Non-Instructional Interventions: Motivational Systems
Theorist and Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
McClelland’s
achievement
motivation theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory (MotivationHygiene)
McGregor’s Theory X
and Theory Y
Vroom’s Expectancy
Theory
Description
Identifies five basic needs that every individual seeks to satisfy. At the bottom of
the hierarchy are basic needs, which must be satisfied before higher-level needs
can be aspired to. Unmet needs drive behavior, from lowest level to highest.
Identifies three needs: achievement—the drive to achieve through moderately
difficult goals (nAch), need for affiliation—the drive to form social relationships
with co-workers (nAff), and need for power—the drive to influence or control
others (nPow).
Classifies. needs into two groups: physical and psychological needs that are
satisfied by extrinsic motivators (money, job security, relationships,
management and supervision) and intrinsic motivators (opportunities for growth,
achievement, and recognition).
Identifies two separate managerial approaches to “organize resources—including
people—to the best benefit of the company” (Lauby, 2005). Theory X is
essentially negative, while Theory Y views work as a positive, empowering
activity.
Three factors determine motivation: expectancy (“what are the odds that my
effort will be rewarded?”), instrumentality (“is it worth doing? Will I really be
rewarded for achievement?”), and valence (“how important is the reward to
me?”)
What is motivation?
Motivation, in simple terms, is the amount and level of activity that an individual devotes to doing
something. Motivated people expend effort commensurate with the value that they place on
accomplishment. Motivational interventions, therefore, seek performance change by creating
“environments that will have predictable and positive influences on people’s motivation to learn,
motivation to work, and motivation in general, which are major influences on performance” (Keller, 1999).
To create motivational systems, the HPT consultant must understand three things:
 What motivates people? What needs do they seek to satisfy?
 What are the components of effective motivation systems?
 What interventions will stimulate motivational pressures and produce performance change?
Motivation has long been recognized as a key factor in human performance, and there are many theories
of motivation. No one theory covers every aspect of motivation; “[b]y considering all of the theories
together, you garner a valuable understanding of the intricacies associated with motivating a workforce”
(Lauby, 2005, p. 1). (Although this paper does not discuss the theoretical foundations of motivational
systems, the section Resources lists references that present or describe these theories.)
Theory into practice
What can we draw from the many theories of human motivation?
 People are motivated by both external and internal needs. Once the basic needs required for life are
satisfied, individuals strive for higher level goals that are internal.
 People’s motivation can be influenced by other people and events.
 Motivation is necessary to achieve organizational goals.
 HPT professionals can develop systems that reliably tap into human motivation in the workplace by
understanding the components of human motivation.
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Non-Instructional Interventions: Motivational Systems
Keller’s (1998) ARCS model identifies the four major components of human motivation:
 Attention. Am I curious? Am I interested?
 Relevance. Does it matter to me?
 Confidence. Can I do it?
 Satisfaction. Do I like it?
If any of these components is not included in the
intervention, the employee will be much less
likely to perform as requested and required.
However, “motivation follows a curvilinear
relationship with performance. As motivation
increases, performance increases, but only to an
optimal point. Afterward, performance decreases
as motivation increases to levels where excessive
stress leads to performance decrements” (Keller,
1998). In other words, stress accompanies
motivation, and employees can be
undermotivated or overmotivated in any of the four components. HPT-ers must carefully analyze the
motivational problem and determine what type of stress contributes to the problem. Keller (1998) gives us
descriptive examples of the two sides to motivational problems:
Component
Undermotivation
Overmotivation
Attention
Bored, not paying attention
Overwhelmed by job responsibilities or
requirements
Relevance
No intrinsic interest, no advancement
opportunities
Career success hinges on successful
performance
Confidence
Don’t believe in ability or competence
to perform as required
Cocky, resist learning, make mistakes
without noticing them
Satisfaction
Resentful; opportunity not chosen by
the employee
Overly positive expectations that are
unmet
From motivational theories, we understand what drives behavior; our challenge is to harness motivation
to produce desired performance. Using Keller’s ARCS model, we can systematically analyze situations and
design interventions that meet needs effectively and appropriately.
Case study 1. Judge, G., Stevens, S., and Brewer, U. (1998). Implementing performance change. In
Robinson, D. and Robinson, J. (Eds), Moving from training to performance: A practical guidebook (pp.
134-145). Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press.
Presenting statement. A manufacturing site of Johnson & Johnson, a global producer of health related
products, wanted to improve quality, productivity, and safety by 10%. The site manager wanted to
motivate employees by creating self-directed work teams.
Analysis/Intervention. After conductive quantitative and qualitative analysis, the team identified employee
involvement, not self-directed work teams (employees regarded self-directed work teams as
demotivators), as the best intervention. The company applied motivational strategies to ensure success of
the performance change:
Motivational
Tactics
Intervention
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component
Attention
 Adapt tactics to situation
“Problem” groups and attitudes were handled
by the site manager personally; one
termination occurred.
Relevance
 Develop the perception of being
best at something
Employees designed the initiative and the
actions to implement it.
 Provide ways for employees to work
cooperatively to achieve goals
Confidence
 Share control
Site supervisors were delegated responsibility
for managing, reinforcing, and guiding the
performance change, which created ownership
in each functional area.
 Self-fulfilling prophecy
Employees were kept informed throughout the
process of goals and results.
Satisfaction
 Provide motivational feedback
Site manager held meetings with all
employees to explain the performance change
initiative and to answer questions.
