural Framing of Computer/Video. Game studies, Volume
1, issue 1 (2001) 23.10.2002 http://www.gamestudies.org/0102/squire/

Sørensen, Estrid (1997). Kan man lære noget af fiktion? [Can you learn anything
from fiction?]. Master Thesis. Copenhagen University, Psychology.

Vygotsky, (1978) Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological
Processes. Harvard.

Wright, Will (2003). Dynamics for Designers. Talk at GDC march, 2003.
16/17
Version 0.5
17. June 2003
Relevant game titles
Age of Empires II (Microsoft, 1999)
Baldurs Gate II (Interplay, 2000)
Black & White (Electronic Arts, 2001)
Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus (Raya Systems 1994)
Civilization (Microprose, 1991)
Civilization III (Infogrames, 2001)
Deus Ex (Eidos Interactive, 2000)
Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers (Sierra, 1993)
Kings Quest (Sierra, 1984)
Little Computer People (Activision, 1985)
Lord of The Rings: Risk clone (Parker Brothers, 2002)
Mario Brother’s (Nintendo, 1983)
Metal Gear Solid(Konami, 1998)
Mud1 (Bartle, 1978)
Myst (Brøderbund, 1994)
Packy & Marlon (Raya Systems 1997)
Pac-Man (Bally/Midway. 1981)
Populous (Electronic Arts, 1989)
Railroad Tycoon (Microprose, 1990)
Risk (Parker Brothers, 1959)
SimCity (Maxis, 1987)
The Sims (Electronic Arts, 2000)
Biography
PhD student IT-university of Copenhagen, master degree in psychology, founder of
Game-research, reviewer Game studies, and student officer Digra. Have done research
on educational games, online gaming, exploration in games, effects of computer games,
and play theory.
Authored two Danish books on computer games and education, written several articles
in the field, and regularly give talks on the subject.
17/17