Results. A program designed by employees for employees has produced better communication within
teams and stronger levels of employee engagement and involvement. This site is a model for other J&J
sites that seek to meet performance goals by enhancing the employee experience.
Case study 2. Harbison, A. (1998). Turning mentoring upside-down: Innovative retention and
advancement strategies [Electronic version]. T&D 52(12).
Presenting statement. Proctor & Gamble (P&G)US Advertising is a company committed to a promote-fromwithin policy that faced a significant female talent drain. The company wanted to retain female managers
and executives to achieve its goal of a diversified workforce at all levels.
Analysis. P&G US Advertising established the Advancement for Women Task Force (AWTF) to examine the
problem and recommend solutions. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Issues
uncovered were day-to-day satisfaction and lack of flexibility in the workplace.
Interventions. P&G US Advertising implemented a program named Mentor-Up. This innovative program
pairs male executives—the mentees—with female managers—the mentors.
Motivational
component
Tactics
Intervention
Attention
 Match people to jobs
 Participation by female mentors is
completely voluntary.
 Reduce stress
 Facilitate initial discussion among pairs.
 Follow-up to ensure pairs work effectively.
Relevance
 Develop the perception of being
best at something
 Discussion guides to stimulate meaningful
dialogue.
 Provide ways for employees to work
together to achieve goals
 Opportunities to obtain different
perspectives—“sounding board.”
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Non-Instructional Interventions: Motivational Systems
Motivational
component
Tactics
Intervention
Confidence
 Share control
 Mentors are two levels below mentees.
 Set challenging but achieveable
goals
 Program is challenging but achievable.
 Provide feedback related to
personal growth and the
meaningfulness of accomplishments
 Male executives receive feedback on how
to handle issues specific to women.
Satisfaction
 Use symbolic rewards that are
recognized and valued
 Female managers forge valuable, quality
relationships with senior managers who
can assist them in career advancement.
Results. “Regretted loss” (attrition of employees the company would like to retain) of female employees
was reduced by 25% and is now aligned with male regretted loss numbers.
Buzzwords, current trends, and hot topics
Buzzwords
 Extrinsic motivation. External rewards, such as compensation, recognition programs,
praise.
 Intrinsic motivation. Internal rewards, such as job satisfaction, self-empowerment,
interesting, meaningful work.
 Pay-for-performance. Compensation based on achievement of specified goals.
Current
trends
 Participative management | open book management (OBM). An environment/culture
of trust that provides open access to information needed to perform effectively,
incentives based on business performance, and business literacy training.
 Self-directed teams | self-managing teams. Members of a work team are
empowered to take corrective action to solve day-to-day problems; work systems
are designed with the full participation of the people doing the work
Hot topics
 Emotional intelligence. Proposes that capabilities other than intelligence—selfawareness, self-regulation, perception, relationship—are more important to success
than mental ability.
Consultants
 Chris Agyris is an organizational psychologist, professor, and one of the leading thinkers in
organizational development. He is affiliated with The Monitor Company, a business consulting firm that
focuses on helping organizations develop and exploit their competitive advantages.
 John M. Keller is a professor at Florida State University and author of the ARCS model (Attention,
Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction) for motivational design. He has consulted with major
organizations including Citibank, IBM, Samsung, and the FAA.
 Sharon J. Lauby and her firm, Internal Talent Management, design and develop programs to improve
employee retention and satisfaction.
 Victor Vroom developed the Expectancy Theory of motivation. He is the John G. Searle Professor of
Organization and Management Psychology at Yale University, and consults with organizations such as
Bell Labs, American Express, and GE.
 Raymond J. Wlodowski is a professor at Regis University in Denver and consults nationally and
internationally on adult education. He identified four factors that influence adult learning and
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performance: success, volition, value, and enjoyment; and six strategies for motivating adults:
attitude, need, stimulation, affect, competence, and reinforcement.
Resources
Chalofsky, N. (2003). Meaningful work. T&D 57(12), pp. 52-58.
Deci, E. and Flaste, R. (1995). Why we do what we do. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Dickinson, S. (2005). Are we motivated by money? Some results from the lab. Performance Improvement
44(2), pp. 18-25.
Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ, Anniversary edition. New
York, NY: Bantam Books.
Keller, J. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional
Development, 10(3), pp. 2-10.
Lauby, S. (2005). InfoLine: Motivating employees. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press.
Maslow, A. Motivation and personality, 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
McClelland, D. (1961). The achieving society. New York: Free Press.
Richter, S. Creating intrinsically motivating environments: A motivation system. StoryNet. Retrieved
March 1, 2006 from http://www.thestorynet.com/articles_essays/motivation.htm
Rouse, K. (2004). Beyond Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: What do people strive for? Performance
Improvement (43)10, 27-31.
Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York:
Doubleday.
Stolovitch, H. and Keeps, E. (1998). Implementation phase: Performance improvement interventions. In
Robinson, D. and Robinson, J. (Eds), Moving from training to performance: A practical guidebook (pp.95133). Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press.
Thomas, K. (2000). Intrinsic motivation at work: Building energy and commitment. San Francisco, CA:
Berrett-Kohler.
Vroom, V. (1995). Work and motivation, Revised ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Wlodowski, R. (1999). Enhancing adult motivation to learn: A comprehensive guide for teaching all adults,
Rev. Ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
References
Keller, J. (1999). Motivational systems. In Stolovitch, H. and Keeps, E. (Eds), Handbook of human
performance technology (pp. 373-394). San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Lauby, S. (2005). InfoLine: Motivating employees. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press.
McClelland, D. (1961). The achieving society. New York: Free Press.
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